View source for 5G

{{Short description|Broadband cellular network standard}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox protocol
| name      = 5G
| image     = 3GPP 5G logo.png
| caption   = 3GPP's 5G logo
| standard  = <!--IEEE 802.11ax?-->
| developer = [[3GPP]]
| introdate = {{Start date and age|July 2016}}
| industry  = [[Telecommunications]]
| connector = <!--connector(s) usable with protocol-->
| hardware  = <!--examples of compatible hardware-->
| range     = <!--{{convert|X|mi|abbr=on}}-->
| newer     = [[6G]]
| website   = <!--URL to specs; OD wrap in template -->
}}
{{List of mobile phone generations}}
[[File:Android 5G signal.png|thumb|An Android phone, showing that it is connected to a 5G network]]
In [[telecommunications]], '''5G''' is the fifth generation of [[cellular network]] technology, which [[Mobile network operator|mobile operators]] began deploying worldwide in 2019 as the successor to [[4G]]. 5G is based on standards defined by the International Telecommunication Union ([[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]]) under the [[IMT-2020]] requirements, which outline performance targets for speed, latency, and connectivity to support advanced use cases.
Like its predecessors, 5G networks are cellular networks, in which the service area is divided into small geographical areas called ''cells''. All 5G wireless devices in a cell are connected to the [[Internet]] and the [[telephone network]] by [[radio wave]]s through a [[cellular base station|base station]] and antennae in the cell. The new networks offer not only higher [[download speed]]s, with a peak speed of 10 [[gigabits per second]] (Gbit/s) when there is only one user in the network, but also significantly lower latency, enabling near-instantaneous communication.<ref name="Hoffman">{{cite web|url=https://www.howtogeek.com/340002/what-is-5g-and-how-fast-will-it-be/|title=What is 5G, and how fast will it be? |last=Hoffman|first=Chris|date=January 7, 2019|work=How-To Geek website|publisher=How-To Geek LLC|access-date=January 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124041504/https://www.howtogeek.com/340002/what-is-5g-and-how-fast-will-it-be/|archive-date=January 24, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> 5G networks have higher [[Bandwidth (computing)|bandwidth]], allowing them to connect more devices simultaneously and improving the quality of Internet services in crowded areas.<ref>{{cite news|title=5G explained: What it is, who has 5G, and how much faster is it really?|url=https://www.cnn.com/interactive/2020/03/business/what-is-5g/|access-date=November 27, 2021|website=www.cnn.com|archive-date=November 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127064719/https://www.cnn.com/interactive/2020/03/business/what-is-5g/|url-status=live}}</ref> These features make 5G particularly suited for applications requiring real-time data exchange, such as [[extended reality]] (XR), autonomous vehicles, [[remote surgery]], and industrial automation. Additionally, the increased bandwidth is expected to drive the adoption of 5G as a general [[Internet service provider]] (ISP), particularly through [[fixed wireless access]] (FWA), competing with existing technologies such as [[Cable Internet access|cable Internet]], while also facilitating new applications in the [[Internet of things|Internet of Things]] (IoT) and [[Machine to machine|machine-to-machine]] communication.
The increased bandwidth and lower latency of 5G networks enable highly responsive, large-scale IoT deployments, supporting diverse applications such as [[Smart city|smart cities]], connected infrastructure, industrial IoT, and automated manufacturing processes. Unlike 4G, which was primarily designed for mobile broadband, 5G can handle millions of IoT devices with stringent performance requirements, such as real-time sensor data processing and [[edge computing]].
5G networks also extend beyond terrestrial infrastructure, incorporating non-terrestrial networks (NTN) such as satellites and high-altitude platforms, to provide global coverage, including remote and underserved areas.
Despite its performance improvements, 5G deployment faces challenges such as significant infrastructure investment, spectrum allocation, security risks, and concerns about energy efficiency and environmental impact associated with the use of higher frequency bands. However, it is expected to drive advancements in sectors like healthcare, transportation, and entertainment.
Devices with 4G capabilities are not compatible with 5G networks due to the lack of necessary hardware to support the significant changes in network architecture and the higher frequencies used in 5G.
== Overview ==
[[File:Mobile Base Station 01.jpg|right|thumb|200x200px|Mobile base station at Hatta city, UAE]]
5G networks are [[cellular network]]s, in which the service area is divided into small geographical areas called ''cells''. All 5G wireless devices in a cell communicate by radio waves with a [[cellular base station]] via fixed [[antenna (radio)|antenna]]s, over frequencies assigned by the base station. The base stations, termed [[Node (networking)|node]]s, are connected to switching centers in the [[Public switched telephone network|telephone network]] and routers for [[Internet access]] by high-bandwidth [[optical fiber]] or wireless [[Backhaul (telecommunications)|backhaul connections]]. As in other [[cellular network]]s, a mobile device moving from one cell to another is automatically [[Handover|handed off]] seamlessly.
The industry consortium setting standards for 5G, the [[3rd Generation Partnership Project]] (3GPP), defines "5G" as any system using [[5G NR]] (5G New Radio) software—a definition that came into general use by late 2018. 5G continues to use [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing|OFDM]] encoding.
Several network operators use [[millimeter wave]]s or [[Mm-wave|mmWave]] called [[5G NR frequency bands#Frequency Range 2|FR2]] in 5G terminology, for additional capacity and higher throughputs. Millimeter waves have a shorter range than the lower frequency [[microwave]]s, therefore the cells are of a smaller size. Millimeter waves also have more trouble passing through building walls and humans. Millimeter-wave antennas are smaller than the large antennas used in previous cellular networks.
The increased data rate is achieved partly by using additional higher-frequency radio waves in addition to the low- and medium-band frequencies used in previous cellular networks. For providing a wide range of services, 5G networks can operate in three frequency bands—low, medium or high.
5G can be implemented in low-band, mid-band or high-band millimeter-wave. Low-band 5G uses a similar frequency range to 4G smartphones, 600–900&nbsp;[[megahertz|MHz]], which can potentially offer higher download speeds than 4G: 5–250&nbsp;[[megabits per second]] (Mbit/s).<ref name="Horwitz">{{cite web|last=Horwitz|first=Jeremy|date=December 10, 2019|title=The definitive guide to 5G low, mid, and high band speeds|url=https://venturebeat.com/2019/12/10/the-definitive-guide-to-5g-low-mid-and-high-band-speeds/|access-date=April 23, 2020|publisher=VentureBeat online magazine|archive-date=November 5, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105185156/https://venturebeat.com/2019/12/10/the-definitive-guide-to-5g-low-mid-and-high-band-speeds/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="DeLooper">{{cite web|last1=De Looper|first1=Christian|last2=Jansen|first2=Mark|date=April 22, 2022|title=Is 5G as fast as they're saying? We break down the speeds|url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-fast-is-5g/|access-date=May 27, 2023|publisher=Digital Trends|archive-date=May 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527092800/https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-fast-is-5g/|url-status=live}}</ref> Low-band [[cell tower]]s have a range and coverage area similar to 4G towers. Mid-band 5G uses [[microwaves]] of 1.7–4.7&nbsp;[[gigahertz|GHz]], allowing speeds of 100–900&nbsp;Mbit/s, with each cell tower providing service up to several kilometers in radius. This level of service is the most widely deployed, and was deployed in many metropolitan areas in 2020. Some regions are not implementing the low band, making Mid-band the minimum service level. High-band 5G uses frequencies of 24–47&nbsp;GHz, near the bottom of the millimeter wave band, although higher frequencies may be used in the future. It often achieves download speeds in the&nbsp;[[gigabits per second|gigabit-per-second]] (Gbit/s) range, comparable to co-axial cable Internet service. However, [[millimeter wave]]s (mmWave or mmW) have a more limited range, requiring many small cells.<ref name="Nokia">{{cite web|last=Davies|first=Darrell|date=May 20, 2019|title=Small Cells – Big in 5G|url=https://www.nokia.com/blog/small-cells-big-5g/|access-date=August 29, 2020|publisher=Nokia|archive-date=November 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101102629/https://www.nokia.com/blog/small-cells-big-5g/|url-status=live}}</ref> They can be impeded or blocked by materials in walls or windows or pedestrians.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Violette |first1=E. J. |last2=Espeland |first2=R. H. |last3=DeBolt |first3=R. O. |last4=Schwering |first4=F. K. |date=May 1988 |title=Millimeter-wave propagation at street level in an urban environment |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/3038 |url-status=live |journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing |publisher=IEEE |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=368–380 |bibcode=1988ITGRS..26..368V |doi=10.1109/36.3038 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623153802/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/3038/ |archive-date=June 23, 2021 |access-date=March 19, 2021 |quote="For non-line-of-sight (non-LOS) paths obstructed by buildings of several common materials, results that showed signal attenuations in excess of 100 dB. When the LOS followed a path directly through clear glass walls, the attenuation was small at all probe frequencies. However, when the glass wall had a metalized coating to reduce ultraviolet and infrared radiation, the attenuation increased by 25 to 50 dB for each metallized layer. In most cases no signals could be detected through steel reinforced concrete or brick buildings."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ganji |first1=Venkata Siva Santosh |last2=Lin |first2=Tzu-Hsiang |last3=Espinal |first3=Francisco A. |last4=Kumar |first4=P. R. |title=2021 International Conference on COMmunication Systems & NETworkS (COMSNETS) |chapter=UNBLOCK: Low Complexity Transient Blockage Recovery for Mobile mm-Wave Devices |date=2021-01-05 |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9352816 |publisher=IEEE |pages=501–508 |doi=10.1109/COMSNETS51098.2021.9352816 |arxiv=2104.02658 |isbn=978-1-7281-9127-0|s2cid=231976614 }}</ref> Due to their higher cost, plans are to deploy these cells only in dense urban environments and areas where crowds of people congregate such as sports stadiums and convention centers. The above speeds are those achieved in actual tests in 2020, and speeds are expected to increase during rollout.<ref name="Horwitz" /> The spectrum ranging from 24.25 to 29.5&nbsp;GHz has been the most licensed and deployed 5G mmWave spectrum range in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FCC Auction 102 – 24 GHz |url=https://auctiondata.fcc.gov/public/projects/auction102 |website=fcc.gov |publisher=Federal Communications Commission}}</ref>
Rollout of 5G technology has led to debate over its security and [[Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks|relationship with Chinese vendors]]. It has also been the subject of [[Wireless device radiation and health|health concerns]] and misinformation, including [[Misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic#5G mobile-phone networks|discredited conspiracy theories]] linking it to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. The typical timescale of biomolecular motion in the course of normal function is of the order 1 picosecond to 1 nanosecond, therefore frequencies of roughly the hundreds of GHz (the range 1&nbsp;GHz or one cycle per nanosecond, up to 1THz or one cycle per picosecond) interact with molecular biology. Modulation of biological and also neurological function is therefore possible using radiation in the range hundreds of GHz up to a few THz at relatively low energies (without significant heating or ionisation) achieving either beneficial or harmful effects.<ref>{
{cite journal
| last1= Liu | first1=Xi
| last2= Qiao | first2=Zhi
| last3= Chai | first3=Yuming
| last4= Zhu | first4=Zhi
| last5= Wu | first5= Kaijie
| last6= Ji | first6=Wenliang
| last7= Daguang | first7= Li
| last8= Xiao | first8=Yujie
| last9= Mao | first5= Lanqun
| last10= Chang | first10=Chao
| last11= Wen | first11=Quan
| last12= Song | first12= Bo
| last13= Shu | first13=Yousheng
| title= Nonthermal and reversible control of neuronal signaling and behavior by midinfrared stimulation | journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (U.S.A.)| volume=118 | date=2021 | issue=10| doi=10.1073/pnas.2015685118| pmid=33649213| pmc= 7958416 | doi-access=free}
}</ref><ref>{
{cite journal
| last1= Zhang | first1=Jun
| last2= Song | first2=Li
| last3= Li | first3=Weidong
| title= Advances of terahertz technology in neuroscience: Current status and a future perspective | journal= iScience|doi=10.1016/j.isci.2021.103548| pmid=34977497| pmc= PMC8683584 | doi-access=free}
}</ref> The tendency to interact with specific elements of molecular machinery is accompanied by a tendency to be absorbed non-specifically by skin and bone: the low penetration of mmWave signals which creates a problem from a strictly engineering perspective is therefore somewhat reassuring from the point of view of public health.
=== Application areas ===
The [[ITU-R]] has defined three main application areas for the enhanced capabilities of 5G. They are Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communications (URLLC), and Massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://electronicdesign.com/embedded-revolution/5g-it-s-not-here-yet-closer-you-think|title=5G – Its Not Here Yet, But Closer Than You Think|date=October 31, 2017|access-date=January 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106204238/https://www.electronicdesign.com/embedded-revolution/5g-it-s-not-here-yet-closer-you-think|archive-date=January 6, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Only eMBB is deployed in 2020; URLLC and mMTC are several years away in most locations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arm.com/-/media/global/solutions/infrastructure/managing-the-future-of-cellular.pdf?revision=72c22c02-de7e-43d5-bf10-5690d65352cd|title=Managing the Future of Cellular|date=March 20, 2020|access-date=September 24, 2020|archive-date=September 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923004715/https://www.arm.com/-/media/global/solutions/infrastructure/managing-the-future-of-cellular.pdf?revision=72c22c02-de7e-43d5-bf10-5690d65352cd|url-status=live}}</ref>
Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) uses 5G as a progression from 4G LTE [[mobile broadband]] services, with faster connections, higher throughput, and more capacity. This will benefit areas of higher traffic such as stadiums, cities, and concert venues.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yu|first1=Heejung|last2=Lee|first2=Howon|last3=Jeon|first3=Hongbeom|date=October 2017|title=What is 5G? Emerging 5G Mobile Services and Network Requirements|journal=Sustainability|language=en|volume=9|issue=10|page=1848|doi=10.3390/su9101848|doi-access=free}}</ref>
'Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications' (URLLC) refers to using the network for mission-critical applications that require uninterrupted and robust data exchange. Short-packet data transmission is used to meet both reliability and latency requirements of the wireless communication networks.
Massive Machine-Type Communications (mMTC) would be used to connect to a large number of [[LPWAN|devices]]. 5G technology will connect some of the 50 billion connected IoT devices.<ref name="newsroom.intel.com">{{cite web|url=https://newsroom.intel.com/editorials/intel-accelerates-the-future-with-first-global-5g-modem/|title=Intel Accelerates the Future with World's First Global 5G Modem|website=Intel Newsroom|language=en-US|access-date=November 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906234205/https://newsroom.intel.com/editorials/intel-accelerates-the-future-with-first-global-5g-modem/|archive-date=September 6, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Most will use the less expensive Wi-Fi. Drones, transmitting via 4G or 5G, will aid in disaster recovery efforts, providing real-time data for emergency responders.<ref name="newsroom.intel.com"/> Most cars will have a 4G or 5G cellular connection for many services. Autonomous cars do not require 5G, as they have to be able to operate where they do not have a network connection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wirelessone.news/10-r/1283-ford-self-driving-cars-will-be-fully-capable-of-operating-without-c-v2x|title=Ford: Self-driving cars "will be fully capable of operating without C-V2X"|website=wirelessone.news|access-date=December 1, 2019|archive-date=October 27, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027201044/http://wirelessone.news/10-r/1283-ford-self-driving-cars-will-be-fully-capable-of-operating-without-c-v2x|url-status=live}}</ref> However, most autonomous vehicles also feature tele-operations for mission accomplishment, and these greatly benefit from 5G technology.<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=5GAA Tele-Operated Driving (ToD): Use Cases and Technical Requirements Technical Requirements|url=https://5gaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/5GAA_XW5-200029_ToD_D1.1-Use-Cases-and-Technical-Requirements.pdf|access-date=February 8, 2021|website=5G Automotive Association|archive-date=March 3, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303035950/https://5gaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/5GAA_XW5-200029_ToD_D1.1-Use-Cases-and-Technical-Requirements.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=August 17, 2020|title=Smooth teleoperator: The rise of the remote controller|url=https://venturebeat.com/2020/08/17/smooth-teleoperator-the-rise-of-the-remote-controller/|access-date=February 8, 2021|website=VentureBeat|language=en-US|archive-date=February 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207100932/https://venturebeat.com/2020/08/17/smooth-teleoperator-the-rise-of-the-remote-controller/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== VoNR (Vo5G) ===
{{Main|Voice over NR}}
5G networks, like 4G networks, do not natively support voice calls traditionally carried over [[Circuit switching|circuit-switched]] technology. Instead, voice communication is transmitted over the [[IP network]], similar to [[Internet Protocol television|IPTV]] services. To address this, [[Voice over NR]] (VoNR) is implemented, allowing voice calls to be carried over the 5G network using the same [[Packet switching|packet-switched]] infrastructure as other IP-based services, such as video streaming and messaging. Similarly to how [[Voice over LTE]] (VoLTE) enables voice calls on 4G networks, VoNR (Vo5G) serves as the 5G equivalent for voice communication, but it requires a [[5G NR#Standalone mode|5G standalone]] (SA) network to function.<ref>{{Cite web |title=In One Minute, What is VoNR? |url=https://academy.qualcomm.com/blogs/What-is-VoNR |access-date=2024-11-27 |website=academy.qualcomm.com}}</ref>
== Performance ==
{{Speculation|date=January 2022}}
=== Speed ===
5G is capable of delivering significantly faster data rates than 4G, with peak data rates of up to 20 gigabits per second (Gbps).<ref name="Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT-2020 radio interface(s)"/> Furthermore, average 5G download speeds have been recorded at 186.3&nbsp;Mbit/s in the [[United States|U.S.]] by [[T-Mobile (brand)|T-Mobile]], while [[South Korea]], {{As of|2022|May|lc=y}}, leads globally with average speeds of 432 megabits per second (Mbps).<ref name="OpenSignalUS">{{cite web|last=Wyrzykowski|first=Robert|date=January 2023|title=Mobile Network Experience 5G Report – USA|url=https://www.opensignal.com/reports/2023/01/usa/mobile-network-experience-5g|access-date=May 27, 2023|publisher=OpenSignal|archive-date=May 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527093730/https://www.opensignal.com/reports/2023/01/usa/mobile-network-experience-5g|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="OpenSignalGlobal">{{cite web|last=Fogg|first=Ian|date=June 22, 2022|title=Benchmarking the Global 5G Experience – June 2022|url=https://www.opensignal.com/2022/06/22/benchmarking-the-global-5g-experience-june-2022|access-date=May 27, 2023|publisher=OpenSignal|archive-date=May 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527094036/https://www.opensignal.com/2022/06/22/benchmarking-the-global-5g-experience-june-2022|url-status=live}}</ref> 5G networks are also designed to provide significantly more capacity than 4G networks, with a projected 100-fold increase in network capacity and efficiency.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=I |first1=Chih-Lin |last2=Han |first2=Shuangfeng |last3=Bian |first3=Sen |title=Energy-efficient 5G for a greener future |journal=[[Nature Electronics]] |date=2020 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=182–184 |doi=10.1038/s41928-020-0404-1|s2cid=257095960 }}</ref>
The most widely used form of 5G, sub-6&nbsp;GHz 5G (mid-band), is capable of delivering data rates ranging from 10 to 1,000 megabits per second (Mbps), with a much greater reach than mmWave bands. C-Band (n77/n78) was deployed by various U.S. operators in 2022 in the sub-6 bands, although its deployment by [[Verizon]] and [[AT&T]] was delayed until early January 2022 due to safety concerns raised by the [[Federal Aviation Administration]]. The record for 5G speed in a deployed network is 5.9&nbsp;Gbps as of 2023, but this was tested before the network was launched.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wooden|first=Andrew|title=Faroese Telecom and Ericsson claim 5G mmWave downlink speed record|url=https://www.telecoms.com/5g-6g/faroese-telecom-and-ericsson-claim-5g-mmwave-downlink-speed-record|date=March 28, 2023|website=Telecoms.com}}</ref>
Low-band frequencies (such as n5) offer a greater coverage area for a given cell, but their data rates are lower than those of mid and high bands in the range of 5–250&nbsp;megabits per second (Mbps).<ref name="DeLooper"/>
=== Latency ===
In 5G, the ideal "air latency" is of the order of 8 to 12 milliseconds i.e., excluding delays due to [[HARQ]] retransmissions, handovers, etc. Retransmission latency and backhaul latency to the server must be added to the "air latency" for correct comparisons. Verizon reported the latency on its 5G early deployment is 30 ms.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.verizon.com/about/our-company/5g/5g-latency|title=What is the Latency of 5G?|date=February 2, 2020 |access-date=February 6, 2024}}</ref> Edge Servers close to the towers can probably reduce latency to between 10 and 15 milliseconds {{citation needed|date=May 2023}}.
Latency is much higher during handovers; ranging from 50 to 500 milliseconds depending on the type of handover. Reducing handover interruption time is an ongoing area of research and development; options include modifying the handover margin (offset) and the time-to-trigger (TTT).
=== Error rate ===
5G uses an adaptive modulation and coding scheme (MCS) to keep the block error rate (BLER) extremely low. Whenever the error rate crosses a (very low) threshold the transmitter will switch to a lower MCS, which will be less error-prone. This way speed is sacrificed to ensure an almost zero error rate.
=== Range ===
The range of 5G depends on many factors: transmit power, frequency, and interference. For example, mmWave (e.g.: band n258) will have a lower range than mid-band (e.g.: band n78) which will have a lower range than low-band (e.g.: band n5)
Given the marketing hype on what 5G can offer, [[Network simulation|simulators]] and [[Drive testing|drive tests]] are used by cellular service providers for the precise measurement of 5G performance.
== Standards ==
Initially, the term was associated with the [[International Telecommunication Union]]'s [[IMT-2020]] standard, which required a theoretical peak download speed of 20 gigabits per second and 10 gigabits per second upload speed, along with other requirements.<ref name="Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT-2020 radio interface(s)">{{cite web|url=https://itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/opb/rep/R-REP-M.2410-2017-PDF-E.pdf|title=Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT-2020 radio interface(s)|access-date=August 16, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108153048/https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/opb/rep/R-REP-M.2410-2017-PDF-E.pdf|archive-date=January 8, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Then, the industry standards group 3GPP chose the [[5G NR]] (New Radio) standard together with LTE as their proposal for submission to the IMT-2020 standard.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://theverge.com/2017/12/20/16803326/5g-network-specification-standard-3gpp-nr-official|title=The first real 5G specification has officially been completed|work=The Verge|access-date=June 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107224920/https://www.theverge.com/2017/12/20/16803326/5g-network-specification-standard-3gpp-nr-official|archive-date=January 7, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://3gpp.org/news-events/3gpp-news/1976-imt_2020|title=Workshop on 3GPP submission towards IMT-2020|first=Kevin|last=Flynn|website=3gpp.org|access-date=January 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107072115/http://3gpp.org/news-events/3gpp-news/1976-imt_2020|archive-date=January 7, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
5G NR can include lower frequencies ([[5G NR frequency bands|FR1]]), below 6&nbsp;GHz, and higher frequencies ([[5G NR frequency bands|FR2]]), above 24&nbsp;GHz. However, the speed and latency in early FR1 deployments, using 5G NR software on 4G hardware ([[5G NR#Non-standalone mode|non-standalone]]), are only slightly better than new 4G systems, estimated at 15 to 50% better.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wirelessone.news/10-r/1036-5g-nr-only-25-to-50-faster-not-truly-a-new-generation|title=5G NR Only 25% to 50% Faster, Not Truly a New Generation|last=Dave|website=wirelessone.news|access-date=June 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620231902/http://wirelessone.news/10-r/1036-5g-nr-only-25-to-50-faster-not-truly-a-new-generation|archive-date=June 20, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wirelessone.news/spectrum/1204-factcheck-large-increase-of-capacity-going-from-lte-to-5g-low-and-mid-band|title=Factcheck: Large increase of capacity going from LTE to 5G low and mid-band|website=wirelessone.news|access-date=January 3, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103210809/http://wirelessone.news/spectrum/1204-factcheck-large-increase-of-capacity-going-from-lte-to-5g-low-and-mid-band|archive-date=January 3, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://res-www.zte.com.cn/mediares/zte/Files/PDF/white_book/5g-best-choice-architecture.pdf|title=5G best choice architecture|last=Teral|first=Stephane|date=January 30, 2019|website=ZTE|access-date=February 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202042405/https://res-www.zte.com.cn/mediares/zte/Files/PDF/white_book/5g-best-choice-architecture.pdf|archive-date=February 2, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
The standard documents are organized by 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.3gpp.org/specifications/specification-numbering|title=Specification Numbering|publisher=[[3GPP]]|access-date=February 17, 2022|archive-date=February 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217230528/https://www.3gpp.org/specifications/specification-numbering|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.3gpp.org/DynaReport/status-report.htm|title=3GPP Specification Status Report|publisher=[[3GPP]]|access-date=February 26, 2022|archive-date=January 27, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127230802/https://www.3gpp.org/DynaReport/status-report.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> with its system architecture defined in TS 23.501.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123500_123599/123501/16.12.00_60/ts_123501v161200p.pdf|title=ETSI TS 123 501 V16.12.0 (2022–03). 5G; System architecture for the 5G System (5GS) (3GPP TS 23.501 version 16.12.0 Release 16)|publisher=[[ETSI]] and [[3GPP]]|access-date=April 6, 2022|archive-date=April 19, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419013531/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123500_123599/123501/16.12.00_60/ts_123501v161200p.pdf|url-status=live}} (TS 23.501)</ref> The packet protocol for mobility management (establishing connection and moving between base stations) and session management (connecting to networks and network slices) is described in TS 24.501.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/124500_124599/124501/16.10.00_60/ts_124501v161000p.pdf|title=Non-Access-Stratum (NAS) protocol for 5G System (5GS); Stage 3. (3GPP TS 24.501 version 16.10.0 Release 16) TS 24.501 release 16.10.0|publisher=[[ETSI]] and [[3GPP]]|access-date=February 26, 2022|archive-date=February 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217231615/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/124500_124599/124501/16.10.00_60/ts_124501v161000p.pdf|url-status=live}} (TS 24.501)</ref> Specifications of key data structures are found in TS 23.003.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123000_123099/123003/16.08.00_60/ts_123003v160800p.pdf|title=Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+) (GSM); Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS); LTE; 5G; Numbering, addressing and identification (3GPP TS 23.003 version 16.8.0 Release 16)|publisher=[[ETSI]] and [[3GPP]]|access-date=February 26, 2022|archive-date=February 26, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226144220/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123000_123099/123003/16.08.00_60/ts_123003v160800p.pdf|url-status=live}} (TS 23.003)</ref>
=== Fronthaul network ===
{{Further|Fronthaul|Common Public Radio Interface}}
[[IEEE]] covers several areas of 5G with a core focus on wireline sections between the Remote Radio Head (RRH) and Base Band Unit (BBU). The 1914.1 standards focus on network architecture and dividing the connection between the RRU and BBU into two key sections. Radio Unit (RU) to the Distributor Unit (DU) being the NGFI-I (Next Generation Fronthaul Interface) and the DU to the Central Unit (CU) being the NGFI-II interface allowing a more diverse and cost-effective network. NGFI-I and NGFI-II have defined performance values which should be compiled to ensure different traffic types defined by the ITU are capable of being carried.{{page needed|date=January 2022}} The IEEE 1914.3 standard is creating a new Ethernet frame format capable of carrying [[In-phase and quadrature components#I/Q data|IQ data]] in a much more efficient way depending on the functional split utilized. This is based on the [[3GPP]] definition of functional splits.{{page needed|date=January 2022}}
=== 5G NR ===
{{Main|5G NR}}
[[5G NR]] (5G New Radio) is the de facto [[air interface]] developed for 5G networks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://5g.co.uk/guides/what-is-5g-new-radio/|title=What is 5G New Radio (5G NR)|website=5g.co.uk|access-date=November 8, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108184631/https://5g.co.uk/guides/what-is-5g-new-radio/|archive-date=November 8, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> It is the global standard for 3GPP 5G networks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://comsoc.org/webinars/making-5g-new-radio-nr-reality-%E2%80%93-global-5g-standard|title=Making 5G New Radio (NR) a Reality – The Global 5G Standard – IEEE Communications Society|website=comsoc.org|access-date=January 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108184634/https://www.comsoc.org/webinars/making-5g-new-radio-nr-reality-%E2%80%93-global-5g-standard|archive-date=November 8, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
The study of 5G NR within 3GPP started in 2015, and the first specification was made available by the end of 2017. While the 3GPP standardization process was ongoing, the industry had already begun efforts to implement infrastructure compliant with the draft standard, with the first large-scale commercial launch of 5G NR having occurred at the end of 2018. Since 2019, many operators have deployed 5G NR networks and handset manufacturers have developed 5G NR enabled handsets.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-08-24 |title=Status And Future Of 5G New Radio Technology – C&T RF Antennas Manufacturer |newspaper=C&T Rf Antennas Manufacturer |url=https://ctrfantennasinc.com/status-and-future-of-5g-new-radio-technology/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== 5Gi ===
5Gi is an alternative 5G variant developed in India. It was developed in a joint collaboration between IIT Madras, IIT Hyderabad, TSDSI, and the Centre of Excellence in Wireless Technology (CEWiT) {{citation needed|date=May 2023}}. 5Gi is designed to improve 5G coverage in rural and remote areas over varying geographical terrains. 5Gi uses Low Mobility Large Cell (LMLC) to extend 5G connectivity and the range of a base station.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://beebom.com/what-is-5gi/|title=What is India's 5Gi Standard? Explained!|website=beebom.com|date=August 3, 2022 |access-date=February 13, 2023}}</ref>
In April 2022, 5Gi was merged with the global 5G NR standard in the [[3GPP]] Release 17 specifications.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tsdsi.in/tsdsi-5gi-standard-merged-with-3gpp-5gnew/|title=TSDSI 5Gi standard merged with 3GPP 5G|website=tsdsi.in|date=April 29, 2022|access-date=April 1, 2023}}</ref>
=== Pre-standard implementations ===
* 5G TF: American carrier [[Verizon]] used a pre-standard variation of 5G known as 5G TF (Verizon 5G Technical Forum) for [[fixed wireless|Fixed Wireless Access]] in 2018. The 5G service provided to customers in this standard is incompatible with 5G NR. Verizon has since migrated to 5G NR.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techrepublic.com/article/verizon-halts-5g-tf-deployments-plans-to-double-5g-home-internet-speeds-in-six-months/|title=Is Verizon's 5G home internet real 5G?|first=Jacob|last=Kastrenakes|date=December 7, 2018|website=The Verge|access-date=October 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181207163340/https://www.techrepublic.com/article/verizon-halts-5g-tf-deployments-plans-to-double-5g-home-internet-speeds-in-six-months/|archive-date=December 7, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 5G-SIG: [[KT Corporation]] had a pre-standard variation of 5G developed called 5G-SIG. This was deployed at the Pyeongchang [[2018 Winter Olympics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://telecomasia.net/content/mobile-industry-eyes-5g-devices-early-2019|title=Mobile industry eyes 5G devices in early 2019|website=telecomasia.net|access-date=January 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106204638/https://telecomasia.net/content/mobile-industry-eyes-5g-devices-early-2019|archive-date=January 6, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Internet of things ===
In the [[Internet of things]] (IoT), 3GPP is going to submit the evolution of [[NB-IoT]] and [[eMTC]] (LTE-M) as 5G technologies for the [[LPWAN|LPWA]] (Low Power Wide Area) use case.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sierrawireless.com/iot-blog/iot-blog/2018/05/lte-m-nb-iot-5g-networks/|title=With LTE-M and NB-IoT You're Already on the Path to 5G|website=sierrawireless.com|access-date=January 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106213447/https://www.sierrawireless.com/iot-blog/iot-blog/2018/05/lte-m-nb-iot-5g-networks/|archive-date=January 6, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Non-Terrestrial Network ===
Standards are being developed by 3GPP to provide access to end devices via non-terrestrial networks (NTN), i.e. satellite or airborne telecommunication equipment to allow for better coverage outside of populated or otherwise hard to reach locations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.3gpp.org/news-events/partner-news/ntn-rel17|title=NTN & Satellite in Rel-17 & 18|date=1 July 2022|author=Munira Jaffar & Nicolas Chuberre|publisher=3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)}}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv|title=5G from Space: An Overview of 3GPP Non-Terrestrial Networks|author=Xingqin Lin |author2=Stefan Rommer |author3=Sebastian Euler |author4=Emre A. Yavuz |author5=Robert S. Karlsson|year=2021 |class=cs.NI |eprint=2103.09156}}</ref> The enhanced communication quality relies on the unique properties of [[Air to Ground channel]].
Several manufacturers have announced and released hardware that integrates 5G with satellite networks:
* [[Samsung Electronics]] introduced a standardized 5G NTN modem technology in Korea in February 2023,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Samsung Electronics Introduces Standardized 5G NTN Modem Technology To Power Smartphone-Satellite Communication |url=https://news.samsung.com/global/samsung-electronics-introduces-standardized-5g-ntn-modem-technology-to-power-smartphone-satellite-communication |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=news.samsung.com |language=en}}</ref> simulated on their Exynos Modem 5300, facilitating smartphone-satellite communication.
* [[MediaTek]] launched the world's first commercially available 5G IoT-NTN chipset, MT6825, capable of automatic satellite message receipt and extensive power efficiency.<ref>{{Cite web |last=MediaTek |date=2023-06-29 |title=MediaTek to Showcase its Groundbreaking Satellite Connectivity… |url=https://corp.mediatek.com/news-events/press-releases/mediatek-to-showcase-its-groundbreaking-satellite-connectivity-technology-at-mwc-2023 |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=MediaTek |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=5G Satellite (NTN) |url=https://www.mediatek.com/technology/5g/5g-satellite-ntn |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=MediaTek |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Qualcomm]], in collaboration with Skylo, announced new satellite IoT solutions on June 22, 2023, including the Qualcomm 212S and 9205S modems, supporting the Qualcomm Aware platform for real-time asset tracking and device management.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Qualcomm Launches New Satellite IoT Solutions to Provide Uninterrupted Remote Monitoring and Asset Tracking |url=https://www.qualcomm.com/news/releases/2023/06/qualcomm-launches-new-satellite-iot-solutions-to-provide-uninter |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=www.qualcomm.com |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Motorola]]'s Defy Satellite Link hotspot, powered by MediaTek's MT6825, became available in June 2023, providing a portable satellite messaging solution with robust battery life and built-in GPS.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amadeo |first=Ron |date=2023-06-29 |title=Motorola's "Satellite Link" hotspot lets you send messages via outer space |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2023/06/motorolas-satellite-link-hotspot-lets-you-send-messages-via-outer-space/ |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Motorola Defy Satellite Link |url=https://motorolarugged.com/en-us/motorola-defy-satellite-link/ |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=Motorola Rugged USA |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Rakuten]] Symphony, in collaboration with [[Supermicro]], announced high-performing Open RAN technologies and storage systems for operators of cloud-based mobile services.<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/supermicro-and-rakuten-symphony-extend-their-collaboration-and-offer-complete-5g-telco-and-edge-solutions-for-cloud-based-open-ran-mobile-networks-301759130.html|title=Supermicro and Rakuten Symphony Extend Their Collaboration and Offer Complete 5G, Telco, and Edge Solutions For Cloud Based Open RAN Mobile Networks|publisher=PR Newswire}}</ref>
== Deployment ==
{{See also|List of 5G NR networks}}
[[File:5G Standort Deutsche Telekom.jpg|thumb|5G 3.5 GHz cell site of Deutsche Telekom in Darmstadt, Germany]]
[[File:Vodafone 5G Karlsruhe.jpg|thumb|5G 3.5 GHz cell site of Vodafone in Karlsruhe, Germany]]
Beyond mobile operator networks, 5G is also expected to be used for private networks with applications in industrial IoT, enterprise networking, and critical communications, in what being described as [[NR-U]] (5G NR in Unlicensed Spectrum)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gsacom.com/paper/nr-u-transforming-5g-qualcomm-presentation/|title=NR-U Transforming 5G – Qualcomm Presentation|website=GSA|date=January 18, 2018 |access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=February 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209121716/https://gsacom.com/paper/nr-u-transforming-5g-qualcomm-presentation/|url-status=live}}</ref> and Non-Public Networks (NPNs) operating in licensed spectrum. By the mid-to-late 2020s, standalone private 5G networks are expected to become the predominant wireless communications medium to support the ongoing Industry 4.0 revolution for the digitization and automation of manufacturing and process industries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Private LTE & 5G Network Ecosystem: 2023 – 2030 |url=https://www.snstelecom.com/private-lte |access-date=2023-08-14 |website=www.snstelecom.com |language=en-US}}</ref> 5G was expected to increase phone sales.<ref>{{cite web | title=Japan wants TSMC, Sony to build 20 nanometre chip plant -Nikkan Kogyo | website=Reuters | date=26 May 2021 | url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/japan-wants-tsmc-sony-build-20-nanometre-chip-plant-nikkan-kogyo-2021-05-26/ | access-date=19 February 2024}}</ref>
Initial 5G NR launches depended on pairing with existing LTE (4G) infrastructure in [[5G NR#Non-standalone mode|non-standalone (NSA) mode]] (5G NR radio with 4G core), before maturation of the [[5G NR#Standalone mode|standalone (SA) mode]] with the 5G core network.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://k-tai.watch.impress.co.jp/docs/column/keyword/1235918.html|title=[ケータイ用語の基礎知識]第941回：NSA・SA方式とは|date=February 19, 2020|website=ケータイ Watch|access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=February 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209121716/https://k-tai.watch.impress.co.jp/docs/column/keyword/1235918.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
As of April 2019, the [[Global Mobile Suppliers Association]] had identified 224 operators in 88 countries that have demonstrated, are testing or trialing, or have been licensed to conduct field trials of 5G technologies, are deploying 5G networks or have announced service launches.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gsacom.com/paper/lte-5g-market-statistics-8-april-2019|website=GSA|title=LTE and 5G Market Statistics|date=April 8, 2019|access-date=April 24, 2019|archive-date=November 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201118173258/https://gsacom.com/paper/lte-5g-market-statistics-8-april-2019/|url-status=live}}</ref> The equivalent numbers in November 2018 were 192 operators in 81 countries.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|website=GSA|url=https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-investments-global-progress-feb19/|title=5G Investments: Trials, Deployments, Launches|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402105309/https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-investments-global-progress-feb19/ |archive-date=April 2, 2019}}</ref> The first country to adopt 5G on a large scale was South Korea, in April 2019. Swedish telecoms giant Ericsson predicted that 5G Internet will cover up to 65% of the world's population by the end of 2025.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/11/25/5g-will-span-two-thirds-of-global-population-in-6-years-ericsson-says.html |title=5G coverage will span two thirds of the global population in 6 years, Ericsson predicts |website=[[CNBC]] |date=November 25, 2019 |access-date=November 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191129032631/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/11/25/5g-will-span-two-thirds-of-global-population-in-6-years-ericsson-says.html |archive-date=November 29, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Also, it plans to invest 1 billion reals ($238.30 million) in Brazil to add a new assembly line dedicated to fifth-generation technology (5G) for its Latin American operations.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mello |first=Gabriela |title=Ericsson to invest over $230 million in Brazil to build new 5G assembly line |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ericsson-brazil/ericsson-to-invest-over-230-million-in-brazil-to-build-new-5g-assembly-line-idUSKBN1XZ2D5 |date=November 25, 2019 |access-date=May 6, 2020 |archive-date=October 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027204832/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ericsson-brazil/ericsson-to-invest-over-230-million-in-brazil-to-build-new-5g-assembly-line-idUSKBN1XZ2D5 |url-status=live }}</ref>
When South Korea launched its 5G network, all carriers used Samsung, Ericsson, and Nokia [[base station]]s and equipment, except for [[LG U Plus]], who also used Huawei equipment.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Technology/Telecom-s-5G-revolution-triggers-shakeup-in-base-station-market|title=Telecom's 5G revolution triggers shakeup in base station market|website=Nikkei Asian Review|access-date=April 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421060807/https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Technology/Telecom-s-5G-revolution-triggers-shakeup-in-base-station-market|archive-date=April 21, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rcrwireless.com/20190410/5g/samsung-electronics-supplies-53000-5g-base-stations-korean-carriers|title=Samsung Electronics supplies 53,000 5G base stations for Korean carriers|date=April 10, 2019|website=RCR Wireless News|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412133224/https://www.rcrwireless.com/20190410/5g/samsung-electronics-supplies-53000-5g-base-stations-korean-carriers|archive-date=April 12, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Samsung was the largest supplier for 5G base stations in South Korea at launch, having shipped 53,000 base stations at the time, out of 86,000 base stations installed across the country at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno=2019041008040872343|title=삼성 5G기지국 5만3000개 깔았다…화웨이 5배 '압도'|date=April 10, 2019|website=아시아경제|access-date=April 21, 2019|archive-date=November 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107150811/http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno=2019041008040872343|url-status=live}}</ref>
The first fairly substantial deployments were in April 2019. In South Korea, [[SK Telecom]] claimed 38,000 base stations, [[KT Corporation]] 30,000 and [[LG U Plus]] 18,000; of which 85% are in six major cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mobileworldlive.com/asia/asia-news/samsung-dominates-korea-5g-deployments/|title=Samsung dominates Korea 5G deployments|date=April 10, 2019|website=Mobile World Live|language=en-GB|access-date=April 11, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410231539/https://www.mobileworldlive.com/asia/asia-news/samsung-dominates-korea-5g-deployments/|archive-date=April 10, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> They are using 3.5&nbsp;GHz (sub-6) spectrum in [[5G NR#Non-standalone mode|non-standalone (NSA) mode]] and tested speeds were from 193 to 430&nbsp;[[Mbit/s]] down.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/5G-networks/Fast-but-patchy-Trying-South-Korea-s-new-5G-service|title=Fast but patchy: Trying South Korea's new 5G service|website=Nikkei Asian Review|language=en-GB|access-date=April 11, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412032625/https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/5G-networks/Fast-but-patchy-Trying-South-Korea-s-new-5G-service|archive-date=April 12, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> 260,000 signed up in the first month and 4.7 million by the end of 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wirelessone.news/10-r/1660-korea-5g-falls-by-half-miracle-over-2|title=Korea 5G Falls by Half. Miracle Over?|website=wirelessone.news|access-date=March 27, 2020|archive-date=October 27, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027173854/https://wirelessone.news/10-r/1660-korea-5g-falls-by-half-miracle-over-2|url-status=live}}</ref> [[T-Mobile US]] was the first company in the world to launch a commercially available 5G NR Standalone network.<ref>{{cite web |title=T‑Mobile Launches World's First Nationwide Standalone 5G Network |url=https://www.t-mobile.com/news/network/standalone-5g-launch |website=T-Mobile Newsroom |access-date=January 30, 2022 |archive-date=January 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130235142/https://www.t-mobile.com/news/network/standalone-5g-launch |url-status=live }}</ref>
Nine companies sell 5G radio hardware and 5G systems for carriers: [[Altiostar]], [[Cisco Systems]], [[Datang Telecom Group|Datang Telecom/Fiberhome]], [[Ericsson]], [[Huawei]], [[Nokia]], [[Qualcomm]], [[Samsung]], and [[ZTE]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/tech/policy/article/3005645/japan-allocates-5g-spectrum-conditions-cement-curbs-chinese-vendors|title=Japan allocates 5G spectrum, excludes Chinese equipment vendors|website=South China Morning Post|date=April 11, 2019|access-date=April 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412124745/https://www.scmp.com/tech/policy/article/3005645/japan-allocates-5g-spectrum-conditions-cement-curbs-chinese-vendors|archive-date=April 12, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huawei.com/en/press-events/news/2018/2/Huawei-Launches-Full-Range-of-5G-End-to-End-Product-Solutions|title=Huawei Launches Full Range of 5G End-to-End Product Solutions|website=huawei|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413185504/https://www.huawei.com/en/press-events/news/2018/2/Huawei-Launches-Full-Range-of-5G-End-to-End-Product-Solutions|archive-date=April 13, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://venturebeat.com/2019/04/10/japan-allocates-5g-spectrum-to-carriers-blocks-huawei-and-zte-gear/|title=Japan allocates 5G spectrum to carriers, blocks Huawei and ZTE gear|date=April 10, 2019|website=VentureBeat|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413185508/https://venturebeat.com/2019/04/10/japan-allocates-5g-spectrum-to-carriers-blocks-huawei-and-zte-gear/|archive-date=April 13, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.retailnews.asia/samsung-signals-big-5g-equipment-push-again-at-factory/|title=Samsung signals big 5G equipment push, again, at factory|date=January 4, 2019|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413185504/https://www.retailnews.asia/samsung-signals-big-5g-equipment-push-again-at-factory/|archive-date=April 13, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/amp/news/nokia-says-it-is-the-one-stop-shop-for-5g-network-gear|title=Nokia says it is the one-stop shop for 5G network gear &#124; TechRadar|website=techradar.com|date=February 26, 2019|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413185503/https://www.techradar.com/amp/news/nokia-says-it-is-the-one-stop-shop-for-5g-network-gear|archive-date=April 13, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ericsson.com/en/networks/offerings/5g/5g-radio|title=5G radio – Ericsson|date=February 6, 2018|website=Ericsson.com|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413185504/https://www.ericsson.com/en/networks/offerings/5g/5g-radio|archive-date=April 13, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|language=it|url=https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/5g-risposta-usa-all-avanzata-cinese-si-chiama-cisco-ABqN30WB|title=5G, gli Stati Uniti hanno la risposta per resistere all'avanzata cinese|work=[[Il Sole 24 Ore]]|author=Riccardo Barlaam|date=February 21, 2019|access-date=July 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725155730/https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/5g-risposta-usa-all-avanzata-cinese-si-chiama-cisco-ABqN30WB|archive-date=July 25, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2023, Huawei is the leading 5G equipment manufacturer and has the greatest market share of 5G equipment and has built approximately 70% of worldwide 5G base stations.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Parzyan |first=Anahit |url= |title=China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace |date=2023 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |others=Mher Sahakyan |isbn=978-1-003-35258-7 |edition= |location=New York |pages= |chapter=China's Digital Silk Road: Empowering Capabilities for Digital Leadership in Eurasia |oclc=1353290533}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=|page=182}}
=== Spectrum ===
Large quantities of new [[radio spectrum]] ([[5G NR frequency bands]]) have been allocated to 5G.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://5gamericas.org/files/9114/9324/1786/5GA_5G_Spectrum_Recommendations_2017_FINAL.pdf|title=5G Spectrum Recommendations|access-date=October 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181223023245/http://www.5gamericas.org/files/9114/9324/1786/5GA_5G_Spectrum_Recommendations_2017_FINAL.pdf|archive-date=December 23, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> For example, in July 2016, the U.S. [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) freed up vast amounts of bandwidth in underused high-band spectrum for 5G. The Spectrum Frontiers Proposal (SFP) doubled the amount of millimeter-wave unlicensed spectrum to 14&nbsp;GHz and created four times the amount of flexible, mobile-use spectrum the FCC had licensed to date.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://wireless.engineering.nyu.edu/fcc-spectrum-frontier-proposal-updated/|title=FCC Spectrum Frontier Proposal |date=July 15, 2016|work=NYU Wireless|access-date=May 18, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526040346/http://wireless.engineering.nyu.edu/fcc-spectrum-frontier-proposal-updated/|archive-date=May 26, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> In March 2018, [[European Union]] lawmakers agreed to open up the 3.6 and 26&nbsp;GHz bands by 2020.<ref>{{cite news |author=Chee |first=Foo Yun |date=March 3, 2018 |title=EU countries, lawmakers strike deal to open up spectrum for 5G |url=https://reuters.com/article/us-eu-telecoms-spectrum/eu-countries-lawmakers-strike-deal-to-open-up-spectrum-for-5g-idUSKCN1GE2IB |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107015756/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-telecoms-spectrum/eu-countries-lawmakers-strike-deal-to-open-up-spectrum-for-5g-idUSKCN1GE2IB |archive-date=January 7, 2019 |access-date=March 3, 2018 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>
{{As of|2019|3}}, there are reportedly 52 countries, territories, special administrative regions, disputed territories and dependencies that are formally considering introducing certain spectrum bands for terrestrial 5G services, are holding consultations regarding suitable spectrum allocations for 5G, have reserved spectrum for 5G, have announced plans to [[Spectrum auction|auction frequencies]] or have already allocated spectrum for 5G use.<ref>{{cite web|website=GSA|url=https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-spectrum-licensing-mar-2029/|title=Spectrum for Terrestrial 5G Networks: Licensing Developments Worldwide|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402093330/https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-spectrum-licensing-mar-2029/ |archive-date=April 2, 2019 |date=March 2019}}</ref>
== 5G devices ==
[[File:Galaxy S10 5g.jpg|alt=The photograph shows a part of the screen of a Samsung Galaxy S10 with 5G sign|thumb|5G connectivity on a Samsung Galaxy S10]]
In March 2019, the [[Global Mobile Suppliers Association]] released the industry's first database tracking worldwide 5G device launches.<ref>{{cite web|website=Total Telecom|url=https://www.totaltele.com/502531/GSA-launches-first-global-database-of-commercial-5G-devices|title=GSA launches first global database of commercial 5G devices|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402104052/https://www.totaltele.com/502531/GSA-launches-first-global-database-of-commercial-5G-devices|archive-date=April 2, 2019}}</ref> In it, the GSA identified 23 vendors who have confirmed the availability of forthcoming 5G devices with 33 different devices including regional variants. There were seven announced 5G device form factors: (telephones (×12 devices), hotspots (×4), indoor and outdoor [[customer-premises equipment]] (×8), modules (×5), Snap-on dongles and adapters (×2), and USB terminals (×1)).<ref>{{cite web|website=GSA|url=https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-device-ecosystem-report-march-2019/|title=5G Device Ecosystem Report|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402104051/https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-device-ecosystem-report-march-2019/ |archive-date=April 2, 2019 }}</ref> By October 2019, the number of announced 5G devices had risen to 129, across 15 form factors, from 56 vendors.<ref>{{cite web|website=GSA|url=https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-devices-ecosystem-report-september-2019/|title=5G Devices: Ecosystem Report|date=September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013024426/https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-devices-ecosystem-report-september-2019/|archive-date=October 13, 2019}}</ref>
In the 5G IoT chipset arena, as of April 2019 there were four commercial 5G modem chipsets and one commercial processor/platform, with more launches expected in the near future.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gsacom.com/paper/lte-5g-3gpp-iot-chipsets-status-update-3|website=GSA|title=LTE, 5G and 3GPP IoT Chipsets: Status Update|date=April 2019|access-date=April 24, 2019|archive-date=October 30, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030140941/https://gsacom.com/paper/lte-5g-3gpp-iot-chipsets-status-update-3/|url-status=live}}</ref>
On March 4, 2019, the first-ever all-5G smartphone [[Samsung Galaxy S10|Samsung Galaxy S10 5G]] was released. According to ''[[Business Insider]]'', the 5G feature was showcased as more expensive in comparison with the 4G [[Samsung Galaxy S10e]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/5g-is-making-smartphones-we-love-more-expensive-than-ever-2020-3|title=5G is making the smartphones we love more expensive than ever|website=[[Business Insider]]|date=March 14, 2020|access-date=March 16, 2020|archive-date=August 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818150202/https://www.businessinsider.com/5g-is-making-smartphones-we-love-more-expensive-than-ever-2020-3|url-status=live}}</ref> On March 19, 2020, [[HMD Global]], the current maker of Nokia-branded phones, announced the [[Nokia 8.3 5G]], which it claimed as having a wider range of 5G compatibility than any other phone released to that time. The mid-range model is claimed to support all 5G bands from 600&nbsp;MHz to 3.8&nbsp;GHz.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/the-nokia-8-3-is-the-first-global-5g-phone-heres-what-that-means-for-you/ |title=The Nokia 8.3 is the 'first global 5G phone.' Here's what that means for you |first=Katie |last=Collins |website=CNET |date=March 19, 2020 |access-date=March 19, 2020 |archive-date=October 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027211745/https://www.cnet.com/news/the-nokia-8-3-is-the-first-global-5g-phone-heres-what-that-means-for-you/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Many phone manufacturers support 5G. [[Google Pixel]] devices support 5G, starting with the [[Pixel 4a|4a 5G]] and [[Pixel 5]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gsmarena.com/google_pixel_5-10386.php|title=Google Pixel 5|publisher=GSMArena|access-date=October 27, 2022|archive-date=October 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017172525/https://www.gsmarena.com/google_pixel_5-10386.php|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] devices also support 5G, starting with the [[iPhone 12]] and later models.<ref>{{cite web |title=What consumers need to know about this week's AT&T-Verizon 5G rollout |date=January 20, 2022 |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/5g-rollout-verizon-att-consumers-need-know/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226131258/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/5g-rollout-verizon-att-consumers-need-know/ |archive-date=February 26, 2022 |access-date=February 26, 2022 |publisher=[[CBS News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=iPhone 12 and 5G: All the answers to your questions about the super-fast connectivity |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/mobile/apple-iphone-12-and-5g-faq-answers-to-questions-about-super-fast-connectivity/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226131258/https://www.cnet.com/tech/mobile/apple-iphone-12-and-5g-faq-answers-to-questions-about-super-fast-connectivity/ |archive-date=February 26, 2022 |access-date=February 26, 2022 |publisher=[[CNET]]}}</ref>
== Technology ==
=== New radio frequencies ===
{{See also|5G NR frequency bands}}
The air interface defined by 3GPP for 5G is known as 5G New Radio (5G NR), and the specification is subdivided into two frequency bands, FR1 (below 6&nbsp;GHz) and FR2 (24–54&nbsp;GHz).
==== Frequency range 1 (< 6 GHz) ====
Otherwise known as sub-6, the maximum channel bandwidth defined for FR1 is 100&nbsp;MHz, due to the scarcity of continuous spectrum in this crowded frequency range. The band most widely being used for 5G in this range is 3.3–4.2&nbsp;GHz. The Korean carriers use the n78 band at 3.5&nbsp;GHz.
Some parties used the term "mid-band" frequency to refer to higher part of this frequency range that was not used in previous generations of mobile communication.
==== Frequency range 2 (24–71 GHz) ====
The minimum channel bandwidth defined for FR2 is 50&nbsp;MHz and the maximum is 400&nbsp;MHz, with two-channel aggregation supported in 3GPP Release 15. Signals in this frequency range with wavelengths between 4 and 12&nbsp;mm are called millimeter waves. The higher the carrier frequency, the greater the ability to support high data-transfer speeds. This is because a given channel bandwidth takes up a lower fraction of the carrier frequency, so high-bandwidth channels are easier to realize at higher carrier frequencies.
==== FR2 coverage ====
5G in the 24&nbsp;GHz range or above use higher frequencies than 4G, and as a result, some 5G signals are not capable of traveling large distances (over a few hundred meters), unlike 4G or lower frequency 5G signals (sub 6&nbsp;GHz). This requires placing 5G base stations every few hundred meters in order to use higher frequency bands. Also, these higher frequency 5G signals cannot penetrate solid objects easily, such as cars, trees, walls, and even humans, because of the nature of these higher frequency electromagnetic waves. 5G cells can be deliberately designed to be as inconspicuous as possible, which finds applications in places like restaurants and shopping malls.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rfwireless-world.com/Terminology/5G-Speed-Vs-5G-Range.html|title=5G speed vs 5G range-What is the value of 5G speed,5G range|website=rfwireless-world.com|access-date=April 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421224510/http://www.rfwireless-world.com/Terminology/5G-Speed-Vs-5G-Range.html|archive-date=April 21, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan=2 | Cell types
! Deployment environment
! Max. number {{wbr}}of users
! Output power {{wbr}}([[Watt|W]])
! Max. distance from {{wbr}}base station
|-
! scope=row rowspan=4 | 5G NR FR2
! scope=row |  [[Femtocell]]
| Homes, businesses|| Home: 4–8<br>Businesses: 16–32 || indoors: 0.01–0.1<br>outdoors: 0.2–1 || tens of meters
|-
! scope=row | [[picocell|Pico cell]]
| Public areas like shopping malls,<br>airports, train stations, skyscrapers || 64 to 128 || indoors: 0.1–0.25<br>outdoors: 1–5 || tens of meters
|-
! scope=row | [[microcell|Micro cell]]
| Urban areas to fill coverage gaps|| 128 to 256 || outdoors: 5−10 || few hundreds of meters
|-
! scope=row | [[macrocell|Macro cell]]
| Urban areas to provide additional capacity|| more than 250 || outdoors: 10−20 || hundreds of meters
|-
! scope=row colspan=2 | [[Wi-Fi]]<br><small>(for comparison)</small>
| Homes, businesses|| fewer than 50 ||  indoors: 0.02–0.1<br>outdoors: 0.2–1 || few tens of meters
|}
=== Massive MIMO ===
{{See also|Multi-user MIMO}}
MIMO (multiple-input and multiple-output) systems use multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver ends of a wireless communication system. Multiple antennas use the spatial dimension for multiplexing in addition to the time and frequency ones, without changing the bandwidth requirements of the system. Spatial multiplexing gains allow for an increase in the number of transmission layers, thereby boosting system capacity.
Massive MIMO [[Antenna (radio)|antennas]] increases sector throughput and capacity density using large numbers of antennas. This includes Single User MIMO and [[Multi-user MIMO]] (MU-MIMO). {{citation needed span|date=January 2022|Each antenna is individually-controlled and may embed radio transceiver components.}}
=== Edge computing ===
{{Main|Multi-access edge computing}}
[[Edge computing]] is delivered by computing servers closer to the ultimate user. It reduces latency, data traffic congestion<ref>{{cite web|url=http://au.pcmag.com/feature/51666/it-needs-to-start-thinking-about-5g-and-edge-cloud-computing|title=IT Needs to Start Thinking About 5G and Edge Cloud Computing|date=February 7, 2018|access-date=June 8, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612142041/http://au.pcmag.com/feature/51666/it-needs-to-start-thinking-about-5g-and-edge-cloud-computing|archive-date=June 12, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sdn.ieee.org/newsletter/march-2016/mobile-edge-computing-an-important-ingredient-of-5g-networks|title=Mobile Edge Computing – An Important Ingredient of 5G Networks|date=March 2016|publisher=IEEE Softwarization|access-date=February 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231318/https://sdn.ieee.org/newsletter/march-2016/mobile-edge-computing-an-important-ingredient-of-5g-networks|archive-date=February 24, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and can improve service availability.<ref name="edge1">{{cite web |url=https://medium.com/p/51c13268a365 |title=3 Advantages of Edge Computing |work=medium.com |first=Aron |last=Brand |date=September 20, 2019 |access-date=September 20, 2019 |archive-date=January 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122125742/https://aronbrand.medium.com/edge-computing-alexa-and-the-future-of-enterprise-it-51c13268a365 |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Small cell ===
{{Main|Small cell}}
Small cells are low-powered cellular radio access nodes that operate in licensed and unlicensed spectrum that have a range of 10 meters to a few kilometers. Small cells are critical to 5G networks, as 5G's radio waves can't travel long distances, because of 5G's higher frequencies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_tr/136900_136999/136932/16.00.00_60/tr_136932v160000p.pdf|title=Scenarios and requirements for small cell enhancements for E-UTRA and E-UTRAN (3GPP TR 36.932 version 16.0.0 Release 16)|publisher=[[ETSI]] and [[3GPP]]|access-date=February 26, 2022|archive-date=February 26, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226132524/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_tr/136900_136999/136932/16.00.00_60/tr_136932v160000p.pdf|url-status=live}} (TR 36.932)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.5gradar.com/features/5g-small-cells-everything-you-need-to-know|title=5G small cells: everything you need to know|date=February 18, 2021|publisher=5gradar.com|access-date=February 26, 2022|archive-date=February 26, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226132524/https://www.5gradar.com/features/5g-small-cells-everything-you-need-to-know|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nokia.com/blog/small-cells-big-5g/|title=Small Cells – Big in 5G|publisher=[[Nokia]]|access-date=August 29, 2020|archive-date=November 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101102629/https://www.nokia.com/blog/small-cells-big-5g/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ericsson.com/en/small-cells|title=Small Cell|publisher=[[Ericsson]]|access-date=February 26, 2022|archive-date=February 26, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226132524/https://www.ericsson.com/en/small-cells|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Beamforming ===
{{Main|Beamforming}}
There are two kinds of beamforming (BF): digital and analog. Digital beamforming involves sending the data across multiple streams (layers), while analog beamforming shaping the radio waves to point in a specific direction. The analog BF technique combines the power from elements of the antenna array in such a way that signals at particular angles experience constructive interference, while other signals pointing to other angles experience destructive interference. This improves signal quality in the specific direction, as well as data transfer speeds. 5G uses both digital and analog beamforming to improve the system capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rappaport |first1=Theodore S. |last2=Sun |first2=Shu |last3=Mayzus |first3=Rimma |last4=Zhao |first4=Hang |last5=Azar |first5=Yaniv |last6=Wang |first6=Kevin |last7=Wong |first7=George N. |last8=Schulz |first8=Jocelyn K. |last9=Samimi |first9=Mathew |last10=Gutierrez |first10=Felix |date=2013 |title=Millimeter Wave Mobile Communications for 5G Cellular: It Will Work! |journal=IEEE Access |volume=1 |pages=335–349 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2013.2260813 |bibcode=2013IEEEA...1..335R |issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is 5G Beamforming? |url=https://enterprise.verizon.com/resources/articles/5g-beamforming-massive-mimo/ |access-date=September 6, 2022 |website=Verizon Enterprise |language=en |archive-date=October 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025035207/https://enterprise.verizon.com/resources/articles/5g-beamforming-massive-mimo/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Convergence of Wi-Fi and cellular ===
One expected benefit of the transition to 5G is the convergence of multiple networking functions to achieve cost, power, and complexity reductions. LTE has targeted convergence with [[Wi-Fi]] band/technology via various efforts, such as [[License Assisted Access]] (LAA; 5G signal in unlicensed frequency bands that are also used by Wi-Fi) and [[LTE-WLAN Aggregation]] (LWA; convergence with Wi-Fi Radio), but the differing capabilities of cellular and Wi-Fi have limited the scope of convergence. However, significant improvement in cellular performance specifications in 5G, combined with migration from Distributed [[Radio access network|Radio Access Network]] (D-RAN) to Cloud- or Centralized-RAN ([[C-RAN]]) and rollout of cellular [[small cell]]s can potentially narrow the gap between Wi-Fi and cellular networks in dense and indoor deployments. Radio convergence could result in sharing ranging from the aggregation of cellular and Wi-Fi channels to the use of a single silicon device for multiple radio access technologies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.solwise.co.uk/article-5G|title=Article – 5G &#124; Solwise Ltd|website=www.solwise.co.uk|access-date=December 18, 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516153358/https://www.solwise.co.uk/article-5G|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== NOMA (non-orthogonal multiple access) ===
NOMA (non-orthogonal multiple access) is a proposed multiple-access technique for future cellular systems via allocation of power.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ghafoor |first1=Umar |last2=Ali |first2=Mudassar |last3=Khan |first3=Humayun Zubair |last4=Siddiqui |first4=Adil Masood |last5=Naeem |first5=Muhammad |date=2022-08-01 |title=NOMA and future 5G & B5G wireless networks: A paradigm |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1084804522000728 |journal=Journal of Network and Computer Applications |volume=204 |pages=103413 |doi=10.1016/j.jnca.2022.103413 |s2cid=248803932 |issn=1084-8045}}</ref>
=== SDN/NFV ===
{{Main|Software-defined networking|SD-WAN|Network function virtualization|5G network slicing}}
Initially, cellular mobile communications technologies were designed in the context of providing voice services and Internet access. Today a new era of innovative tools and technologies is inclined towards developing a new pool of applications. This pool of applications consists of different domains such as the Internet of Things (IoT), web of connected autonomous vehicles, remotely controlled robots, and heterogeneous sensors connected to serve versatile applications.<ref name="Software Defined Network for 5G">{{cite web|url=https://globecom2018.ieee-globecom.org/workshop/ws-21-sdn5gsc-software-defined-networking-5g-architecture-smart-communities|title=WS-21: SDN5GSC – Software Defined Networking for 5G Architecture in Smart Communities|date=May 17, 2018|website=IEEE Global Communications Conference|access-date=March 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308002935/https://globecom2018.ieee-globecom.org/workshop/ws-21-sdn5gsc-software-defined-networking-5g-architecture-smart-communities|archive-date=March 8, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In this context, [[5G network slicing|network slicing]] has emerged as a key technology to efficiently embrace this new market model.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ordonez-Lucena|first1=J.|last2=Ameigeiras|first2=P.|last3=Lopez|first3=D.|last4=Ramos-Munoz|first4=J. J.|last5=Lorca|first5=J.|last6=Folgueira|first6=J.|date=2017|title=Network Slicing for 5G with SDN/NFV: Concepts, Architectures, and Challenges|journal=IEEE Communications Magazine|volume=55|issue=5|pages=80–87|doi=10.1109/MCOM.2017.1600935|issn=0163-6804|bibcode=2017arXiv170304676O|arxiv=1703.04676|hdl=10481/45368|s2cid=206456434}}</ref>
=== Service-Based Architecture ===
The 5G Service-Based architecture replaces the referenced-based architecture of the [[Evolved Packet Core]] that is used in 4G. The SBA breaks up the core functionality of the network into interconnected network functions (NFs), which are typically implemented as [[Cloud-Native Network Function]]s. These NFs register with the Network Repository Function (NRF) which maintains their state, and communicate with each other using the Service Communication Proxy (SCP). The interfaces between the elements all utilize [[REST]]ful APIs.<ref name="SBA-RCR">{{cite web | url=https://www.rcrwireless.com/20210909/5g/what-is-a-service-based-architecture | title=What is a Service Based Architecture? | date=9 September 2021 }}</ref> By breaking functionality down this way, mobile operators are able to utilize different infrastructure vendors for different functions, and the flexibility to scale each function independently as needed.<ref name="SBA-RCR" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 5G Network Functions <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123500_123599/123501/16.06.00_60/ts_123501v160600p.pdf|title=System architecture for the 5G System (5GS)|website=ETSI|date=October 2020}}</ref>
|-
! NF Name !! NF Acronym !! Analogous [[System Architecture Evolution#Evolved Packet Core (EPC)|EPC]] element
|-
| Authentication Server Function || AUSF || [[System Architecture Evolution#MME (Mobility Management Entity)|MME]] / [[IP Multimedia Subsystem#Core network|HSS]] (Authentication)
|-
| Access and Mobility Management Function || AMF || [[System Architecture Evolution#MME (Mobility Management Entity)|MME]]
|-
| Unstructured Data Storage Function || UDSF || N/A
|-
| Network Exposure Function || NEF || N/A
|-
| [[5G network slicing|Network Slice]] Specific Authentication and Authorization Function || NSSAAF || N/A
|-
| [[5G network slicing|Network Slice]] Selection Function || NSSF || N/A
|-
| Policy Control Function || PCF || [[PCRF]]
|-
| Session Management Function || SMF || [[System Architecture Evolution#MME (Mobility Management Entity)|MME]] / [[System Architecture Evolution#PGW (Packet Data Network Gateway)|PGW]]-[[Control plane|C]]
|-
| Unified Data Management || UDM || [[IP Multimedia Subsystem#Core network|HSS]] (DB Front End)
|-
| Unified Data Repository || UDR || [[IP Multimedia Subsystem#Core network|HSS]] (User Database)
|-
| User Plane Function || UPF || [[System Architecture Evolution#SGW (Serving Gateway)|SGW]]-[[User plane|U]] / [[System Architecture Evolution#PGW (Packet Data Network Gateway)|PGW]]-[[User plane|U]]
|-
| UE radio Capability Management Function || UCMF || N/A
|-
| Application Function || AF || AF ([[IP Multimedia Subsystem|IMS]])
|-
| Network Data Analytics Function || NWDAF || N/A
|-
| CHarging Function|| CHF || [[IP Multimedia Subsystem#Call Session Control Function (CSCF)|CSCF]]
|-
|}
In addition, the standard describes network entities for roaming and inter-network connectivity, including the Security Edge Protection Proxy (SEPP), the Non-3GPP InterWorking Function (N3IWF), the Trusted Non-3GPP Gateway Function (TNGF), the Wireline Access Gateway Function (W-AGF), and the Trusted WLAN Interworking Function (TWIF). These can be deployed by operators as needed depending on their deployment.
=== Channel coding ===
The [[Forward error correction|channel coding]] techniques for 5G NR have changed from [[Turbo code]]s in 4G to [[Polar code (coding theory)|polar codes]] for the control channels and [[Low-density parity-check code|LDPC]] (low-density parity check codes) for the data channels.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://accelercomm.com/sites/accelercomm.com/files/5G-Channel-Coding_0.pdf|title=5G Channel Coding|access-date=January 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206003124/https://www.accelercomm.com/sites/accelercomm.com/files/5G-Channel-Coding_0.pdf|archive-date=December 6, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://accelercomm.com/sites/accelercomm.com/files/5G-Channel-Coding_0.pdf|title=A Vision for 5G Channel Coding|last=Maunder|first=Robert|date=September 2016|access-date=January 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206003124/https://www.accelercomm.com/sites/accelercomm.com/files/5G-Channel-Coding_0.pdf|archive-date=December 6, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Operation in unlicensed spectrum ===
In December 2018, [[3GPP]] began working on [[unlicensed spectrum]] specifications known as 5G NR-U, targeting 3GPP Release 16.<ref name="QualcommNRU">{{cite web|url=https://www.qualcomm.com/news/onq/2018/12/13/3gpp-commits-5g-nr-unlicensed-spectrum-its-next-release|title=5G NR 3GPP &#124; 5G NR Qualcomm|date=December 12, 2018|website=Qualcomm|access-date=April 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422063743/https://www.qualcomm.com/news/onq/2018/12/13/3gpp-commits-5g-nr-unlicensed-spectrum-its-next-release|archive-date=April 22, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Qualcomm has made a similar proposal for [[LTE in unlicensed spectrum]].
=== 5G wireless power ===
'''5G wireless power''' is a technology based on 5G standards that [[wireless power transfer|transfers wireless power]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Eid|first1=Aline|last2=Hester|first2=Jimmy G. D.|last3=Tentzeris|first3=Manos M.|date=2021-01-12|title=5G as a wireless power grid|journal=[[Scientific Reports]]|publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]]|volume=11|issue=1|at=636|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-79500-x|issn=2045-2322|lccn=2011250880|oclc=732869387|pmc=7804946|pmid=33436681|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Linder|first=Courtney|date=2021-04-30|title=We Could Really Have a Wireless Power Grid That Runs on 5G|url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/infrastructure/a35407385/wireless-power-grid-5g/|magazine=[[Popular Mechanics]]|access-date=2022-02-23}}</ref> It adheres to [[technical standard]]s set by the [[3rd Generation Partnership Project]], the [[International Telecommunication Union]], and the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]. It utilizes [[extremely high frequency]] radio waves with [[wavelength]]s from one to ten millimeters, also known as [[mmWaves]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wagih|first1=Mahmoud|last2=Weddell|first2=Alex S.|last3=Beeby|first3=Steve|date=2020-10-01|editor-last=Nikita|editor-first=Konstantina S.|title=Millimeter-Wave Power Harvesting: A Review|journal=IEEE Open Journal of Antennas and Propagation|publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]|volume=1|pages=568–578|doi=10.1109/OJAP.2020.3028220|eissn=2637-6431|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Khan|first1=Talha Ahmed|last2=Heath|first2=Robert W. Jr.|date=2018-12-21|editor-last=Ng|editor-first=Derrick Wing Kwan|editor2-last=Duong|editor2-first=Trung Q.|editor3-last=Zhong|editor3-first=Caijun|editor4-last=Schober|editor4-first=Robert|chapter=Wireless Power Transfer in Millimeter Wave|chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119476863.ch8|title=Wireless Information and Power Transfer|edition=1|publisher=Wiley|pages=139–156|doi=10.1002/9781119476863.ch8|isbn=9781119476863|s2cid=116385421|access-date=2022-02-23}}</ref> Up to 6μW of power has been demonstrated being captured from 5G signals at a distance of 180m by researchers at [[Georgia Tech]].<ref name=":0" />
[[Internet of things]] devices could benefit from 5G wireless power technology, given their low power requirements that are within the range of what has been achieved using 5G power capture.<ref>{{Cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sNuFU3H5GR0|title=Leveraging the 5G Network to Wirelessly Power IoT Devices|date=2021-03-23|author=[[Georgia Tech]]|type=Videotape|access-date=2022-02-23}}</ref>
==Future evolution==
=== 5G-Advanced ===
'''5G-Advanced''' (also known as '''5.5G''') is an evolutionary upgrade to 5G technology, defined under the 3GPP Release 18 standard. It serves as a transitional phase between 5G and future [[6G]] networks, focusing on performance optimization, enhanced spectral efficiency, energy efficiency, and expanded functionality. This technology supports advanced applications such as [[extended reality]] (XR), massive machine-type communication (mMTC), and ultra-low latency for critical services, such as [[Self-driving car|autonomous vehicles]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Release 18|url=https://www.3gpp.org/release18|access-date=November 25, 2021|website=www.3gpp.org|archive-date=November 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211125120719/https://www.3gpp.org/release18|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=September 15, 2023 |title=5G Advanced: Evolution towards 6G |url=https://www.ericsson.com/en/reports-and-papers/white-papers/5g-advanced-evolution-towards-6g |website=ericsson.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=September 15, 2023 |title=5G-Advanced explained |url=https://www.nokia.com/about-us/newsroom/articles/5g-advanced-explained/ |website=nokia.com}}</ref>
Additionaly, 5G-Advanced integrates [[artificial intelligence]] (AI) and [[machine learning]] (ML) to optimize network operations, enabling smarter resource allocation and predictive maintenance. It also enhances network slicing, allowing highly customized virtual networks for specific use cases such as industrial automation, [[Smart city|smart cities]], and critical communication systems. 5G-Advanced aims to minimize service interruption times during [[handover]]s to nearly zero, ensuring robust connectivity for devices in motion, such as high-speed trains and autonomous vehicles. To further support emerging IoT applications, 5G-Advanced expands the capabilities of RedCap (Reduced Capability) devices, enabling their efficient use in scenarios that require low complexity and power consumption.<ref>{{cite web|title=5G-Advanced's system architecture begins taking shape at 3GPP|url=https://www.nokia.com/blog/5g-advanceds-system-architecture-begins-taking-shape-at-3gpp/|access-date=November 25, 2021|website=Nokia|language=en|archive-date=November 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211125120721/https://www.nokia.com/blog/5g-advanceds-system-architecture-begins-taking-shape-at-3gpp/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Four ways 5G-Advanced will transform our industry|url=https://www.nokia.com/blog/four-ways-5g-advanced-will-transform-our-industry/|access-date=November 26, 2021|website=Nokia|language=en|archive-date=November 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126005152/https://www.nokia.com/blog/four-ways-5g-advanced-will-transform-our-industry/|url-status=live}}</ref> Furthermore, 5G-Advanced introduces advanced time synchronization methods independent of [[GNSS]], providing more precise timing for critical applications. For the first time in the development of mobile network standards defined by 3GPP, it offers fully independent geolocation capabilities, allowing position determination without relying on satellite systems such as GPS.
The standard includes extended support for non-terrestrial networks (NTN), enabling communication via satellites and unmanned aerial vehicles, which facilitates connectivity in remote or hard-to-reach areas.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Idrissi |first=Mohamed |date=2024-02-03 |title=Non-Terrestrial Networks in 3GPP Release 18 for Global IoT Expansion |url=https://5ghub.us/non-terrestrial-networks-in-3gpp-release-18-for-global-iot-expansion/ |access-date=2024-11-26 |website=5G HUB TECHNOLOGIES, INC |language=en-US}}</ref>
The Release 18 specifications are expected to be finalized by mid-2024, with commercial deployment anticipated by the end of 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tomás |first=Juan Pedro |date=2023-06-30 |title=Huawei to launch full set of commercial 5.5G network equipment in 2024 |url=https://www.rcrwireless.com/20230630/5g/huawei-to-launch-full-set-of-commercial-5-5g-network-equipment-in-2024 |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=RCR Wireless News |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Concerns ==
=== Security concerns ===
{{See also|Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks | Criticism of Huawei#Espionage and security concerns}}
A report published by the [[European Commission]] and [[European Union Agency for Cybersecurity|European Agency for Cybersecurity]] details the security issues surrounding 5G. The report warns against using a single supplier for a carrier's 5G infrastructure, especially those based outside the European Union; [[Nokia]] and [[Ericsson]] are the only European manufacturers of 5G equipment.<ref>{{cite web|first=Chris|last=Duckett|website=ZDNet|date=October 10, 2019|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/europe-warns-5g-will-increase-attack-paths-for-state-actors/|title=Europe warns 5G will increase attack paths for state actors|access-date=January 12, 2020|archive-date=November 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117154200/https://www.zdnet.com/article/europe-warns-5g-will-increase-attack-paths-for-state-actors/|url-status=live}}</ref>
On October 18, 2018, a team of researchers from [[ETH Zurich]], the [[University of Lorraine]] and the [[University of Dundee]] released a paper entitled, "A Formal Analysis of 5G Authentication".<ref>{{cite book|chapter=A Formal Analysis of 5G Authentication|arxiv = 1806.10360|doi = 10.1145/3243734.3243846|title = Proceedings of the 2018 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security – CCS '18|pages = 1383–1396|year = 2018|last1 = Basin|first1 = David|last2 = Dreier|first2 = Jannik|last3 = Hirschi|first3 = Lucca|last4 = Radomirovic|first4 = Saša|last5 = Sasse|first5 = Ralf|last6 = Stettler|first6 = Vincent|isbn = 9781450356930|s2cid = 49480110}}</ref><ref name="securityintelligence.com">{{cite web|url=https://securityintelligence.com/how-to-prepare-for-the-coming-5g-security-threats/|title=How to Prepare for the Coming 5G Security Threats|date=November 26, 2018|website=Security Intelligence|language=en-US|access-date=July 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722082854/https://securityintelligence.com/how-to-prepare-for-the-coming-5g-security-threats/|archive-date=July 22, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> It alerted that 5G technology could open ground for a new era of security threats. The paper described the technology as "immature and insufficiently tested," and one that "enables the movement and access of vastly higher quantities of data, and thus broadens attack surfaces". Simultaneously, network security companies such as [[Fortinet]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.csoonline.com/article/3341381/addressing-new-security-challenges-with-5g.html|title=Addressing New Security Challenges with 5G|last=Maddison|first=John|date=February 19, 2019|website=CSO Online|language=en|access-date=July 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722082848/https://www.csoonline.com/article/3341381/addressing-new-security-challenges-with-5g.html|archive-date=July 22, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Arbor Networks]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.netscout.com/blog/5G-trends-predictions-2019|title=NETSCOUT Predicts: 5G Trends for 2019|website=NETSCOUT|language=en|access-date=July 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722082851/https://www.netscout.com/blog/5G-trends-predictions-2019|archive-date=July 22, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[A10 Networks]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.a10networks.com/blog/the-urgency-of-network-security-in-the-shared-lte-5g-era/|title=The Urgency of Network Security in the Shared LTE/5G Era|date=June 19, 2019|website=A10 Networks|access-date=July 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722082846/https://www.a10networks.com/blog/the-urgency-of-network-security-in-the-shared-lte-5g-era/|archive-date=July 22, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and Voxility<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scmagazineuk.com/article/1584554|title=Security concerns in a 5G era: are networks ready for massive DDoS attacks?|website=scmagazineuk.com|access-date=July 22, 2019|archive-date=October 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028205340/https://insight.scmagazineuk.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> advised on personalized and mixed security deployments against massive [[DDoS attack]]s foreseen after 5G deployment.
IoT Analytics estimated an increase in the number of [[Internet of things|IoT]] devices, enabled by 5G technology, from 7 billion in 2018 to 21.5 billion by 2025.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://iot-analytics.com/state-of-the-iot-update-q1-q2-2018-number-of-iot-devices-now-7b/|title=State of the IoT 2018: Number of IoT devices now at 7B – Market accelerating|date=August 8, 2018|language=en-US|access-date=July 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724014541/https://iot-analytics.com/state-of-the-iot-update-q1-q2-2018-number-of-iot-devices-now-7b/|archive-date=July 24, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> This can raise the attack surface for these devices to a substantial scale, and the capacity for DDoS attacks, [[cryptojacking]], and other [[cyberattack]]s could boost proportionally.<ref name="securityintelligence.com"/> In addition, the EPS solution for 5G networks has identified a design vulnerability. The vulnerability affects the operation of the device during cellular network switching.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Attar |first1=Hani |last2=Issa |first2=Haitham |last3=Ababneh |first3=Jafar |last4=Abbasi |first4=Mahdi |last5=Solyman |first5=Ahmed A. A. |last6=Khosravi |first6=Mohammad |last7=Said Agieb |first7=Ramy |date=2022-10-11 |title=5G System Overview for Ongoing Smart Applications: Structure, Requirements, and Specifications |journal=Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience |volume=2022 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1155/2022/2476841 |pmid=36268153 |pmc=9578857 |issn=1687-5273|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Due to fears of potential espionage of users of Chinese equipment vendors, several countries (including the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom as of early 2019)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Proctor |first1=Jason |title=Why Canada's decisions on who builds 5G technology are so important |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/5g-canada-huawei-technology-future-1.5113309 |access-date=July 31, 2019 |work=CBC News |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |date=April 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722213042/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/5g-canada-huawei-technology-future-1.5113309 |archive-date=July 22, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> have taken actions to restrict or eliminate the use of Chinese equipment in their respective 5G networks. A 2012 U.S. House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence report concluded that using equipment made by Huawei and ZTE, another Chinese telecommunications company, could "undermine core U.S. national security interests".<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=October 8, 2012 |title=Investigative Report on the U.S. National Security Issues Posed by Chinese Telecommunications Companies Huawei and ZTE |url=https://irp.fas.org/congress/2012_rpt/huawei.pdf |access-date=January 6, 2023 |publisher=[[US House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] |archive-date=December 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230204128/https://irp.fas.org/congress/2012_rpt/huawei.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2018, six U.S. intelligence chiefs, including the directors of the CIA and FBI, cautioned Americans against using Huawei products, warning that the company could conduct "undetected espionage".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Huawei: China's Controversial Tech Giant |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/huawei-chinas-controversial-tech-giant |access-date=2022-12-30 |website=Council on Foreign Relations |language=en |archive-date=December 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230204127/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/huawei-chinas-controversial-tech-giant |url-status=live }}</ref> Further, a 2017 investigation by the FBI determined that Chinese-made Huawei equipment could disrupt U.S. nuclear arsenal communications.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lillis |first=Katie Bo |date=2022-07-23 |title=CNN Exclusive: FBI investigation determined Chinese-made Huawei equipment could disrupt US nuclear arsenal communications {{!}} CNN Politics |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/23/politics/fbi-investigation-huawei-china-defense-department-communications-nuclear/index.html |access-date=2022-12-30 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=December 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230204127/https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/23/politics/fbi-investigation-huawei-china-defense-department-communications-nuclear/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Chinese vendors and the Chinese government have denied claims of espionage, but experts have pointed out that Huawei would have no choice but to hand over network data to the Chinese government if Beijing asked for it because of Chinese National Security Law.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kharpal |first=Arjun |title=Huawei says it would never hand data to China's government. Experts say it wouldn't have a choice |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/05/huawei-would-have-to-give-data-to-china-government-if-asked-experts.html |access-date=2022-12-30 |website=CNBC |date=March 5, 2019 |language=en |archive-date=May 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529154448/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/05/huawei-would-have-to-give-data-to-china-government-if-asked-experts.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
In August, 2020, the U.S. State Department launched "[[The Clean Network]]" as a U.S. government-led, bi-partisan effort to address what it described as "the long-term threat to data privacy, security, human rights and principled collaboration posed to the free world from authoritarian malign actors". Promoters of the initiative have stated that it has resulted in an "alliance of democracies and companies", "based on democratic values". On October 7, 2020, the [[Defence Select Committee|UK Parliament's Defence Committee]] released a report claiming that there was clear evidence of collusion between Huawei and Chinese state and the [[Chinese Communist Party]]. The UK Parliament's Defence Committee said that the government should consider removal of all Huawei equipment from its 5G networks earlier than planned.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Corera |first1=Gordon |date=October 7, 2020 |title=Huawei: MPs claim 'clear evidence of collusion' with Chinese Communist Party |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-54455112 |access-date=October 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014044835/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-54455112 |archive-date=October 14, 2020}}</ref> In December 2020, the United States announced that more than 60 nations, representing more than two thirds of the world's gross domestic product, and 200 telecom companies, had publicly committed to the principles of The Clean Network. This alliance of democracies included 27 of the 30 [[NATO]] members; 26 of the 27 [[EU]] members, 31 of the 37 [[OECD]] nations, 11 of the 12 [[Three Seas Initiative|Three Seas]] nations as well as Japan, Israel, Australia, Singapore, Taiwan, Canada, Vietnam, and India.
=== Electromagnetic interference ===
==== Weather forecasting ====
{{update|5G, short for the fifth generation of wireless technology, employs a range of higher-frequency radio waves than its predecessors.|date=January 2022}}
The [[Electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]] used by various 5G proposals, especially the n258 band centered at 26&nbsp;GHz, will be near that of passive [[remote sensing]] such as by [[weather satellite|weather]] and [[Earth observation satellite]]s, particularly for [[water vapor]] monitoring at 23.8&nbsp;GHz.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gcn.com/articles/2020/09/29/weather-satellites-vs-5g.aspx|title=What's needed to keep 5G from compromising weather forecasts|date=September 29, 2020|website=GCN|access-date=December 4, 2021|archive-date=December 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204075803/https://gcn.com/articles/2020/09/29/weather-satellites-vs-5g.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Electromagnetic interference|Interference]] is expected to occur due to such proximity and its effect could be significant without effective controls. An increase in interference already occurred with some other prior proximate [[Radio spectrum|band]] usages.<ref name="Misra">{{cite conference |first = Sidharth |last = Misra |title = The Wizard Behind the Curtain? – The Important, Diverse, and Often Hidden Role of Spectrum Allocation for Current and Future Environmental Satellites and Water, Weather, and Climate |book-title = 15th Annual Symposium on New Generation Operational Environmental Satellite Systems |publisher = American Meteorological Society |date = January 10, 2019 |location = Phoenix, AZ |url = https://ams.confex.com/ams/2019Annual/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/357736 |access-date = May 5, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190505043302/https://ams.confex.com/ams/2019Annual/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/357736 |archive-date = May 5, 2019 |url-status = live  }}</ref><ref name="Lubar">{{cite conference |first = David G. |last = Lubar |title = A Myriad of Proposed Radio Spectrum Changes – Collectively Can They Impact Operational Meteorology? |book-title = 15th Annual Symposium on New Generation Operational Environmental Satellite Systems |publisher = American Meteorological Society |date = January 9, 2019 |location = Phoenix, AZ |url = https://ams.confex.com/ams/2019Annual/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/352154 |access-date = May 5, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190505043300/https://ams.confex.com/ams/2019Annual/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/352154 |archive-date = May 5, 2019 |url-status = live  }}</ref> Interference to satellite operations impairs [[numerical weather prediction]] performance with substantially deleterious economic and public safety impacts in areas such as [[commercial aviation]].<ref name="Witze">{{cite journal |last1=Witze |first1=Alexandra |title=Global 5G wireless networks threaten weather forecasts |journal=Nature |date=April 26, 2019 |volume=569 |issue=7754 |pages=17–18 |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-01305-4 |pmid=31040411 |bibcode=2019Natur.569...17W |s2cid=140396172 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Brackett">{{cite news |last = Brackett |first = Ron |title = 5G Wireless Networks Could Interfere with Weather Forecasts, Meteorologists Warn |newspaper = The Weather Channel |date = May 1, 2019 |url = https://weather.com/news/news/2019-04-30-5g-networks-interfere-with-weather-forecasts |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190505043303/https://weather.com/news/news/2019-04-30-5g-networks-interfere-with-weather-forecasts |archive-date = May 5, 2019 |url-status = live  }}</ref>
The concerns prompted [[United States Secretary of Commerce|U.S. Secretary of Commerce]] [[Wilbur Ross]] and NASA Administrator [[Jim Bridenstine]] in February 2019 to urge the FCC to delay some spectrum auction proposals, which was rejected.<ref name="Samenow">{{cite news |last = Samenow |first = Jason |title = Critical weather data threatened by FCC 'spectrum' proposal, Commerce Dept. and NASA say |newspaper = The Washington Post |date = March 8, 2019 |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2019/03/08/critical-weather-data-threatened-by-fcc-spectrum-proposal-say-department-commerce-nasa/ |access-date = May 5, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190331204704/https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2019/03/08/critical-weather-data-threatened-by-fcc-spectrum-proposal-say-department-commerce-nasa/ |archive-date = March 31, 2019 |url-status = live  }}</ref> The chairs of the [[United States House Committee on Appropriations|House Appropriations Committee]] and [[United States House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology|House Science Committee]] wrote separate letters to FCC chairman [[Ajit Pai]] asking for further review and consultation with [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]], [[NASA]], and [[United States Department of Defense|DoD]], and warning of harmful impacts to national security.<ref>{{cite news |last = Samenow |first = Jason |title = FCC to auction off wireless spectrum that could interfere with vital weather data, rejecting requests from U.S. House and science agencies |newspaper = The Washington Post |date = March 13, 2019 |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2019/03/13/fcc-auction-off-wireless-spectrum-that-could-interfere-with-vital-weather-data-rejecting-requests-us-house-science-agencies/ |access-date = May 29, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190509072101/https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2019/03/13/fcc-auction-off-wireless-spectrum-that-could-interfere-with-vital-weather-data-rejecting-requests-us-house-science-agencies/ |archive-date = May 9, 2019 |url-status = live  }}</ref> Acting NOAA director Neil Jacobs testified before the House Committee in May 2019 that 5G out-of-band emissions could produce a 30% reduction in [[Weather forecasting|weather forecast]] accuracy and that the resulting degradation in [[Integrated Forecast System|ECMWF model]] performance would have resulted in failure to predict the track and thus the impact of [[Superstorm Sandy]] in 2012. The [[United States Navy]] in March 2019 wrote a memorandum warning of deterioration and made technical suggestions to control band bleed-over limits, for testing and fielding, and for coordination of the wireless industry and regulators with weather forecasting organizations.<ref>{{cite news |last = Paul |first = Don |title = Some worry 5G may pose huge problems for weather forecasting |newspaper = The Buffalo Post |date = May 27, 2019 |url = https://buffalonews.com/2019/05/27/some-worry-5g-may-pose-huge-problems-for-weather-forecasting/ |access-date = May 29, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190530014438/https://buffalonews.com/2019/05/27/some-worry-5g-may-pose-huge-problems-for-weather-forecasting/ |archive-date = May 30, 2019 |url-status = live  }}</ref>
At the 2019 quadrennial [[World Radiocommunication Conference]] (WRC), atmospheric scientists advocated for a strong buffer of −55 [[decibel watt|dBW]], European regulators agreed on a recommendation of −42 dBW, and US regulators (the FCC) recommended a restriction of −20 dBW, which would permit signals 150 times stronger than the European proposal. The ITU decided on an intermediate −33 dBW until September 1, 2027, and after that a standard of −39 dBW.<ref name="Nature WRC">{{cite journal |last1=Witze |first1=Alexandra |title=Global 5G wireless deal threatens weather forecasts |journal=Nature |date=November 22, 2019 |volume=575 |issue=7784 |page=577 |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-03609-x |pmid=31772363 |bibcode=2019Natur.575..577W |s2cid=208302844 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This is closer to the European recommendation but even the delayed higher standard is much weaker than that requested by atmospheric scientists, triggering warnings from the [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO) that the ITU standard, at 10 times less stringent than its recommendation, brings the "potential to significantly degrade the accuracy of data collected".<ref name="WMO WRC">{{cite press release |date= November 27, 2019 |title= WMO expresses concern about radio frequency decision |url= https://wmo.int/media/news/wmo-expresses-concern-about-radio-frequency-decision |location= Geneva, Switzerland |publisher= World Meteorological Organization |access-date= November 30, 2019 }}</ref> A representative of the [[American Meteorological Society]] (AMS) also warned of interference,<ref name="AMS WRC">{{cite news | last = Freedman | first = Andrew | title = Global 5G deal poses significant threat to weather forecast accuracy, experts warn | newspaper = The Washington Post | date = November 26, 2019 | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2019/11/22/global-g-deal-poses-significant-threat-weather-forecast-accuracy-experts-warn/ | access-date = December 1, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191127201837/https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2019/11/22/global-g-deal-poses-significant-threat-weather-forecast-accuracy-experts-warn/ | archive-date = November 27, 2019 | url-status = live  }}</ref> and the [[European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts]] (ECMWF), sternly warned, saying that society risks "history repeat[ing] itself" by ignoring atmospheric scientists' warnings (referencing [[global warming]], monitoring of which could be imperiled).<ref name="ECMWF WRC">{{cite press release |date= November 25, 2019 |title= ECMWF statement on the outcomes of the ITU WRC-2019 conference |url= https://www.ecmwf.int/en/about/media-centre/news/2019/ecmwf-statement-outcomes-itu-wrc-2019-conference |location= Reading, UK |publisher= European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts |access-date= December 1, 2019 |archive-date= January 8, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210108205004/https://www.ecmwf.int/en/about/media-centre/news/2019/ecmwf-statement-outcomes-itu-wrc-2019-conference |url-status= live }}</ref> In December 2019, a bipartisan request was sent from the US House Science Committee to the [[Government Accountability Office]] (GAO) to investigate why there is such a discrepancy between recommendations of US civilian and military science agencies and the regulator, the FCC.<ref>{{cite news |last = Freedman |first = Andrew |title = 'We are deeply concerned': House Science Committee seeks investigation of how 5G could hurt weather forecasting |newspaper = The Washington Post |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2019/12/11/we-are-deeply-concerned-house-science-committee-seeks-investigation-how-g-could-hurt-weather-forecasting/ |date = December 11, 2019 |access-date = December 12, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191212144549/https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2019/12/11/we-are-deeply-concerned-house-science-committee-seeks-investigation-how-g-could-hurt-weather-forecasting/ |archive-date = December 12, 2019 |url-status = live  }}</ref>
==== Aviation ====
The United States [[FAA]] has warned that [[radar altimeter]]s on aircraft, which operate between 4.2 and 4.4&nbsp;GHz, might be affected by 5G operations between 3.7 and 3.98&nbsp;GHz. This is particularly an issue with older altimeters using [[RC filter|RF filters]]<ref>{{cite web|date=December 23, 2021|title=5G altimeter interference: aviation versus telecoms|url=https://www.5gtechnologyworld.com/5g-altimeter-interference-aviation-versus-telecoms/|access-date=January 19, 2022|website=5G Technology World|language=en-US|archive-date=January 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118100315/https://www.5gtechnologyworld.com/5g-altimeter-interference-aviation-versus-telecoms/|url-status=live}}</ref> which lack protection from neighboring bands.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-11-02/u-s-faa-issues-safety-alert-on-5g-interference-to-aircraft|title=U.S. FAA Issues Safety Alert on 5G Interference to Aircraft|website=[[Bloomberg News]]|date=November 2, 2021|access-date=December 4, 2021|archive-date=December 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204075806/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-11-02/u-s-faa-issues-safety-alert-on-5g-interference-to-aircraft|url-status=live}}</ref> This is not as much of an issue in Europe, where 5G uses lower frequencies between 3.4 and 3.8&nbsp;GHz.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/19/business/5g-aviation-safety-europe/index.html|title = Europe rolled out 5G without hurting aviation. Here's how|website = [[CNN]]| date=January 19, 2022 |access-date = January 19, 2022|archive-date = January 19, 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220119234858/https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/19/business/5g-aviation-safety-europe/index.html|url-status = live}}</ref> Nonetheless, the [[Directorate General for Civil Aviation|DGAC]] in France has also expressed similar worries and recommended 5G phones be turned off or be put in [[airplane mode]] during flights.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210216-5g-phones-may-interfere-with-aircraft-french-regulator|title=5G phones may interfere with aircraft: French regulator|date=February 16, 2021|website=France 24|access-date=December 15, 2021|archive-date=December 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215212239/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210216-5g-phones-may-interfere-with-aircraft-french-regulator|url-status=live}}</ref>
On December 31, 2021, U.S. Transportation Secretary [[Pete Buttigieg]] and Steve Dickinson, administrator of the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] asked the chief executives of AT&T and Verizon to delay 5G implementation over aviation concerns. The government officials asked for a two-week delay starting on January 5, 2022, while investigations are conducted on the effects on radar altimeters. The government transportation officials also asked the cellular providers to hold off their new 5G service near 50 priority airports, to minimize disruption to air traffic that would be caused by some planes being disallowed from landing in poor visibility.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shields |first1=Todd |last2=Levin |first2=Allan |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-01-01/buttigieg-asks-at-t-verizon-to-delay-5g-over-aviation-concerns |title=Buttigieg Asks AT&T, Verizon to Delay 5G Over Aviation Concerns |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=December 31, 2021 |access-date=January 2, 2022 |archive-date=January 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220102003751/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-01-01/buttigieg-asks-at-t-verizon-to-delay-5g-over-aviation-concerns |url-status=live }}</ref> After coming to an agreement with government officials the day before,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/transportation/2022/01/18/airlines-disruptions-5g-verizon-att/|title=Wireless carriers to limit 5G near airports after airlines warn of major disruptions|newspaper=Washington Post|date=January 18, 2022|access-date=January 22, 2022|archive-date=January 19, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119141831/https://www.washingtonpost.com/transportation/2022/01/18/airlines-disruptions-5g-verizon-att/|url-status=live}}</ref> Verizon and AT&T activated their 5G networks on January 19, 2022, except for certain towers near 50 airports.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techtimes.com/articles/270795/20220119/verizon-5g-at-t-5g.htm|title=Verizon 5G Gets Activated Despite Warnings About Airport Problems; AT&T 5G Follows Suit|date=January 19, 2022|website=TechTimes|access-date=January 22, 2022|archive-date=January 22, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122030717/https://www.techtimes.com/articles/270795/20220119/verizon-5g-at-t-5g.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> AT&T scaled back its deployment even further than its agreement with the FAA required.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2022/1/18/22889664/att-5g-limits-c-band-expansion-airports-further-carrier-airline|title=AT&T and Verizon are limiting C-band 5G expansion around airports even more|date=January 18, 2022|website=The Verge|access-date=January 22, 2022|archive-date=January 22, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122030720/https://www.theverge.com/2022/1/18/22889664/att-5g-limits-c-band-expansion-airports-further-carrier-airline|url-status=live}}</ref>
The FAA rushed to test and certify radar altimeters for interference so that planes could be allowed to perform instrument landings (e.g. at night and in low visibility) at affected airports. By January 16, it had certified equipment on 45% of the U.S. fleet, and 78% by January 20.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.faa.gov/5g |title=5G and Aviation Safety |author=[[Federal Aviation Administration]] |date=January 21, 2022 |access-date=January 22, 2022 |archive-date=January 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122030720/https://www.faa.gov/5g |url-status=live }}</ref> Airlines complained about the avoidable impact on their operations, and commentators said the affair called into question the competence of the FAA.<ref>{{cite news|last=Von Drehle|first=David|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2022/01/18/faa-5g-wireless-freakout-raises-red-flag/|title=Opinion: The FAA's 5G freakout raises a big red flag — about its competence|date=January 18, 2022|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=January 22, 2022|archive-date=January 19, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119055815/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2022/01/18/faa-5g-wireless-freakout-raises-red-flag/|url-status=live}}</ref> Several international airlines substituted different planes so they could avoid problems landing at scheduled airports, and about 2% of flights (320) were cancelled by the evening of January 19.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.msn.com/en-gb/money/companies/major-airlines-cancel-change-flights-to-us-over-5g-dispute/ar-AASV5rg|title=Airlines cancel some flights after reduced 5G rollout in US|website=MSN|access-date=January 22, 2022|archive-date=January 22, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122030720/https://www.msn.com/en-gb/money/companies/major-airlines-cancel-change-flights-to-us-over-5g-dispute/ar-AASV5rg|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Satellite ====
{{further|C band (IEEE)}}
A number of 5G networks deployed on the radio frequency band of 3.3–3.6&nbsp;GHz are expected to cause interference with [[C band (IEEE)|C-Band]] satellite stations, which operate by receiving satellite signals at 3.4–4.2&nbsp;GHz frequency.<ref name="satmag">{{cite web|url=http://www.satmagazine.com/story.php?number=2132459167|title=SatMagazine|website=www.satmagazine.com|access-date=December 4, 2021|archive-date=December 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204075803/http://www.satmagazine.com/story.php?number=2132459167|url-status=live}}</ref> This interference can be mitigated with [[low-noise block downconverter]]s and [[waveguide filter]]s.<ref name="satmag" />
==== Wi-Fi ====
In regions like the US and EU, the 6&nbsp;GHz band is to be opened up for unlicensed applications, which would permit the deployment of 5G-NR Unlicensed, 5G version of [[LTE in unlicensed spectrum]], as well as [[Wi-Fi 6e]]. However, interference could occur with the co-existence of different standards in the frequency band.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9165719|title=Next Generation Wi-Fi and 5G NR-U in the 6 GHz Bands: Opportunities and Challenges|first1=Gaurang|last1=Naik|first2=Jung-Min|last2=Park|first3=Jonathan|last3=Ashdown|first4=William|last4=Lehr|date=December 15, 2020|journal=IEEE Access|volume=8|pages=153027–56|via=IEEE Xplore|doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3016036|arxiv=2006.16534|bibcode=2020IEEEA...8o3027N |s2cid=220265664|access-date=December 4, 2021|archive-date=December 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215220455/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9165719/|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Overhype===
There have been concerns surrounding the promotion of 5G, questioning whether the technology is overhyped. There are questions on whether 5G will truly change the customer experience,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/4/29/22409675/verizon-att-tmobile-5g-mmwave-c-band|title=Dear wireless carriers: the 5G hype needs to stop|first=Allison|last=Johnson|date=April 29, 2021|website=The Verge|access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=February 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209074804/https://www.theverge.com/2021/4/29/22409675/verizon-att-tmobile-5g-mmwave-c-band|url-status=live}}</ref> ability for 5G's mmWave signal to provide significant coverage,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lightreading.com/mobile/spectrum/vodafone-cto-worried-about-5g-mmwave-hype/d/d-id/730679|title=Vodafone CTO 'Worried' About 5G mmWave Hype|first1=Iain|last1=Morris|date=February 28, 2017|website=Light Reading|access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=February 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209074803/https://www.lightreading.com/mobile/spectrum/vodafone-cto-worried-about-5g-mmwave-hype/d/d-id/730679|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fiercewireless.com/5g/t-mobile-says-5g-mmwave-deployments-will-never-scale|title=T-Mobile says 5G mmWave deployments 'will never materially scale'|first=Kendra|last=Chamberlain|date=April 22, 2019|website=Fierce Wireless|access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=February 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209074803/https://www.fiercewireless.com/5g/t-mobile-says-5g-mmwave-deployments-will-never-scale|url-status=live}}</ref> overstating what 5G can achieve or misattributing continuous technological improvement to "5G",<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://enterpriseiotinsights.com/20191205/channels/fundamentals/why-5g-is-over-hyped-nonsense-in-every-respect-except-one|title=Why the 5G revolution is over-hyped nonsense – in every respect except one|first=James|last=Blackman|date=December 5, 2019|website=Enterprise IoT Insights|access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=February 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209074803/https://enterpriseiotinsights.com/20191205/channels/fundamentals/why-5g-is-over-hyped-nonsense-in-every-respect-except-one|url-status=live}}</ref> lack of new use case for carriers to profit from,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/technology-media-and-telecommunications/our-insights/cutting-through-the-5g-hype-survey-shows-telcos-nuanced-views|title=Cutting through the 5G hype &#124; McKinsey|website=mckinsey.com|access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=February 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209074803/https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/technology-media-and-telecommunications/our-insights/cutting-through-the-5g-hype-survey-shows-telcos-nuanced-views|url-status=live}}</ref> wrong focus on emphasizing direct benefits on individual consumers instead of for Internet of things devices or solving the [[Last mile (telecommunications)|last mile problem]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://geolinks.com/is-5g-worth-all-the-hype/|title=Expert Round Up: Is 5G Worth All the Hype? – GeoLinks.com|date=February 21, 2019|access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=February 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209074804/https://geolinks.com/is-5g-worth-all-the-hype/|url-status=live}}</ref> and overshadowing the possibility that in some aspects there might be other more appropriate technologies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iebmedia.com/technology/industrial-5g-wireless/5g-isnt-for-everyone-how-alternate-iot-solutions-come-into-play/|title=5G isn't for everyone: How Alternate IoT Solutions come into play &#124; Industrial Ethernet Book|website=iebmedia.com|access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=February 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209082522/https://iebmedia.com/technology/industrial-5g-wireless/5g-isnt-for-everyone-how-alternate-iot-solutions-come-into-play/|url-status=live}}</ref> Such sort of concerns have also led to consumers not trusting information provided by cellular providers on the topic.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pcmag.com/news/consumers-want-to-cut-through-the-hype-about-5g|title=Consumers Want to Cut Through the Hype About 5G|website=PCMAG|access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=February 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209082514/https://www.pcmag.com/news/consumers-want-to-cut-through-the-hype-about-5g|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Misinformation<span class="anchor" id="Controversy"></span> ==
{{Main|5G misinformation}}
=== Health ===
{{See also|Wireless device radiation and health}}
There is a long history of fear and anxiety surrounding wireless signals that predates 5G technology. The fears about 5G are similar to those that have persisted throughout the 1990s and 2000s. According to the [[United States of America|US]] [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) "exposure to intense, direct amounts of non-ionizing radiation may result in damage to tissue due to [[heat]]. This is not common and mainly of concern in the workplace for those who work on large sources of non-ionizing radiation devices and instruments."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/nonionizing_radiation.html |title=The Electromagnetic Spectrum: Non-Ionizing Radiation |date=December 7, 2015 |publisher=United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=August 21, 2021 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231134227/http://www.cdc.gov:80/nceh/radiation/nonionizing_radiation.html |archive-date=December 31, 2015 }}</ref> Some advocates of fringe health claim the regulatory standards are too low and influenced by lobbying groups.<ref name="Meese et al 2020"/>
[[File:Anti 5g conspiracy sticker luxembourg.jpg|thumb|An anti-5G sticker in [[Luxembourg]]]]
There have been rumors that 5G mobile phone use can cause cancer, but this is a myth.<ref name=cruk>{{cite web |publisher=[[Cancer Research UK]] |date=8 February 2022 |title=Do mobile phones, 4G or 5G cause cancer? |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/do-mobile-phones-cause-cancer}}</ref> Many popular books of dubious merit have been published on the subject{{Additional citation needed|date=November 2024}} including one by [[Joseph Mercola]] alleging that wireless technologies caused numerous conditions from [[ADHD]] to heart diseases and brain cancer. Mercola has drawn sharp criticism for his [[anti-vaccinationism]] during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and was warned by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] to stop selling fake COVID-19 cures through his online [[alternative medicine]] business.<ref name="Meese et al 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Meese |first1=James |last2=Frith |first2=Jordan |last3=Wilken |first3=Rowan |title=COVID-19, 5G conspiracies and infrastructural futures |journal=Media International Australia |date=2020 |volume=177 |issue=1 |pages=30–46 |doi=10.1177/1329878X20952165 |pmc=7506181 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2021/03/fda-warns-mercola-to-stop-selling-fake-covid-remedies-and-cures/ |title=FDA warns Mercola: Stop selling fake COVID remedies and cures |work=Alliance for Science |publisher=Cornell University |date=March 15, 2021 |access-date=August 21, 2021 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316173249/https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2021/03/fda-warns-mercola-to-stop-selling-fake-covid-remedies-and-cures/ |archive-date=March 16, 2021 }}</ref>
According to the ''[[New York Times]]'', one origin of the 5G health controversy was an erroneous unpublished study that physicist Bill P. Curry did for the Broward County School Board in 2000 which indicated that the absorption of external microwaves by brain tissue increased with frequency.<ref name="Broad1">{{Cite news
| last = Broad
| first = William J.
| title = The 5G Health Hazard That Isn't
| newspaper = New York Times
| pages =
| date = July 16, 2019
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/16/science/5g-cellphones-wireless-cancer.html
| access-date = December 16, 2021
| archive-date = October 1, 2019
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191001202420/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/16/science/5g-cellphones-wireless-cancer.html
| url-status = live
}}</ref> According to experts{{vague|date=November 2024}} this was wrong, the millimeter waves used in 5G are safer than lower frequency microwaves because they cannot penetrate the skin and reach internal organs. Curry had confused ''[[in vitro]]'' and ''[[in vivo]]'' research. However Curry's study was widely distributed on the Internet. Writing in ''[[The New York Times]]'' in 2019, [[William Broad]] reported that [[RT America]] began airing programming linking 5G to harmful health effects which "lack scientific support", such as "brain cancer, infertility, autism, heart tumors, and Alzheimer's disease". Broad asserted that the claims had increased. RT America had run seven programs on this theme by mid-April 2019 but only one in the whole of 2018. The network's coverage had spread to hundreds of blogs and websites.<ref name="Broad-nyt-12-5-2019">{{cite news |last1=Broad |first1=William J. |title=Your 5G Phone Won't Hurt You. But Russia Wants You to Think Otherwise. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/12/science/5g-phone-safety-health-russia.html |access-date=May 12, 2019 |work=The New York Times |date=May 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520140042/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/12/science/5g-phone-safety-health-russia.html |archive-date=May 20, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In April 2019, the city of [[Brussels]] in [[Belgium]] blocked a 5G trial because of radiation rules.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fiercewireless.com/5g/brussels-halts-5g-plans-over-radiation-rules|title=Brussels halts 5G plans over radiation rules|website=FierceWireless |date=April 8, 2019|access-date=April 11, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409144312/https://www.fiercewireless.com/5g/brussels-halts-5g-plans-over-radiation-rules|archive-date=April 9, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], a planned upgrade to 5G was stopped for the same reason.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Schweiz-Vorlaeufiges-Verbot-von-5G-Mobilfunkantennen-in-Genf-4398114.html |title=Schweiz: Genf stoppt Aufbau von 5G-Mobilfunkantennen |date=April 11, 2019 |access-date=April 14, 2019 |language=de |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414150734/https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Schweiz-Vorlaeufiges-Verbot-von-5G-Mobilfunkantennen-in-Genf-4398114.html |archive-date=April 14, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Swiss Telecommunications Association (ASUT) has said that studies have been unable to show that 5G frequencies have any health impact.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://e3.marco.ch/publish/sunrise/821_3887/20190327_MM_asut_Faktencheck_5G-EN.pdf|title=5G Mobile Technology Fact Check |date=March 27, 2019|website=asut |access-date=April 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403192953/https://e3.marco.ch/publish/sunrise/821_3887/20190327_MM_asut_Faktencheck_5G-EN.pdf|archive-date=April 3, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
According to [[CNET]],<ref name="cnet"/> "Members of Parliament in the [[Netherlands]] are also calling on the government to take a closer look at 5G. Several leaders in the [[United States Congress]] have written to the [[Federal Communications Commission]] expressing concern about potential health risks. In [[Mill Valley, California]], the city council blocked the deployment of new 5G wireless cells."<ref name="cnet">{{cite web |title=5G phones and your health: What you need to know |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/5g-phones-and-your-health-what-you-need-to-know/ |website=[[CNET]] |date=June 20, 2019 |access-date=June 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622094552/https://www.cnet.com/news/5g-phones-and-your-health-what-you-need-to-know/ |archive-date=June 22, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Radiation concerns halt Brussels 5G development, for now |url=https://www.brusselstimes.com/brussels/55052/radiation-concerns-halt-brussels-5g-for-now/ |work=[[The Brussels Times]] |date=April 1, 2019 |access-date=July 19, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714173243/https://www.brusselstimes.com/brussels/55052/radiation-concerns-halt-brussels-5g-for-now/ |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Kamer wil eerst stralingsonderzoek, dan pas 5G-netwerk |url=https://www.ad.nl/tech/kamer-wil-eerst-stralingsonderzoek-dan-pas-5g-netwerk~ab567cd6/ |work=[[Algemeen Dagblad]] |date=April 4, 2019 |access-date=July 19, 2019 |archive-date=December 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216130748/https://www.ad.nl/tech/kamer-wil-eerst-stralingsonderzoek-dan-pas-5g-netwerk~ab567cd6/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Switzerland to monitor potential health risks posed by 5G networks |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-swiss-5g/switzerland-to-monitor-potential-health-risks-posed-by-5g-networks-idUSKCN1RT159 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=April 17, 2019 |access-date=July 19, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729010022/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-swiss-5g/switzerland-to-monitor-potential-health-risks-posed-by-5g-networks-idUSKCN1RT159 |archive-date=July 29, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Bay Area city blocks 5G deployments over cancer concerns |url=https://techcrunch.com/2018/09/10/bay-area-city-blocks-5g-deployments-over-cancer-concerns/ |work=[[TechCrunch]] |date=September 10, 2018 |access-date=July 19, 2019 |archive-date=December 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230221521/https://techcrunch.com/2018/09/10/bay-area-city-blocks-5g-deployments-over-cancer-concerns/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Similar concerns were raised in [[Vermont]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Dillon |first=John |date=May 7, 2019 |title=Broadband Bill to Be Amended to Address Concerns Over 5G Technology |url=https://www.vpr.org/post/broadband-bill-be-amended-address-concerns-over-5g-technology |publisher=[[Vermont Public Radio]] (VPR) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507221317/https://www.vpr.org/post/broadband-bill-be-amended-address-concerns-over-5g-technology |archive-date=May 7, 2019 |url-status=live |access-date=July 19, 2019 }}</ref> and [[New Hampshire]].<ref name="cnet"/> The US [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] is quoted saying that it "continues to believe that the current safety limits for cellphone radiofrequency energy exposure remain acceptable for protecting the public health".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartmobtech.com/news/5g-what-is-it-and-how-will-it-help-us/|title=5G: What is it and how it will help us|access-date=July 29, 2019|archive-date=December 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201225061613/https://smartmobtech.com/news/5g-what-is-it-and-how-will-it-help-us/|url-status=live}}</ref> After campaigning by activist groups, a series of small localities in the UK, including Totnes, Brighton and Hove, Glastonbury, and Frome, passed resolutions against the implementation of further 5G infrastructure, though these resolutions have no impact on rollout plans.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Humphries |first=Will |date=October 12, 2019 |title=Councils block 5G as scare stories spread |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/councils-block-5g-as-scare-stories-spread-gnfgshn58 |work=[[The Times]] |location=London |access-date=October 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014112244/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/councils-block-5g-as-scare-stories-spread-gnfgshn58 |archive-date=October 14, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itpro.co.uk/network-internet/34621/brighton-and-hove-city-council-join-growing-list-of-local-authorities-banning |title=Brighton and Hove City Council join growing list of local authorities banning 5G masts |website=itpro.co.uk |date=October 14, 2019 |access-date=October 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025070926/https://www.itpro.co.uk/network-internet/34621/brighton-and-hove-city-council-join-growing-list-of-local-authorities-banning |archive-date=October 25, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=5G 'no more dangerous than talcum powder and pickled vegetables', says digital minister Matt Warman |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2019/10/07/5g-no-dangerous-talcum-powder-pickled-vegetables-says-digital/ |work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |location=London |access-date=October 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018234104/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2019/10/07/5g-no-dangerous-talcum-powder-pickled-vegetables-says-digital/ |archive-date=October 18, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Low-level EMF does have some effects on other organisms.<ref name="In-The-Environment" /> Vian ''et al.'', 2006 finds an effect of [[microwave radiation|microwave]] on [[gene expression]] in [[plant]]s.<ref name="In-The-Environment">{{cite journal | year=2021 | issue=1 | volume=37 | publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter GmbH]] | first3=Albert | first2=Henry | first1=Blake | last3=Manville | last2=Lai | issn=0048-7554 | journal=[[Reviews on Environmental Health]] | last1=Levitt | pages=81–122 | doi=10.1515/reveh-2021-0026 | title=Effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic fields on flora and fauna, part 1. Rising ambient EMF levels in the environment| pmid=34047144 | s2cid=235219718 | doi-access=free }}</ref> A meta-analysis of 95 ''in vitro'' and ''in vivo'' studies showed that an average of 80% of the ''in vivo'' research showed effects of such radiation, as did 58% of the ''in vitro'' research, but that the results were inconclusive as to whether any of these effects pose a health risk.<ref name="MDPI AG 2019 p=3406">{{cite journal | title=5G Wireless Communication and Health Effects—A Pragmatic Review Based on Available Studies Regarding 6 to 100 GHz | journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | publisher=MDPI AG | volume=16 | issue=18 | date=2019-09-13 | issn=1660-4601 | doi=10.3390/ijerph16183406 | page=3406| doi-access=free | last1=Simkó | last2=Mattsson | pmid=31540320 | pmc=6765906 }}</ref>
=== COVID-19 conspiracy theories and arson attacks ===
{{Main|COVID-19 misinformation#5G mobile-phone networks}}
[[File:FACT- 5G mobile networks DO NOT spread COVID-19.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|The [[World Health Organization]] published a mythbuster infographic to combat the conspiracy theories about COVID-19 and 5G]]
As the introduction of 5G technology coincided with the time of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], several conspiracy theories circulating online posited a link between [[COVID-19]] and 5G.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/4/4/21207927/5g-towers-burning-uk-coronavirus-conspiracy-theory-link|title=British 5G towers are being set on fire because of coronavirus conspiracy theories|last=Warren|first=Tom|date=April 4, 2020|website=The Verge|language=en|access-date=April 5, 2020|archive-date=December 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201225000226/https://www.theverge.com/2020/4/4/21207927/5g-towers-burning-uk-coronavirus-conspiracy-theory-link|url-status=live}}</ref> This has led to dozens of [[arson]] attacks being made on telecom masts in the Netherlands (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, etc.), Ireland ([[County Cork|Cork]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Ann |date=April 23, 2020 |title=Update: Arson attack on Cork mast linked to false 5G conspiracy theory |url=https://www.echolive.ie/corknews/UPDATE-Arson-attack-on-Cork-mast-linked-to-false-5G-conspiracy-theory-077799f2-496b-49a0-ad5e-2c5524c30bd0-ds |work=Echo Live |access-date=April 30, 2020 |archive-date=October 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028205142/https://www.echolive.ie/corknews/UPDATE-Arson-attack-on-Cork-mast-linked-to-false-5G-conspiracy-theory-077799f2-496b-49a0-ad5e-2c5524c30bd0-ds |url-status=live }}</ref> etc.), Cyprus, the United Kingdom ([[Dagenham]], [[Huddersfield]], [[Birmingham]], [[Belfast]] and [[Liverpool]])<!-- FT article not paywalled -->,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fildes|first1=Nic|last2=Di Stefano|first2=Mark|last3=Murphy|first3=Hannah|url=https://www.ft.com/content/1eeedb71-d9dc-4b13-9b45-fcb7898ae9e1|title=How a 5G coronavirus conspiracy spread across Europe|work=Financial Times|date=April 16, 2020|access-date=April 16, 2020|archive-date=December 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213125306/https://www.ft.com/content/1eeedb71-d9dc-4b13-9b45-fcb7898ae9e1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-52164358|title=Mast fire probe amid 5G coronavirus claims|date=April 4, 2020|work=BBC News|access-date=April 5, 2020|language=en-GB|archive-date=January 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117095249/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-52164358|url-status=live}}</ref> Belgium (Pelt), Italy ([[Maddaloni]]), Croatia ([[Bibinje]])<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.seebiz.eu/tehnologija/bibinje-nepoznati-glupani-ostetili-odasiljac-za-kojeg-su-mislili-da-je-5g/229876|title=Bibinje: Nepoznati glupani oštetili odašiljač za kojeg su mislili da je 5G|work=Seebiz|date=April 15, 2020|access-date=April 21, 2020|language=hr|archive-date=November 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107041548/https://www.seebiz.eu/tehnologija/bibinje-nepoznati-glupani-ostetili-odasiljac-za-kojeg-su-mislili-da-je-5g/229876|url-status=live}}</ref> and Sweden.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Cerulus|first1=Laurens|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/04/26/5g-mast-torchers-turn-up-in-continental-europe-210736|title=5G arsonists turn up in continental Europe|work=Politico|date=April 26, 2020|access-date=April 30, 2020|language=en|archive-date=January 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210104202230/https://www.politico.com/news/2020/04/26/5g-mast-torchers-turn-up-in-continental-europe-210736|url-status=live}}</ref> It led to at least 61 suspected arson attacks against telephone masts in the United Kingdom alone<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/amid-5g-mast-arson-and-coronavirus-conspiracy-theories-social-media-walks-a-fine-line/|title=5G mast arson, coronavirus conspiracy theories force social media to walk a fine censorship line|website=ZD Net|first=Charlie|last=Osborne|date=April 30, 2020|access-date=May 2, 2020|archive-date=October 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018181856/https://www.zdnet.com/article/amid-5g-mast-arson-and-coronavirus-conspiracy-theories-social-media-walks-a-fine-line/|url-status=live}}</ref> and over twenty in The Netherlands.
In the early months of the pandemic, anti-lockdown protesters at [[protests over responses to the COVID-19 pandemic]] in Australia were seen with anti-5G signs, an early sign of what became a wider campaign by conspiracy theorists to link the pandemic with 5G technology. There are two versions of the 5G-COVID-19 conspiracy theory:<ref name="Meese et al 2020"/>
#The first version claims that radiation weakens the immune system, making the body more vulnerable to [[SARS-CoV-2]] (the virus that causes COVID-19).
#The second version claims that 5G causes COVID-19. There are different variations on this. Some claim that the pandemic is coverup of illness caused by 5G radiation or that COVID-19 originated in Wuhan because that city was "the guinea-pig city for 5G".
== Marketing of non-5G services ==
{{Main|5G Evolution|LTE Advanced Pro|LTE Advanced}}{{Expand section|date=October 2023}}
In various parts of the world, carriers have launched numerous differently branded technologies, such as "[[5G Evolution]]", which advertise improving existing networks with the use of "5G technology".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cnet.com/news/at-t-brings-5g-evolution-not-real-5g-to-117-more-markets/|title=AT&T brings higher speeds with pre-5G tech to 117 cities|date=April 19, 2018 |first1= Roger |last1=Cheng  |website=CNET |access-date=January 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106204643/https://www.cnet.com/news/at-t-brings-5g-evolution-not-real-5g-to-117-more-markets/|archive-date=January 6, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> However, these pre-5G networks are an improvement on specifications of existing LTE networks that are not exclusive to 5G. While the technology promises to deliver higher speeds, and is described by AT&T as a "foundation for our evolution to 5G while the 5G standards are being finalized", it cannot be considered to be true 5G. When AT&T announced 5G Evolution, 4x4 MIMO, the technology that AT&T is using to deliver the higher speeds, had already been put in place by [[T-Mobile US|T-Mobile]] without being branded with the 5G moniker. It is claimed that such branding is a marketing move that will cause confusion with consumers, as it is not made clear that such improvements are not true 5G.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theverge.com/2017/4/25/15425414/att-5g-evolution-network-lte-advanced-misleading-marketing|title=AT&T announces it will build a fake 5G network|date=April 25, 2017 |first1=Chaim |last1=Gartenberg |website=The Verge |access-date=January 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121215106/https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/25/15425414/att-5g-evolution-network-lte-advanced-misleading-marketing|archive-date=November 21, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
== History ==
{{Update section|date=April 2019}}
[[File:Cellular network standards and generation timeline.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Cellular network standards and generation timeline.]]
In April 2008, NASA partnered with Geoff Brown and [[M2Mi Corporation|Machine-to-Machine Intelligence (M2Mi) Corp]] to develop a fifth generation communications technology approach, though largely concerned with working with nanosats.<ref name="NASA Ames Partners with M2Mi for small satellite development">{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/apr/HQ_08107_Ames_nanosat.html|title= NASA Ames Partners With M2MI For Small Satellite Development|last1=Curie|first1=M.|last2=Mewhinney|first2=M.|last3=Cooper|first3=S.|website=NASA |date=April 24, 2008 |access-date=April 8, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408142034/https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/apr/HQ_08107_Ames_nanosat.html|archive-date=April 8, 2019|url-status=dead }}</ref> That same year, the South Korean IT R&D program of "5G mobile communication systems based on beam-division multiple access and relays with group cooperation" was formed.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sunitha |first1=C. |last2=Krishnan |first2=Deepika G. |last3=Dhanya |first3=V. A. |date=January 2017 |title=Overview of Fifth Generation Networking |url=https://www.ijcttjournal.org/2017/Volume43/number-1/IJCTT-V43P107.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Journal of Computer Trends and Technology (IJCTT) |volume=43 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211110828/http://www.ijcttjournal.org/2017/Volume43/number-1/IJCTT-V43P107.pdf |archive-date=February 11, 2020 |access-date=October 7, 2020 |number=1}}</ref>
In August 2012, New York University founded NYU Wireless, a multi-disciplinary academic research centre that has conducted pioneering work in 5G wireless communications.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nyuwireless.com/ |title=The world's first academic research center combining Wireless, Computing, and Medical Applications |publisher=NYU Wireless |date=June 20, 2014 |access-date=January 14, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311171645/http://nyuwireless.com/ |archive-date=March 11, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> On October 8, 2012, the UK's [[University of Surrey]] secured £35M for a new 5G research centre, jointly funded by the British government's UK Research Partnership Investment Fund (UKRPIF) and a consortium of key international mobile operators and infrastructure providers, including [[Huawei]], [[Samsung]], [[Telefónica]] Europe, [[Fujitsu]] Laboratories Europe, [[Rohde & Schwarz]], and [[Aircom International]]. It will offer testing facilities to mobile operators keen to develop a mobile standard that uses less energy and less radio spectrum, while delivering speeds higher than current 4G with aspirations for the new technology to be ready within a decade.<ref name="BBC video UOS research centre">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01nhbzw|title=BBC Click Programme – Kenya|publisher=[[BBC News (TV channel)|BBC News Channel]]|first=Spencer|last=Kelly|quote=Some of the world biggest telecoms firms have joined forces with the UK government to fund a new 5G research center. The facility, to be based at the University of Surrey, will offer testing facilities to operators keen to develop a mobile standard that uses less energy and less radio spectrum, while delivering faster speeds than current 4G technology that's been launched in around 100 countries, including several British cities. They say the new tech could be ready within a decade.|date=October 13, 2012|access-date=October 15, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410171457/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01nhbzw|archive-date=April 10, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="UOS new 5G centre">{{cite web|url=http://www2.surrey.ac.uk/mediacentre/press/2012/90791_the_university_of_surrey_secures_35m_for_new_5g_research_centre.htm|title=The University Of Surrey Secures £35M For New 5G Research Centre|publisher=University of Surrey|date=October 8, 2012|access-date=October 15, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014002455/http://surrey.ac.uk/mediacentre/press/2012/90791_the_university_of_surrey_secures_35m_for_new_5g_research_centre.htm|archive-date=October 14, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="BBC text UOS research centre">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-19871065|title=5G research centre gets major funding grant|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC News Online]]|date=October 8, 2012|access-date=October 15, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421235023/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-19871065|archive-date=April 21, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Telegraph 5G centre">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9595641/Britain-aims-to-join-mobile-broadband-leaders-with-35m-5G-research-centre.html|title=Britain aims to join mobile broadband leaders with £35m '5G' research centre|first=Alice|last=Philipson|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=October 9, 2012|access-date=January 7, 2013|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013133008/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/mobile-phones/9595641/Britain-aims-to-join-mobile-broadband-leaders-with-35m-5G-research-centre.html|archive-date=October 13, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> On November 1, 2012, the EU project "Mobile and wireless communications Enablers for the Twenty-twenty Information Society" (METIS) started its activity toward the definition of 5G. METIS achieved an early global consensus on these systems. In this sense, METIS played an important role in building consensus among other external major stakeholders prior to global standardization activities. This was done by initiating and addressing work in relevant global fora (e.g. ITU-R), as well as in national and regional regulatory bodies.<ref name="METIS presentation">{{cite web|url=https://www.metis2020.com/wp-content/uploads/deliverables/METIS_project_presentation_public_Old.pdf|title=METIS projet presentation|date=November 2012|access-date=February 14, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222211609/https://www.metis2020.com/wp-content/uploads/deliverables/METIS_project_presentation_public_Old.pdf|archive-date=February 22, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> That same month, the iJOIN EU project was launched, focusing on "[[small cell]]" technology, which is of key importance for taking advantage of limited and strategic resources, such as the [[radio wave]] [[spectrum]]. According to [[Günther Oettinger]], the European Commissioner for Digital Economy and Society (2014–2019), "an innovative utilization of spectrum" is one of the key factors at the heart of 5G success. Oettinger further described it as "the essential resource for the wireless connectivity of which 5G will be the main driver".<ref name="Speech at Mobile World Congress: The Road to 5G">{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/SPEECH_15_4535|title=Speech at Mobile World Congress: The Road to 5G|date=March 2015|access-date=April 20, 2015|archive-date=October 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028204709/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/SPEECH_15_4535|url-status=live}}</ref> iJOIN was selected by the European Commission as one of the pioneering 5G research projects to showcase early results on this technology at the [[Mobile World Congress]] 2015 (Barcelona, Spain).
In February 2013, ITU-R Working Party 5D (WP 5D) started two study items: (1) Study on IMT Vision for 2020 and beyond, and; (2) Study on future technology trends for terrestrial IMT systems. Both aiming at having a better understanding of future technical aspects of mobile communications toward the definition of the next generation mobile.<ref name="5G Mobile Network Technology -5G Wireless Specs">{{cite web|url=https://www.techmanza.in/5g-mobile-network-technology.html|title=5G Mobile Network Technology|date=April 2017|access-date=May 18, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518165251/https://www.techmanza.in/5g-mobile-network-technology.html|archive-date=May 18, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> On May 12, 2013, Samsung Electronics stated that they had developed a "5G" system. The core technology has a maximum speed of tens of Gbit/s (gigabits per second). In testing, the transfer speeds for the "5G" network sent data at 1.056&nbsp;Gbit/s to a distance of up to 2&nbsp;kilometers with the use of an 8*8 MIMO.<ref name="Samsung new tech dev">{{cite web|url=http://news.naver.com/main/ranking/read.nhn?mid=etc&sid1=111&date=20130512&rankingSectionId=105&rankingType=popular_day&rankingSeq=1&oid=001&aid=0006254810|title=삼성전자, 5세대 이동통신 핵심기술 세계 최초 개발|date=May 12, 2013|access-date=May 12, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919114612/https://news.naver.com/main/ranking/read.nhn?mid=etc&sid1=111&date=20130512&rankingSectionId=105&rankingType=popular_day&rankingSeq=1&oid=001&aid=0006254810|archive-date=September 19, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="5G Is Already Ridiculously Fast">{{cite web|url=https://www.metis2020.com/documents/presentations/|title=General METIS presentations available for public|access-date=February 14, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222210530/https://www.metis2020.com/documents/presentations/|archive-date=February 22, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> In July 2013, [[India]] and [[Israel]] agreed to work jointly on development of fifth generation (5G) telecom technologies.<ref name="India+Israel dev 5G">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/tech-news/internet/India-Israel-to-jointly-work-for-development-of-5G-technology/articleshow/21313938.cms|title=India and Israel have agreed to work jointly on development of 5G|date=July 25, 2013|access-date=July 25, 2013|work=The Times Of India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910120524/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/tech-news/internet/India-Israel-to-jointly-work-for-development-of-5G-technology/articleshow/21313938.cms|archive-date=September 10, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> On October 1, 2013, NTT ([[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]]), the same company to launch world's first 5G network in Japan, wins Minister of Internal Affairs and Communications Award at [[CEATEC]] for 5G R&D efforts.<ref name="DoCoMo win 5G Award">{{cite web|url=http://wirelesswatch.jp/2013/10/03/docomo-wins-ceatec-award-for-5g/|title=DoCoMo Wins CEATEC Award for 5G|date=October 3, 2013|access-date=October 3, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013093345/http://wirelesswatch.jp/2013/10/03/docomo-wins-ceatec-award-for-5g/|archive-date=October 13, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> On November 6, 2013, [[Huawei]] announced plans to invest a minimum of $600 million into R&D for next generation 5G networks capable of speeds 100 times higher than modern LTE networks.<ref name="Huawei plans $600m investment in 5G">{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/huawei-plans-600m-investment-in-10gbps-5g-network-8924124.html|title=Huawei plans $600m investment in 10Gbps 5G network|date=November 6, 2013|access-date=November 11, 2013|location=London|work=The Independent|first=Jochan|last=Embley|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331105531/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/huawei-plans-600m-investment-in-10gbps-5g-network-8924124.html|archive-date=March 31, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
On April 3, 2019, [[South Korea]] became the first country to adopt 5G.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/5G-networks/South-Korea-to-seize-on-world-s-first-full-5G-network|title=South Korea to seize on world's first full 5G network|website=Nikkei Asian Review|access-date=April 17, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417194348/https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/5G-networks/South-Korea-to-seize-on-world-s-first-full-5G-network|archive-date=April 17, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Just hours later, Verizon launched its 5G services in the United States, and disputed South Korea's claim of becoming the world's first country with a 5G network, because allegedly, South Korea's 5G service was launched initially for just six South Korean celebrities so that South Korea could claim the title of having the world's first 5G network.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/apr/04/us-dismisses-south-koreas-launch-of-world-first-5g-network-as-stunt|title=US dismisses South Korea's launch of world-first 5G network as 'stunt' – 5G – The Guardian|website=amp.theguardian.com|date=April 4, 2019|access-date=April 17, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417195028/https://amp.theguardian.com/technology/2019/apr/04/us-dismisses-south-koreas-launch-of-world-first-5g-network-as-stunt|archive-date=April 17, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In fact, the three main South Korean telecommunication companies ([[SK Telecom]], [[KT Corporation|KT]], and [[LG Uplus]]) added more than 40,000 users to their 5G network on the launch day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://view.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno=2019040610062165080|title=5G 첫날부터 4만 가입자…3가지 가입포인트|trans-title=From the first day of 5G, 40,000 subscribers ... 3 subscription points|website=[[Asia Business Daily]]|date=April 6, 2019|access-date=April 17, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417231632/http://view.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm%3Fidxno%3D2019040610062165080|archive-date=April 17, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In June 2019, the Philippines became the first country in Southeast Asia to roll out a 5G [[broadband]] network after Globe Telecom commercially launched its 5G data plans to customers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bb.globe.com.ph/5g/|title=Globe 5G – The Latest Broadband Technology|website=globe.com.ph|access-date=June 21, 2019|archive-date=September 3, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903145231/https://bb.globe.com.ph/5g/|url-status=dead}}</ref> AT&T brings 5G service to consumers and businesses in December 2019 ahead of plans to offer 5G throughout the United States in the first half of 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://about.att.com/story/2019/att_5g_leadership.html|title=AT&T Begins Extending 5G Services Across the U.S.|website=about.att.com|language=en-US|access-date=November 23, 2019|archive-date=November 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201118115344/https://about.att.com/story/2019/att_5g_leadership.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/at-ts-next-5g-network-is-going-live-in-december-but-dont-expect-big-jumps-in-speed/|title=AT&T's next 5G network is going live in December, but don't expect big jumps in speed|last=Blumenthal|first=Eli|website=CNET|language=en|access-date=November 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191123021436/https://www.cnet.com/news/at-ts-next-5g-network-is-going-live-in-december-but-dont-expect-big-jumps-in-speed/|archive-date=November 23, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=GUL |first=NAJAM |date=2022-12-26 |title=5G! GOOD OR BAD? |url=https://www.deepcurious.com/5g-good-or-bad |access-date=2023-01-05 |website=deep curious |language=en |archive-date=January 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105175959/https://www.deepcurious.com/5g-good-or-bad |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2020, [[Advanced Info Service|AIS]] and [[TrueMove H]] launched 5G services in [[Thailand]], making it the first country in [[Southeast Asia]] to have commercial 5G.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.networkworld.com/article/3651672/the-state-of-5g-in-southeast-asia-2022-country-by-country-guide.html|title=The state of 5G in Southeast Asia 2022, country-by-country guide|author=Stuart Corner|date=March 16, 2022|publisher=networkworld.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/5G-networks/Thailand-leads-ASEAN-in-5G-rollout-due-to-pandemic |title=Thailand leads ASEAN in 5G rollout due to pandemic |last=Phoonphongphiphat |first=Apornrath |date=2020-05-20 |website=Nikkei Asia |access-date=2023-04-18}}</ref> A functional mockup of a Russian 5G base station, developed by domestic specialists as part of Rostec's digital division Rostec.digital, was presented in Nizhny Novgorod at the annual conference "Digital Industry of Industrial Russia".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Назаров Александр: биография заместителя генерального директора "Ростеха" |url=https://theperson.pro/aleksandr-nazarov-biografiya-zamglavy-rosteha/ |access-date=2023-06-04 |website=theperson.pro}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Назаров Александр Юрьевич и Игорь Анатольевич Шумаков подписали соглашение |url=http://www.kremlinrus.ru/article/1077/131953/ |access-date=2023-06-04 |website=www.kremlinrus.ru}}</ref> 5G speeds have declined in many countries since 2022, which has driven the development of 5.5G to increase connection speeds.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Strumpf |first=Dan |title=5G Not Enough? Telecom Companies Look to 5.5G |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/5g-future-mobile-internet-309dac2b?mod=e2tw |access-date=2024-06-05 |work=WSJ |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Other applications ==
=== Automobiles ===
[[5G Automotive Association]] have been promoting the [[C-V2X]] communication technology that will first be deployed in 4G. It provides for communication between vehicles and infrastructures.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/5gaa-audi-ford-and-qualcomm-showcase-c-v2x-direct-communications-interoperability-to-improve-road-safety-680937731.html|title=5GAA, Audi, Ford and Qualcomm Showcase C-V2X Direct Communications Interoperability to Improve Road Safety|website=newswire.ca|access-date=January 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106204554/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/5gaa-audi-ford-and-qualcomm-showcase-c-v2x-direct-communications-interoperability-to-improve-road-safety-680937731.html|archive-date=January 6, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Digital twins ===
A real time [[digital twin]] of the real object such as a [[Turbine engines|turbine engine]], aircraft, wind turbines, [[Oil platform|offshore platform]] and pipelines. 5G networks helps in building it due to the latency and throughput to capture near real-time IoT data and support [[digital twin]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=5G-Powered Digital Twin: 5G Use Cases |url=https://www.verizon.com/business/resources/5g/5g-business-use-cases/business-intelligence/digital-twin/ |access-date=March 6, 2022 |website=Verizon Business |language=en |archive-date=March 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306182505/https://www.verizon.com/business/resources/5g/5g-business-use-cases/business-intelligence/digital-twin/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Public safety ===
Mission-critical push-to-talk (MCPTT) and mission-critical video and data are expected to be furthered in 5G.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://emsworld.com/commentary/1221807/promise-5g-public-safety|title=The Promise of 5G for Public Safety|website=EMS World|access-date=January 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216163602/https://emsworld.com/commentary/1221807/promise-5g-public-safety|archive-date=December 16, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Fixed wireless ===
Fixed wireless connections will offer an alternative to fixed-line broadband ([[ADSL]], [[VDSL]], [[Fiber to the x|fiber optic]], and [[DOCSIS]] connections) in some locations. Utilizing 5G technology, [[fixed wireless access]] (FWA) can deliver high-speed internet to homes and businesses without the need for extensive physical infrastructure. This approach is particularly beneficial in rural or underserved areas where traditional broadband deployment is too expensive or logistically challenging. 5G FWA can outperform older fixed-line technologies such as ADSL and VDSL in terms of speed and latency, making it suitable for bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming, gaming, and remote work.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/what-is-5g-the-business-guide-to-next-generation-wireless-technology/|title=What is 5G? All you need to know about the next generation of wireless technology|first=Scott|last=Fulton III|website=ZDNet|access-date=April 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421231954/https://www.zdnet.com/article/what-is-5g-everything-you-need-to-know/|archive-date=April 21, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://5g.co.uk/guides/what-is-5g-fixed-wireless-access-fwa/|title=5G Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) technology &#124; What Is It?|website=5g.co.uk|access-date=April 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421232001/https://5g.co.uk/guides/what-is-5g-fixed-wireless-access-fwa/|archive-date=April 21, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Capture value with 5G Fixed Wireless Access in a world of opportunities |url=https://www.ericsson.com/en/fixed-wireless-access}}</ref>
=== Wireless video transmission for broadcast applications ===
Sony has tested the possibility of using local 5G networks to replace the [[Serial digital interface|SDI]] cables currently used in broadcast camcorders.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newsshooter.com/2020/01/11/sony-and-verizon-demonstrate-5g-transmission-for-covering-live-sports/|title=Sony and Verizon Demonstrate 5G transmission for covering live sports|date=January 11, 2020|access-date=March 22, 2020|archive-date=November 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107092553/https://www.newsshooter.com/2020/01/11/sony-and-verizon-demonstrate-5g-transmission-for-covering-live-sports/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The '''[[5G Broadcast]]''' tests started around 2020 (Orkney, Bavaria, Austria, Central Bohemia) based on FeMBMS (Further evolved multimedia broadcast multicast service).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Technology behind the project |url=https://5g-today.de/technology-behind-the-project/?lang=en |access-date=April 8, 2022 |website=5g-today.de |language=en-US |archive-date=January 18, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118082843/https://5g-today.de/technology-behind-the-project/?lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref> The aim is to serve unlimited number of mobile or fixed devices with video (TV) and audio (radio) streams without these consuming any data flow or even being authenticated in a network.
== See also ==
* [[1G]]
* [[2G]]
* [[3G]]
* [[4G]]
* [[5G wireless power]]
* [[6G]]
* [[Wireless device radiation and health]]
== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal |last1=Karipidis |first1=Ken |last2=Mate |first2=Rohan |last3=Urban |first3=David |last4=Tinker |first4=Rick |last5=Wood |first5=Andrew |date=July 2023 |title=5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz |journal=Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology |language=en |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=585–605 |doi=10.1038/s41370-021-00297-6 |pmid=33727687 |pmc=8263336 |issn=1559-064X|doi-access=free }}
== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline }}
* [https://paktechpoint.com/5g-multi-antenna-concepts/ 5G Multi-Antenna Technology] and Concepts.
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{{Cellular network standards}}
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[[Category:5G (telecommunication)]]
[[Category:Technology forecasting]]
[[Category:Mobile telecommunications]]
[[Category:Internet of things]]
[[Category:Computer-related introductions in 2018]]
[[Category:Data centers]]
[[Category:Wireless communication systems]]