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{{Short description|Bahraini opposition leader and Shia cleric (1938–2006)}}
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{{Infobox religious biography
| religion=[[Islam]]
| image= الشيخ عبدالامير الجمري - البحرين.jpg
| caption =
| name = Abdul Amir al-Jamri
| title = [[Sheikh]]
| Maddhab = [[Shia]]
|occupation       = [[Member of Parliament]] (1973–5)<br /> [[Judge]] (1977–88)
| region =
| works =
|website          = [http://www.aljamri.org/ aljamri.org]
| influences = [[Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr]] <br /> [[Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1938|3|1}}<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009">{{cite news |script-title=ar:الشيخ عبدالأمير منصور الجمري |date=27 January 2009 |language=ar |access-date=4 June 2013 |url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/2335/news/read/171853/1.html |work=[[Al-Wasat (Bahraini newspaper)]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427070940/http://www.alwasatnews.com/2335/news/read/171853/1.html |archive-date=2011-04-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| main_interests = [[Jurisprudence]] <br /> [[Politics]]
| birth_place = [[Bani Jamra]], [[Bahrain]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2006|12|18|1938|3|1}}
| death_place =
|death_cause      = [[Multiple organ failure]]
| creed = [[Shia Islam]]
}}
[[Sheikh]] '''Abdul Amir al-Jamri''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-(sheik) Abdel Amir Al-Jamri from Bahrain pronunciation (Voice of America).ogg|ˈ|ɑː|b|d|əl|_|ə|ˈ|m|ɪər|_|æ|l|_|ˈ|dʒ|ɑː|m|r|i}} {{respell|AHB|dəl|_|ə|MEER|_|al|_|JAHM|ree}}; {{langx|ar|شيخ عبدالأمير الجمري}}; 1 March 1938 – 18{{Spaces}}December 2006) was one of the most prominent [[Shia]] clerics and [[Bahraini opposition|opposition]] leaders in [[Bahrain]]. He was also a writer and a poet.
Born in the village of [[Bani Jamra]], al-Jamri became a [[Hussainia|Hussaini]] [[khatib]] (Shia preacher) after finishing primary school. At the age of 21, he began his Islamic studies, first in Bahrain and later in the [[Hawza|religious institute]] of [[Al Najaf]], [[Iraq]], where he remained for 11 years. He returned to Bahrain in 1973 and was [[1973 Bahraini parliamentary election|elected]] to the newly formed [[National Assembly of Bahrain|parliament]]. The parliament was dissolved two years later by the Emir, [[Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa|Isa bin Salman al-Khalifa]], after it had rejected the [[State Security Law in Bahrain|State Security Law]]. In 1977, al-Jamri was appointed as a judge at the High Religious Court of Bahrain. He held the position until 1988, when he was briefly arrested due to his criticism of the government.
Al-Jamri is most notable for his role during the [[1990s uprising in Bahrain]]. As the lead figure of the opposition, he succeeded in bringing [[Islamist]]s, [[liberalism|liberal]]s and [[leftist]]s together against the monarchy. The events began in the form of petitions in 1992 and 1994 calling for restoration of the parliament and reinstatement of the suspended [[1973 Constitution of Bahrain#Constitution of 1973|constitution]], but led to widespread violence and the death of 40 individuals. Due to his civil rights activity, al-Jamri was imprisoned between April and September 1995, before being arrested again in January 1996 and imprisoned until July 1999, which was followed by a year and a half of house arrest.
In January 2001, al-Jamri was released along with other opposition activists. The new emir, [[Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa]], proposed a reform plan, the [[National Action Charter of Bahrain]], which was accepted by the opposition and later gained widespread popular support. A year later, Hamad issued a new constitution which al-Jamri said fell short of the opposition's demands. Disappointed, al-Jamri soon fell ill, suffering from a series of [[stroke]]s and eventually dying of [[multiple organ failure]].
==Early life and Islamic studies==
Al-Jamri was born in the village of [[Bani Jamra]], Northern Bahrain, on 1 March 1938.<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> His full name was '''Abdul Amir bin Mansoor bin Mohammed bin Abdulrasool bin Mohammed bin Hussain bin Ebrahim bin Makki bin Suleiman bin Makki al-Jamri al-Bahrani''' ({{langx|ar|عبدالأمير بن منصور بن محمد بن عبدالرسول بن محمد بن حسين بن إبراهيم بن مكي بن سليمان بن مكي الجمري البحراني}}),<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> although he was also known by his [[Kunya (Arabic)|kunya]] '''Abu Jameel''' ({{langx|ar|أبو جميل}}).<ref>{{cite news|script-title=ar:كم نحن بحاجة إليك أبا جميل |author=Hani al-Fardan | work=Al-Wasat |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=5 June 2013 |url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/3390/news/read/615705/1.html| language=ar }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| script-title=ar:لا أقول وداعا أبا جميل |language=ar |work=Al-Wasat |date=11 January 2007 |access-date=5 June 2013| url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/1588/news/read/210254/1.html |author=Ali Rashid Al Asheri}}</ref> His father (known as Mansoor or Nasir) was a Quranic teacher, owner of a textile workshop,<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> and head of a "devout Shia family".<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006">{{cite news| title=Sheikh Abdul Amir al-Jamri |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=20 December 2006 |access-date=5 June 2013| url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2006/dec/20/guardianobituaries.world |author=Phil Davison}}</ref> Al-Jamri's father taught him the [[Quran]] and basics of [[Salat|Islamic prayer]] when he was six,<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)">{{cite news| script-title=ar:الشيخ الجمري... الاعتقال والحصار والإقامة الجبرية لم تثنه يوما عن شعبه |author=Amani al-Maskati |date=12 December 2007 |work=Al-Wasat |access-date=8 June 2013 |language=ar |url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/1923/news/read/267713/1.html}}</ref> although died four years later.<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> Al-Jamri finished formal education at [[Budaiya]] primary school when he was twelve,<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> before becoming a [[Hussainia|Hussaini]] [[khatib]] (Shia preacher),<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(4)">{{cite news| script-title=ar:محمد حسين الجمري يروي يوميات عائلة تحت الحصار! |language=ar|url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/1923/news/read/267715/1.html |author=Haidar Mohammed |date=12 December 2007 |access-date=8 June 2013 |work=Al-Wasat}}</ref> learning from other well-known khatibs in his village such as his cousin, the Shia khatib Mulla [[Atiya al-Jamri]].<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/><ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> He also obtained a job in the [[Manama Souq]], working there until 1962.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/>
In 1957, al-Jamri married his cousin's granddaughter, Zahra' Yousif Atiya al-Jamri, who was 16 at the time.<ref name="al-Jamri book">{{cite book |author=Abdul Amir al-Jamri |script-title=ar:قصة حياتي |trans-title=The story of my life |language=ar |access-date=6 June 2013 |page=5 |date=10 February 2001 |url=http://www.aljamri.org/Aljamri/profile/part5.htm |publisher=aljamri.org |archive-date=8 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908164700/http://www.aljamri.org/Aljamri/profile/part5.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> In his book ''The Story of My Life'', al-Jamri devoted a section to speak about his marriage, in which he described it as a happy one and praised his wife for her patience and loyalty.<ref name="al-Jamri book"/> They had 10 children together: 7 sons and 3 daughters.<ref name="NYT 21.12.2006">{{cite news| title=Abdul-Amir al-Jamri, 67, Bahrain Shiite Cleric, Dies |author=Hassan M. Fattah |date=21 December 2006 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=6 June 2013 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/21/obituaries/21jamri.html?_r=1&}}</ref> One of their sons is [[Mansoor Al-Jamri]], editor-in-chief of [[Al-Wasat (Bahraini newspaper)|''Al-Wasat'']] newspaper.<ref name="NYT 21.12.2006"/>
In 1959, al-Jamri began his religious studies in Bahrain.<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> He was taught by [[Sheikh]] Abdulla al-Bahrani (died 1961) and Sheikh Baqir al-Asfoor.<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> In 1962, following the death of his mentor, al-Jamri travelled to [[Iraq]] to study [[Islamic theology]] and [[Sharia|law]] in the [[Hawza|religious institute]] of [[Al Najaf]].<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/><ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/> Mentored for two years by [[Ayatollah]] [[Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr]] and [[Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei]], he reached the stage of independent research (Bahth al-kharij; {{langx|ar|بحث الخارج}}), the highest level of study in religious seminaries.<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> He also wrote several religious articles which were published in Iraqi newspapers and magazines.<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> In the country, al-Jamri used the [[pseudonym]] Abdulla Mansoor Mohammed in order to avoid trouble when passing through customs in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Iraq, where it was believed that the prefix "Abdul" should only be used with the name of God.<ref>{{Cite book| script-title=ar:ذكريات غير متناثرة من النجف الأشرف |url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/pictures/books/d2.pdf |trans-title=Non-scattered memories of Najaf |year=2007 |page=17 |publisher=Al-Wasat |access-date=10 June 2013 |author=Mansoor Al-Jamri |language=ar}}</ref> The pseudonym also helped him evade Iraq's [[Ba'athist]] regime of [[Saddam Hussein]] following an anti-Ba'athist speech which al-Jamri gave in 1970.<ref>{{Cite book| script-title=ar:ذكريات غير متناثرة من النجف الأشرف |url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/pictures/books/d2.pdf |trans-title=Non-scattered memories of Najaf |year=2007 |pages=17, 19 |publisher=Al-Wasat |access-date=10 June 2013 |author=Mansoor Al-Jamri |language=ar}}</ref> Spending 11 years in Iraq, al-Jamri returned to Bahrain in 1973.<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> Between 1973 and 1981, al-Jamri was a frequent host on [[Bahrain TV]], giving religious talks on Islamic occasions such as [[Ramadan]] and [[Day of Ashura|Ashura]].<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> In 1985, he founded a small [[hawza]] in the mosque next to his house.<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/>
==Member of Parliament==
[[File:Bahrain Parliament 1973, religious block.jpg|thumb|200px|The religious block in Parliament. Sheikh Abdul Amir al-Jamri is on the right]]
Bahrain became [[Bahrain Independence Day|independent]] from the United Kingdom in 1971 and the [[1972 Bahraini Constituent Assembly election|Constituent Assembly of 1972]] had drafted a [[1973 Constitution of Bahrain#Constitution of 1973|new constitution]] by 1973.<ref name="Al-Wasat 22.10.2010">{{cite news| script-title=ar:"الكتلة الدينية" في برلمان 1973 |author=Wesam Al-Seb'a |date=22 October 2010 |access-date=5 June 2013| language=ar |work=Al-Wasat |url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/2968/news/read/493809/1.html}}</ref> Like his study colleague [[Isa Qassim]], al-Jamri initially wanted to complete his religious studies and did not care much about politics.<ref name="Al-Wasat 22.10.2010"/> His mentor in Iraq, Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr, issued a binding [[fatwā]] for participation in the [[1973 Bahraini parliamentary election|1973 parliamentary election]].<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> Al-Jamri and five others formed the "Religious Bloc" which adopted a wide program including supporting labour's union and demands, forbidding trade of [[alcoholic beverage]]s, and separating men and women in education institutes. The bloc also called for prohibiting male doctors from treating female patients (especially in pregnancy) as well as other demands connected to traditional Islamic customs.<ref name="Al-Wasat 22.10.2010"/> Al-Jamri was elected to the [[National Assembly of Bahrain]], ranking second behind Isa Qassim.<ref name="Al-Wasat 22.10.2010"/>
In August 1975, the constitution was suspended and the assembly dissolved<ref name="BBC 18.12.2006">{{cite news|title=Bahrain pro-democracy cleric dies |work=[[BBC]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6190705.stm|date=18 December 2006|access-date=4 June 2013}}</ref> by the Emir, [[Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa|Isa bin Salman al-Khalifa]], after it had rejected the [[State Security Law in Bahrain|State Security Law]].<ref name="BBC 11.5.2012"/> The act &ndash; also known as "the precautionary law" &ndash; was proposed by the British adviser [[Ian Henderson (police officer)|Ian Henderson]].<ref name="BBC 11.5.2012"/> It gave police wide powers of arrest and allowed individuals to be held in prison without trial or charge for up to three years (renewable<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/>) for suspicion "that they might be a threat to the state".<ref name="BBC 11.5.2012">{{cite news| author=Adam Curtis| author-link=Adam Curtis|date=11 May 2012 |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/adamcurtis/2012/05/if_you_take_my_advice_-_id_rep.html |title=If you take my advice - I'd repress them |work=BBC |access-date=5 June 2012}}</ref> Al-Jamri was a member of a foreign relations committee,<ref name="Al-Wasat 22.10.2010"/> and an outspoken critic of the State Security Law.<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/>
==1977–1988==
In the period from 1975 to 2001, the Emir [[rule by decree|ruled by decree]].<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/> Human rights activists and opposition leaders made repeated allegations of systematic torture, the [[arbitrary arrest and detention|arbitrary arrest]] of thousands, and assassinations, all of which were denied by the authorities.<ref name="BBC 11.5.2012"/> Bahrain's Shia population widely claimed that they were being discriminated against by the government, and that they were being treated as second class citizens.<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/>
===Judge===
In 1977, the government offered al-Jamri the opportunity to serve as a judge at the High Religious Court of Bahrain ([[Shia]] branch).<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> Al-Jamri agreed after Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei issued him with a religious permit to do so.<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> The decision was controversial within Bahrain, as many Shia clerics had refused to participate in the [[Judiciary of Bahrain|government-run judiciary]] ever since its foundation in the 1920s.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> Al-Jamri held the position until June 1988, when he was suspended due to his criticism of the government.<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/><ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/>
===Political activism===
Following the [[1979 Iranian Revolution]],<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/> and continuing throughout the 1980s, the intensity of Bahrain's political situation sharply increased.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> Al-Jamri, who was then participating in several petitions, was questioned multiple times and put under strict surveillance by the [[National Security Agency (Bahrain)|Security and Intelligence Service]].<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/><ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> In 1984, the Islamic Enlightenment institution, with which al-Jamri was associated, was closed by the government.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> The government also closed other places of meeting and prohibited public seminars.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> Al-Jamry however opened his house for daily meetings, also offering a weekly space for public debates; he continued to do so despite several government attempts to stop him.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/>
In 1988, the situation came to a head when al-Jamri ignored a final warning by the government.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> In June, he was dismissed from his job as a judge.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> In August, his son-in-law [[Abduljalil Khalil]] was arrested and sentenced to seven years imprisonment.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003">{{cite news| script-title=ar:الشيخ عبدالامير الجمري |language=ar |date=3 July 2003 |work=Al-Wasat |url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/300/news/read/319191/1.html |access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> In September, his elder son Mohamed Jameel was arrested and sentenced to ten years.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/><ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> The authorities then ordered al-Jamri's arrest; on 6 September, Colonel [[Adel Flaifel]] and a number of security forces arrived at his house.<ref name="al-Jamri book"/> Al-Jamri's wife rushed to the nearby mosque and called people from its speakers.<ref name="al-Jamri book"/><ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> Amid neighbours' protests, security forces decided to let al-Jarmi go after only an hour's detention.<ref name="al-Jamri book"/><ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/>
==Role during the 1990s uprising==
===Background===
{{main|1990s uprising in Bahrain}}
There was a time of civil strife in Bahrain from 1994 to 1999,<ref name="BBC 18.12.2006"/> during which leftists, liberals and Islamists joined forces to demand democratic reforms.{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=20}} The uprising was the largest in the country's history, and included widespread demonstrations and violence.<ref name="BBC 11.5.2012"/>
In 1992, a petition was signed by 280 leading figures in civil society, demanding the restoration of parliament, reinstatement of the suspended constitution, the release of political prisoners, and the start of a reconciliation dialogue.<ref name="HRW report"/>{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=20}} The government rejected their demands and instead set up a thirty-member appointed "Shura council" assigned with "commenting" on government proposed legislation.<ref name="HRW report"/> In 1994, another petition was launched with the same demands,<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> this time open to all citizens.<ref name="HRW report"/> Organisers said that they had collected over 20,000 signatures.<ref name="HRW report">{{cite report| url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/45cafc9e2.html |title=Routine Abuse, Routine Denial: Civil Rights and the Political Crisis in Bahrain |publisher=[[UNHCR]] |author=Human Rights Watch |author-link=Human Rights Watch | date=1 January 2006 |access-date=19 July 2012}}</ref>
Violence broke out in June 1994 when riot police used tear gas on 1,500 demonstrators who had organised a sit-in in front of the Ministry of Labor. The protesters were campaigning against the increasing rate of unemployment, which had reached 15 percent.<ref name="HRW report"/> Over the following years, many opposition leaders were arrested and others exiled.<ref name="HRW report"/> Some protesters used [[Molotov cocktails]] to attack "police stations, banks and commercial properties".<ref name="HRW report"/> Riot police used tear gas and rubber bullets, some of which were fired at the crowd from police helicopters.<ref name="HRW report"/> It was also reported that police used live ammunition in some cases.<ref name="HRW report"/> Overall, about forty people were killed,<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/> including several detainees who were in police custody (allegedly due to torture), and at least three policemen.<ref name="HRW report"/>
During the uprising, al-Jamri "rose to prominence", becoming the lead figure among the opposition, who saw him as "their father figure and spiritual mentor."<ref name="BBC 18.12.2006"/>  To the Shia, he was their "spiritual leader".<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/> He was a "chief architect"{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=20}} and a signatory of the 1992 and 1994 petitions.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> He was also the informal leader of the U.K.-based [[Bahrain Freedom Movement]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Detained by state |date=7 December 1998 |work=[[The Independent]]| url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4956157.html | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130619211425/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4956157.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=19 June 2013 |author=Fran Abrahams |access-date=6 June 2013}}</ref> Al-Jamri, himself a Shia Islamist, had good relations with secular and liberal opposition forces and united them into "an effective opposition movement".<ref name="NYT 21.12.2006"/>{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=21}} Due to his civil rights activity,<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/> the pro-democracy cleric<ref name="BBC 18.12.2006"/> was arrested and placed under house arrest for years.
===First arrest===
In 1995, following clashes between security forces and students, the government accused al-Jamri of having links to Iran and seeking to establish an "Islamic republic" in Bahrain.<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/> Al-Jamri denied the accusations.<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/> Nevertheless, on 1 April the government imposed a blockade on al-Jamri's home of Bani Jamra, placing him and 18 members of his family under house arrest.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/><ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/> At least one man was killed and 16 others injured during clashes with police.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/><ref>{{cite news| title=Arrests, Fatal Firebombing, Execution Raise the Stakes in Bahrain Unrest |work=[[Washington Report on Middle East Affairs]] |url=https://www.questia.com/read/1P3-592537251 |date=31 July 1996 | author=Stephen J. Sosebee}}{{dead link|date=July 2021}}</ref> That day became known locally as the Black Saturday.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/> Two weeks later, al-Jamri was transferred to a detention centre.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> Along with other opposition figures he was released on 25 September 1995, following a deal with the government to calm down the situation in return for opening up talks on the restoration of parliament.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> Tens of thousands of Bahrainis gathered to welcome al-Jamri following his release.<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> He gave a speech in which he promised to stay loyal to the hopes and sufferings of the Bahraini people.<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/>
===Second arrest, trial and conviction===
On 23 October, al-Jamri and other released opposition activists began a 10-day hunger strike in his house to protest what they called the government's failure to fulfil its pledges.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/> Tens of thousands gathered in solidarity with the activists on the final day of the hunger strike (1 November).<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/> On 21 January 1996 al-Jamri was detained again along with 7 other opposition leaders, including [[Abdulwahab Hussain]] and [[Hassan Mushaima]], following the collapse of the talks.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/><ref name="OMCT 6.3.2000">{{cite web |url=http://www.omct.org/urgent-campaigns/urgent-interventions/bahrain/2000/03/d14824/ |title=Bahrain: Bahrain:Abdul-Wahab Hussain |publisher=[[World Organisation Against Torture]] |date=6 March 2000 |access-date=23 May 2012 |archive-date=6 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121206113552/http://www.omct.org/urgent-campaigns/urgent-interventions/bahrain/2000/03/d14824/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The arrests provoked further unrest.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> The activists denied the charges of forming a militia group called "Bahraini [[Hizbullah]]" or receiving support from Iran.<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/>
Al-Jamri spent 3 and a half years in prison, during which he allegedly spent the first 9 months in solitary confinement and was closely observed during the remaining period.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> On 21 February 1999, about three years after his arrest, al-Jamri's trial before the State Security Court began.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> On 7 July, the court convicted him on charges of "spying and inciting unrest against the royal family".<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/><ref name="TE 10.7.1999">{{cite news| title=The poverty puzzle |date=10 July 1999 |newspaper=The Economist  |access-date=6 June 2013 |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-55151032.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130232553/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-55151032.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 January 2013}}</ref> Al-Jamri was sentenced to 10 years imprisonment and fined [[Bahraini dinar|BD]]5.7 million ([[United States dollar|US$]]15 million).<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/><ref name="TE 10.7.1999"/> British politician [[George Galloway]],<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/> [[Human Rights Watch]],<ref name="HRW report"/> [[International Pen]] and [[Amnesty International]]<ref name="TE 16.7.1999">{{cite journal| volume=XI |url=http://www.theestimate.com/public/071699.html |publisher=The Estimate |date=16 July 1999 |access-date=6 June 2013 |title=Freeing the Dissident Sheikhs: Saudis, Bahrainis Relaxing Strictures?}}</ref> led campaigns in solidarity with al-Jamri. The latter also named him a [[prisoner of conscience]].<ref>{{cite report| title=Shaikh 'Abd al-Amir Mansur al-Jamri Jailed for calling for reform |url=https://www.amnesty.org/fr/documents/act30/004/1997/fr/ |publisher=[[Amnesty International]] | date=30 April 2007 |access-date=9 June 2013 |page=2}}</ref>
===Release, reconciliation and disappointment===
Emir Isa bin Salman died suddenly on 6 March and was succeeded by his eldest son, [[Hamad bin Isa al Khalifa]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Bahrain's ninth al-Khalifa |date=6 March 1999 |access-date=5 June 2013 |work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/291757.stm}}</ref> The new emir pardoned al-Jamri and released him a day after his conviction (8 July), but placed him under house arrest until 23 January 2001.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/>{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=20}} Before getting pardoned, al-Jamri had to appear on national television and read a "humiliating letter of apology" to the Emir.<ref>{{cite news| title=Bahrain:Sunni and Shia Muslims want more than political gestures from Sheikh Hamad |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=17 July 1999 |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-55176663.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117035714/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-55176663.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 November 2018 |access-date=6 June 2013}}</ref> Repeated meetings between commissioners of the Emir and al-Jamri were held during the house arrest period.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(4)"/> Subsequent days saw the release of further political prisoners, and exiles were allowed to return.{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=18}} On 8 February, al-Jamri and 3 other opposition leaders —Abdulla al-Ghuraifi, Abdulwahab Hussain and [[Ali Rabea]]— met with the emir to discuss his reform plans, the [[National Action Charter of Bahrain]].<ref name="Al-Wasat 30.4.2005">{{cite news|url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/967/news/read/460775/1.html |script-title=ar:عبدالوهاب حسين |work=Al-Wasat |date=30 April 2005 |access-date=23 May 2012| language=ar }}</ref>
The Charter called for the introduction of a [[constitutional monarchy]], an [[independent judiciary]], and a [[bicameral legislature]] composed of a lower house of elected representatives and an upper house of appointed legislators. The Charter also granted equal rights between men and women, and recognised all Bahraini citizens as having equal political rights, including the entitlement to elections and political candidacy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?t=3&cid=2 |title=Country Theme: Elections: Bahrain |publisher=Programme on Governance in the Arab Region |access-date=27 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510021433/http://www.pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?t=3&cid=2 |archive-date=10 May 2011 }}</ref> In the 8 February meeting, the government promised that "the new political arrangements will not invalidate the 1973 constitution and that the upper appointed house will be for consultation only."{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=18}} The next day, after leading [[Friday prayer]], al-Jamri delivered a famous speech, starting with "Allah is my witness, I have missed you as much as [[Jacob]] missed [[Joseph (son of Jacob)|Joseph]]", before Abdulwahab announced that the opposition had decided to accept the reform plan.<ref>{{cite news| title=صادق الجمري يروي حواريات والده مع القيادة السياسية |author=Haidar Mohammed |date=12 December 2007 |access-date=8 June 2013 |work=Al-Wasat |url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/1923/news/read/267716/1.html}}</ref> The National Action Charter was voted on in a referendum on 14 and 15 February, gaining massive popular support (98.4%).<ref name="Al-Wasat 30.4.2005"/> In November 2001, the [[Al Wefaq]] Shia political society was founded,{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=21}} with al-Jamri being seen as its mentor.<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/>
On 14 February 2002, the Emir introduced the new constitution of 2002, which gave him wide-ranging powers and gave the upper appointed house more powers than the elected lower house, including the right to legislate.{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=20}} The "honeymoon" period between the opposition and government was over; al-Jamri stated his disappointment with the new constitution, stating that it fell short of the opposition's demands.{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|pp=18–20}} "[T]his is not the type of parliament we had demanded," he said.{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=20}}
==Illness and death==
Then under house arrest, in May 2000 al-Jamri suffered a [[heart attack]].<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> He was taken to the [[Bahrain Defence Force Hospital]], where he underwent surgery.<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/> During his stay at the hospital, he was visited by the King and [[Prime Minister of Bahrain|Prime Minister]].<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/> In May 2002, al-Jamri traveled to Germany for spinal surgery.<ref name="AP 12.7.2003"/> While undergoing medical check-ups, it was discovered he had a [[thrombus]] behind his eye, which had developed when he was in prison.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/> Following the surgery he suffered a stroke, also developing kidney problems and a blood infection, soon falling into a coma.<ref name="AP 12.7.2003"/> He woke from the coma on 30 June,<ref name="AP 30.6.2002">{{cite news| title=Bahrain's leading Shiite cleric comes out of coma at German hospital |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-53958041.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312093612/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-53958041.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 March 2016 |date=30 June 2002 |access-date=11 June 2013 |agency=Associated Press }}</ref> but shortly after suffered a second stroke, resulting in internal bleeding,<ref name="AP 12.7.2003"/> and incapacitating him for the rest of his life.{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=20}}
On 27 January 2003, al-Jamri was transferred from Germany to [[Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Foundation#Projects and activities|Sultan bin Abdulaziz Humanitarian City]] in [[Saudi Arabia]],<ref name="Al-Wasat 3.7.2003"/><ref>{{cite news| title=أم جميل: بعد 49 عاما... لايزال الشيخ الجمري معي |author=Nada al-Wadi |access-date=9 June 2013| url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/1604/news/read/212917/1.html |date=27 January 2007 |work=Al-Wasat}}</ref> where his medical condition improved slightly.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/> He returned to Bahrain on 12 July and was welcomed by hundreds of his supporters.<ref name="AP 12.7.2003">{{cite news| title=Bahrain's leading Shiite cleric returns home after receiving medical treatment abroad for more than a year |author=Adnan Malik |date=12 July 2003 |access-date=11 June 2013 |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-75180638.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315092611/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-75180638.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 March 2016}}</ref> His medical condition deteriorated again as he suffered from repeated [[Airway constriction|respiratory problems]] and another stroke, and in the end he lost the ability to speak.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/> In the early morning of 18 December 2006, al-Jamri was rushed by ambulance from his home to [[Salmaniya Medical Complex]], where he was announced dead.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)">{{cite news| work=Al-Wasat |author=Mansoor Al-Jamri |author-link=Mansoor Al-Jamri |date=12 December 2007 |access-date=7 June 2013| script-title=ar:الشيخ الجمري أوفى لشعبه... فأوفى له |url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/1923/news/read/267710/1.html |language=ar}}</ref> The cause of death was [[Multiple organ failure|heart and kidney failure]].<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/>
==Aftermath==
===Funeral===
Although al-Jamri's death was announced in the morning, the mourning processions only began after the sunset [[Maghrib prayer]].<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007">{{cite news| author=Kassim Hussain | script-title=ar:الليلة الأخيرة... مهابة التشييع |language=ar |date=12 December 2007 |access-date=7 June 2013 |work=Al-Wasat |url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/1923/news/read/267712/1.html}}</ref> The funeral course was changed several times.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> Ultimately, it began at 6:00 in [[Muqsha]] village before moving along the west side of Budaiya highway to Bani Jamra, where al-Jamri was buried at 10:00.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/><ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/> The weather was extremely cold for Bahrain, yet thousands showed up wearing black [[mourning]] clothes and carrying black flags.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007"/> According to a number of ''Al-Wasat'' writers, the funeral was the largest in the modern history of Bahrain.<ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(3)"/><ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007(2)"/><ref name="Al-Wasat 12.12.2007"/>
===Successor===
Following the 2002 deterioration of his health, al-Jamri's position as a political and religious leader of Bahrain's Shia opposition was taken over by his lifelong friend, Ayatollah [[Isa Qassim]].{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|pp=20–1}} Qassim was less revolutionary than al-Jamri, having opposed the 1992 and 1994 petitions,{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=21}} but his views were kept private, in part as a sign of respect for al-Jamri.{{sfn|Mansoor Al-Jamri|2010|p=21}} Al-Jamri's role as leader of the opposition remained empty, as the opposition became fragmented.<ref name="sada">{{cite web| url=http://carnegieendowment.org/2008/08/20/bahrain-s-controversial-political-associations-law/6eg5 |title=Bahrain's Controversial Political Associations Law |publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |date=20 September 2005 |access-date= 21 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="Telegraph 18.2.2011">{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/wikileaks-files/bahrain-wikileaks-cables/8334582/A-FIELD-GUIDE-TO-BAHRAINI-POLITICAL-PARTIES.html |title=A field guide to Bahraini political parties |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] (via [[WikiLeaks]]) |date=18 February 2011| access-date=21 July 2012}}</ref>
==Publications==
Al-Jamri wrote several books and poems (in Arabic).<ref name="Al Wasat 27.1.2009"/> He kept writing poems even when he became bedridden.<ref>{{cite news| title=سيد طالب: تميز الشيخ الجمري بالشجاعة وعلاقاته المتميزة بجميع المناطق |author=Malik Abdulla |date=12 December 2007 |access-date=9 June 2013 |url=http://www.alwasatnews.com/1923/news/read/267718/1.html |work=Al-Wasat}}</ref> His books include:
*''Women in Islam''<ref name="Guardian 20.12.2006"/>
*''Islamic Duties''<ref name="Al-Wasat 22.10.2010"/>
*''Islamic Teachings''<ref name="Al-Wasat 22.10.2010"/>
*''The Story of My Life''<ref name="al-Jamri book"/>
==References==
'''Footnotes'''
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
'''Bibliography'''
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite journal|author=Mansoor Al-Jamri|author-link=Mansoor Al-Jamri|title=Shia and the State in Bahrain |journal=Alternative Politics |year=2010 |issue=1 |url=http://www.alternatifpolitika.com/page/docs/Kasim_2010_Ozel_Sayi_1/Tam_Metin/Mansoor_AL-JAMRI.pdf |access-date=5 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927192438/http://www.alternatifpolitika.com/page/docs/Kasim_2010_Ozel_Sayi_1/Tam_Metin/Mansoor_AL-JAMRI.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2013 }}
{{refend}}
==External links==
* [http://mahmood.tv/bahrain/bahraini-personalities/shaikh-abdulamir-al-jamri/ Profile of Sheikh Al-Jamri]
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jamri, Abdul Amir}}
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:2006 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from kidney failure]]
[[Category:Bahraini Shia clerics]]
[[Category:Members of the National Assembly (Bahrain)]]
[[Category:Bahraini Shia Muslims]]
[[Category:Bahraini prisoners and detainees]]
[[Category:Amnesty International prisoners of conscience held by Bahrain]]
[[Category:Political activists]]
[[Category:Islamic Dawa Party]]