View source for Advanced driver-assistance system

{{Short description|Electronic systems that help a vehicle driver while driving or parking}}
{{Broader|Vehicular automation}}
{{Infobox machine
| name           = Advanced driver-assistance systems
| image          = Tesla Autopilot Engaged in Model X.jpg
| caption        = Assisted control of distance from the leading car centering in lane enabled in a [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://bgr.com/2016/07/21/tesla-autopilot-crash-avoidance-report/ |title=Tesla Autopilot Crash Avoidance Model S Autopilot saves man's life |first=Zach |last=Epstein |work=BGR |date=2016-07-21 |access-date=2016-08-26}}</ref>
| classification =
| industry       = [[Automotive]]
| application    = [[Automobile]]
| dimensions     =
| weight         =
| components     = Sensors (typically [[Image sensor|cameras]], [[Parking sensor|proximity]], and/or [[lidar]]), [[microprocessor]]s, [[software]], and [[actuator]]s
| invented       =
| inventor       =
| examples       = [[Adaptive cruise control]]<br>[[Lane centering]]<br>[[Hands-free driving]]
}}
'''Advanced driver-assistance systems''' ('''ADAS''') are technologies that assist drivers with the safe operation of a vehicle. Through a [[human-machine interface]], ADAS increase car and road safety. ADAS use automated technology, such as sensors and cameras, to detect nearby obstacles or driver errors, and respond accordingly. ADAS can enable various levels of [[Self-driving car|autonomous driving]].
As most road crashes occur due to [[human error]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brookhuis |first1=Karel A. |last2=de Waard |first2=Dick |last3=Janssen |first3=Wiel H.|title=Behavioural impacts of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems–An Overview |date=2001-06-01 |journal=European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research |volume=1 |issue=3 |doi=10.18757/ejtir.2001.1.3.3667 |s2cid=38666182 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ADAS are developed to automate, adapt, and enhance vehicle technology for safety and better driving. ADAS are proven to reduce road fatalities by minimizing human error.<ref name=":31">{{Cite book|last1=Abdul Hamid|first1=Umar Zakir|last2=Ahmad Zakuan|first2=Fakhrul Razi|last3=Zulkepli|first3=Khairul|last4=Azmi|first4=Muhammad Zulfaqar|last5=Zamzuri|first5=Hairi|last6=Abdul Rahman|first6=Mohd Azizi|last7=Zakaria|first7=Muhammad|title=2017 IEEE Conference on Systems, Process and Control (ICSPC)|date=2017-12-01|chapter=Autonomous emergency braking system with potential field risk assessment for frontal collision mitigation|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323715308|pages=71–76|doi=10.1109/SPC.2017.8313024|isbn=978-1-5386-0386-4|s2cid=3882240}}</ref> Safety features are designed to avoid crashes and collisions by offering technologies that alert the driver to problems, implementing safeguards, and taking control of the vehicle if necessary. ADAS may provide [[adaptive cruise control]], assist in [[Collision avoidance system|avoiding collisions]], alert drivers to possible obstacles, warn of [[Lane departure warning system|lane departure]], assist in [[lane centering]], incorporate [[satellite navigation]], provide traffic warnings, provide navigational assistance through smartphones, automate lighting, or provide other features.<ref name=":31" /> According to the national crash database in the USA, Forward Collision Prevention systems have the potential to reduce crashes by 29%. Similarly, Lane Keeping Assistance is shown to offer a reduction potential of 19%, while Blind Zone Detection could decrease crash incidents by 9%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aleksa |first1=Michael |last2=Schaub |first2=Andrea |last3=Erdelean |first3=Isabela |last4=Wittmann |first4=Stephan |last5=Soteropoulos |first5=Aggelos |last6=Fürdös |first6=Alexander |date=2024-06-27 |title=Impact analysis of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) regarding road safety – computing reduction potentials |journal=European Transport Research Review |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=39 |doi=10.1186/s12544-024-00654-0 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ETRR...16...39A |issn=1866-8887}}</ref>
According to a 2021 research report from Canalys, approximately 33 percent of new vehicles sold in the United States, Europe, Japan, and China had ADAS. The firm also predicted that fifty percent of all automobiles on the road by the year 2030 would be ADAS-enabled.<ref name=":34">{{cite news |last1=Nagpal |first1=Raj Kumar |last2=Cohen |first2=Edo |url=https://www.embedded.com/automotive-electronics-revolution-requires-faster-smarter-interfaces/ |title=Automotive electronics revolution |work=Embedded |publisher=AspenCore |date=2022-05-18 |access-date=2022-05-19 }}</ref>
==Terminology==
Some groups advocate standardization of the name, such as Forward Collision Warning and Automatic Emergency Braking rather than Forward Collision Alert or Smart City Brake Support.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.motorbiscuit.com/safety-groups-want-advanced-driver-assistance-systems-adas-uniformly-named/ | title=Safety Groups Want Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) Uniformly Named | date=29 July 2022 }}</ref>
Such standardization is promoted by [[American Automobile Association|AAA]], [[Consumer Reports]], [[J.D. Power]], [[National Safety Council]], [[PAVE]], and [[SAE International]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.team-bhp.com/news/confusing-adas-feature-names-proposal-unify-terms-across-all-brands | title=Confusing ADAS feature names: Proposal to unify terms across all brands &#124; Team-BHP }}</ref>
==Concept, history and development==
ADAS were first being used in the 1970s with the adoption of the anti-lock braking system.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Galvani|first=Marco|date=2019-02-04|title=History and future of driver assistance|journal=IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine|volume=22|issue=1|pages=11–16|doi=10.1109/MIM.2019.8633345|s2cid=59600916|issn=1941-0123}}</ref> Early ADAS include electronic stability control, anti-lock brakes, blind spot information systems, lane departure warning, adaptive cruise control, and traction control. These systems can be affected by mechanical alignment adjustments or damage from a collision. This has led many manufacturers to require automatic resets for these systems after a mechanical alignment is performed.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
===Technical concepts===
The reliance on data that describes the outside environment of the vehicle, compared to internal data, differentiates ADAS from driver-assistance systems (DAS).<ref name=":32" /> ADAS rely on inputs from multiple data sources, including automotive imaging, [[LiDAR]], [[radar]], [[image processing]], [[computer vision]], and in-car networking. Additional inputs are possible from other sources separate from the primary vehicle platform, including other vehicles ([[Vehicular communication systems|vehicle-to-vehicle or V2V communication]]) and infrastructure ([[Vehicular communication systems|vehicle-to-infrastructure or V2I communication]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Arena|first1=Fabio|last2=Pau|first2=Giovanni|date=24 January 2019|title=An Overview of Vehicular Communications|journal=Future Internet|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=27|doi=10.3390/fi11020027|doi-access=free}}</ref> Modern cars have ADAS integrated into their electronics; manufacturers can add these new features during the design process or after production via [[Over-the-air update|over-the-air (OTA) updates]].
ADAS are considered real-time systems since they react quickly to multiple inputs and prioritize the incoming information to prevent crashes.<ref name=":33">{{Cite book|last1=Shaout|first1=Adnan|last2=Colella|first2=Dominic|last3=Awad|first3=S.|title=2011 seventh International Computer Engineering Conference (ICENCO'2011) |chapter=Advanced Driver Assistance Systems - Past, present and future |date=28 December 2011|pages=72–82|doi=10.1109/ICENCO.2011.6153935|isbn=978-1-4673-0731-4|s2cid=1622940}}</ref> The systems use preemptive priority scheduling to organize which task needs to be done first.<ref name=":33" /> The incorrect assignment of these priorities is what can cause more harm than good.<ref name=":33" />
===ADAS levels===
{{See also|Self-driving car#Levels of driving automation}}
ADAS are categorized into different levels based on the amount of automation, and the scale provided by The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).<ref name=":32" /> ADAS can be divided into six levels. In level 0, ADAS cannot control the car and can only provide information for the driver to interpret on their own.<ref name=":32" /> Some ADAS that are considered level 0 are: parking sensors, surround-view, traffic sign recognition, lane departure warning, night vision, blind spot information system, rear-cross traffic alert, and forward-collision warning.<ref name=":32" /> Level 1 and 2 are very similar in that they both have the driver do most of the decision making. The difference is level 1 can take control over one functionality and level 2 can take control over multiple to aid the driver.<ref name=":32" /> ADAS that are considered level 1 are: adaptive cruise control, emergency brake assist, automatic emergency brake assist, lane-keeping, and lane centering.<ref name=":32" /> ADAS that are considered level 2 are: highway assist, autonomous obstacle avoidance, and autonomous parking.<ref name=":32" /> From level 3 to 5, the amount of control the vehicle has increases; level 5 being where the vehicle is fully autonomous. Some of these systems have not yet been fully embedded in commercial vehicles. For instance, highway chauffeur is a Level 3 system, and [[Automated Valet Parking|automated valet parking]] is a level 4 system, both of which are not in full commercial use in 2019.<ref name=":32" /> The levels can be roughly understood as Level 0 - no automation; Level 1 - hands on/shared control; Level 2 - hands off; Level 3 - eyes off; Level 4 - mind off, and Level 5 - steering wheel optional.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-05-24 |title=ADAS Level 0 to Level 5: Autonomous/self-driving grades explained |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/cars/adas-level-0-to-level-5-autonomous-cars-self-driving-level-2-kia-ev6-features-explained/articleshow/91762964.cms |access-date=2023-07-24 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
==Feature examples==
This list is not a comprehensive list of all of the ADAS. Instead, it provides information on critical examples of ADAS that have progressed and become more commonly available since 2015.<ref name="cars-2020">{{Cite web |last=Mays |first=Kelsey |date=2020-04-04 |title=Which Cars Have Self-Driving Features for 2020? |url=https://www.cars.com/articles/which-cars-have-self-driving-features-for-2020-418934/ |access-date=2020-10-10 |website=[[Cars.com]]}}</ref><ref name="cr-2020">{{Cite web |date=2020-05-08 |title=<!-- Cars With Advanced Safety Systems - Detailed list of cars with features that help drivers avoid or mitigate collisions -->Guide to Cars With Advanced Safety Systems |url=<!-- https://www.consumerreports.org/car-safety/cars-with-advanced-safety-systems/ -->https://www.consumerreports.org/car-safety/cars-with-advanced-safety-systems-a7292621135/ |access-date=2020-10-10 |website=[[Consumer Reports]]}}</ref>
<!--Please organize feature examples into one of the four areas:
1. Alerts and warnings
2. Crash mitigation
3. Driving task assistance
4. Visual and environmental monitoring
Within each area, please arrange in alphabetical order.-->=== Alerts and warnings ===
* [[Blind spot monitor]] involves cameras that monitor the driver's blind spots and notify the driver if any obstacles come close to the vehicle.<ref name=":6" /> Blind spots are defined as the areas behind or at the side of the vehicle that the driver cannot see from the driver's seat.<ref name=":6" /> Blind-spot monitoring systems typically work in conjunction with emergency braking systems to act accordingly if any obstacles come into the vehicle's path. A rear cross traffic alert (RCTA) typically works in conjunction with the blind spot monitoring system, warning the driver of approaching cross-traffic when reversing out of a parking spot.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aa.co.nz/cars/motoring-blog/adas-explained-technology-to-improve-vehicle-safety/|title = ADAS explained: Technology to improve vehicle safety}}</ref>
* [[Driver drowsiness detection]] aims to prevent collisions due to driver fatigue.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahayadhas|first1=Arun|last2=Sundaraj|first2=Kenneth|last3=Murugappan|first3=Murugappan|date=7 December 2012|title=Detecting Driver Drowsiness Based on Sensors: A Review|journal=Sensors|language=en|volume=12|issue=12|pages=16937–16953|doi=10.3390/s121216937|pmid=23223151|pmc=3571819|bibcode=2012Senso..1216937S|doi-access=free}}</ref> The vehicle obtains information, such as facial patterns, steering movement, driving habits, turn signal use, and driving velocity, to determine if the driver's activities correspond with drowsy driving.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Jabbar|first1=Rateb|last2=Al-Khalifa|first2=Khalifa|last3=Kharbeche|first3=Mohamed|last4=Alhajyaseen|first4=Wael|last5=Jafari|first5=Mohsen|last6=Jiang|first6=Shan|date=2018|title=Real-time Driver Drowsiness Detection for Android Application Using Deep Neural Networks Techniques|journal=Procedia Computer Science|volume=130|pages=400–407|doi=10.1016/j.procs.2018.04.060|arxiv=1811.01627|issn=1877-0509|doi-access=free}}</ref> If drowsy driving is suspected, the vehicle will typically sound off a loud alert and may vibrate the driver's seat.<ref name=":10" /> [[File:Lexus instrument LCD and Driver Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|Infrared LEDs for driver monitoring system illumination]]
* [[Driver monitoring system]] is designed to monitor the alertness of the driver.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|date=2007-09-27|title=NEW CAR NET, the UK new car guide :: Lexus news - LS460 achieves a world-first in preventative safety :: Links, Newsletter, She Drives, Galleries, Motor Show, Road Tests, User Reviews, Daily News, Car Videos, Features, NEWS / REVIEWS, First Impressions, Motormouth, Blog|url=http://www.newcarnet.co.uk/Lexus_news.html?id=5787|access-date=2020-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927004541/http://www.newcarnet.co.uk/Lexus_news.html?id=5787|archive-date=2007-09-27}}</ref> These systems use biological and performance measures to assess the driver's alertness and ability to conduct safe driving practices.<ref name=":11" /> Currently, these systems use infrared sensors and cameras to monitor the driver's attentiveness through eye-tracking.<ref name=":11" /> If the vehicle detects a possible obstacle, it will notify the driver and if no action is taken, the vehicle may react to the obstacle.
* [[Electric vehicle warning sounds]] notify pedestrians and cyclists that a [[Hybrid electric vehicle|hybrid]] or [[plug-in electric vehicle]] is nearby, typically delivered through a noise, such as a beep or horn.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Electric Vehicle Warning Sound System {{!}} Analog Devices|url=https://www.analog.com/en/analog-dialogue/articles/electric-vehicle-warning-sound-system.html#|access-date=2020-07-31|website=www.analog.com}}</ref> This technology was developed in response to the U.S. [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] ruling that issued 50 percent of quiet vehicles must have a device implemented into their systems that sound off when the vehicle travels at speeds less than 30&nbsp;km/h (18.6&nbsp;mph) by September 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2018-02-26|title=U.S. finalizes long-delayed 'quiet cars' rule, extending deadline|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-autos-regulations-sounds-idUSKCN1GA2GV|access-date=2020-07-31}}</ref>
* [[Forward collision warning]] (FCW) monitor the speed of the vehicle and the vehicle in front of it, and the open distance around the vehicle.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=Forward Collision Warning Systems|url=https://www.safercar.gov/Vehicle+Shoppers/Safety+Technology/fcw/#:~:text=A%20forward%20collision%20warning%20(FCW,driver%20of%20an%20impending%20crash.|access-date=2020-07-31|website=www.safercar.gov}}</ref> FCW systems will send an alert to the driver of a possible impending collision if gets too close to the vehicle in front of it.<ref name=":14" />  These systems do not take control of the vehicle, as currently, FCW systems only send an alert signal to the driver in the form of an audio alert, visual pop-up display, or other warning alert.<ref name=":14" />
* [[Intelligent speed adaptation]] or intelligent speed advice (ISA) assists drivers with compliance to the speed limit. They take in information of the vehicle's position and notify the driver when they are  not enforcing the speed limit.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=Anonymous|date=2016-10-17|title=Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA)|url=https://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/specialist/knowledge/speed/new_technologies_new_opportunities/intelligent_speed_adaptation_isa_en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404063654/https://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/specialist/knowledge/speed/new_technologies_new_opportunities/intelligent_speed_adaptation_isa_en|archive-date=2017-04-04|access-date=2020-07-31|website=Mobility and transport - European Commission|language=en}}</ref> Some ISA systems allow the vehicle to adjust its speed to adhere to the relative speed limit.<ref name=":18" /> Other ISA systems only warn the driver when they are going over the speed limit and leave it up to the driver to enforce the speed limit or not.<ref name=":18" />
* [[Intersection assistant]]s use two radar sensors in the front bumper and sides of the car to monitor if there are any oncoming cars at intersections, highway exits, or car parks.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|title=Intersection Assistant|url=https://www.volkswagen-newsroom.com:443/en/intersection-assistant-3940|access-date=2020-07-31|website=Volkswagen Newsroom|language=en}}</ref> This system alerts the driver of any upcoming traffic from the vehicle's sides and can enact the vehicle's emergency braking system to prevent the collision.<ref name=":15" />
* [[Lane departure warning system]] (LDW) alerts the driver when they partially merge into a lane without using their turn signals.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web|title=Lane Departure Warning|url=https://www.safercar.gov/Vehicle+Shoppers/Safety+Technology/ldw/#:~:text=A%20lane%20departure%20warning%20(LDW,the%20driver%20from%20operating%20it.|access-date=2020-07-31|website=www.safercar.gov}}</ref> An LDW system uses cameras to monitor lane markings to determine if the driver unintentionally begins to drift.<ref name=":20" /> This system does not take control of the vehicle to help sway the car back into the safety zone but instead sends an audio or visual alert to the driver.<ref name=":20" />
* [[Parking sensor]]s can scan the vehicle's surroundings for objects when the driver initiates parking.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=Parking Sensors: MyCarDoesWhat.org|url=https://mycardoeswhat.org/safety-features/parking-sensors/|access-date=2020-07-31|website=My Car Does What|language=en-US}}</ref> Audio warnings can notify the driver of the distance between the vehicle and its surrounding objects.<ref name=":22" /> Typically, the faster the audio warnings are issued, the closer the vehicle is getting to the object.<ref name=":22" /> These sensors may not detect objects closer to the ground, such as parking stops, which is why parking sensors typically work alongside backup cameras to assist the driver when reversing into a parking spot.<ref name=":22" />[[Image:TPMS warning icon.svg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|TPMS low pressure warning icon]]
* [[Tire-pressure monitoring system|Tire pressure monitoring]] determine when the tire pressure is outside the normal inflation pressure range.<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last1=Reina|first1=Giulio|last2=Gentile|first2=Angelo|last3=Messina|first3=Arcangelo|date=2015-04-03|title=Tyre pressure monitoring using a dynamical model-based estimator|journal=Vehicle System Dynamics|volume=53|issue=4|pages=568–586|doi=10.1080/00423114.2015.1008017|bibcode=2015VSD....53..568R|issn=0042-3114|s2cid=53472315}}</ref> The driver can monitor the tire pressure and is notified when there is a sudden drop through a pictogram display, gauge, or low-pressure warning signal.<ref name=":26" />
* Vibrating seat warnings alert the driver of danger. GM's Cadillacs have offered vibrating seat warnings since the 2013 Cadillac ATS. If the driver begins drifting out of the traveling lane of a highway, the seat vibrates in the direction of the drift, warning the driver of danger. The safety alert seat also provides a vibrating pulse on both sides of the seat when a frontal threat is detected.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-12-03|title=U.S. DOT Proposes Rear View Visibility Rule to Protect Kids and the Elderly {{!}} National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)|url=http://www.nhtsa.gov/PR/NHTSA-17-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714120149/http://www.nhtsa.gov/PR/NHTSA-17-10|archive-date=2014-07-14}}</ref>
* [[Wrong-way driving warning]] issue alerts to drivers when it is detected that they are on the wrong side of the road.<ref name=":30">{{Cite journal|title=Welcome to ROSA P {{!}}|url=https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/29573|access-date=2020-07-31|website=rosap.ntl.bts.gov|date=November 2015 |last1=Simpson |first1=Sarah |last2=Bruggeman |first2=Dave }}</ref> Vehicles with this system enacted can use sensors and cameras to identify the direction of oncoming traffic flow.<ref name=":30" /> In conjunction with lane detection services, this system can also notify drivers when they partially merge into the wrong side of the road <ref name=":30" />
===Crash mitigation===
* [[Pedestrian protection system]]s are designed to minimize the number of crashes or injuries that occur between a vehicle and a pedestrian.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last1=Fredriksson|first1=Rikard|last2=Håland|first2=Yngve|last3=Yang|first3=Jikuang|date=2001-06-04|title=Evaluation of a New Pedestrian Head Injury Protection System with a Sensor in the Bumper and Lifting of the Bonnet's Rear Part|url=https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2001-06-0089/|language=en|location=Warrendale, PA|journal=SAE International}}</ref> This system uses cameras and sensors to determine when the front of a vehicle strikes a pedestrian.<ref name=":23" /> When the collision occurs, the vehicle's bonnet lifts to provide a cushion between the vehicle's hard engine components and the pedestrian.<ref name=":23" /> This helps minimize the possibility of a severe head injury when the pedestrian's head comes into contact with the vehicle.<ref name=":23" />
===Driving task assistance===
* [[Adaptive cruise control]] (ACC) can maintain a chosen velocity and distance between a vehicle and the vehicle ahead. ACC can automatically brake or accelerate with concern to the distance between the vehicle and the vehicle ahead.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=MarkVollrath|last2=Schleicher|first2=Susanne|last3=Gelau|first3=Christhard|date=19 December 2010|title=The influence of Cruise Control and Adaptive Cruise Control on driving behaviour – A driving simulator study|journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention|volume=43|issue=3|pages=1134–1139|doi=10.1016/j.aap.2010.12.023|pmid=21376911|issn=0001-4575}}</ref> ACC systems with stop and go features can come to a complete stop and accelerate back to the specified speed.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Guide to Adaptive Cruise Control|url=https://www.consumerreports.org/car-safety/adaptive-cruise-control-guide/|access-date=2020-07-31|website=Consumer Reports|language=en-US}}</ref> This system still requires an alert driver to take in their surroundings, as it only controls speed and the distance between you and the car in front of you.<ref name=":0" /> [[Image:Antilock Braking System.svg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|Symbol for [[anti-lock braking system|ABS]]]]
* [[Anti-lock braking system]] (ABS) restore traction to a car's tires by regulating the brake pressure when the vehicle begins to skid.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title=Performance of Antilock Brakes with Simplified Control Technique (830484 Technical Paper) - SAE MOBILUS|url=https://saemobilus.sae.org/content/830484/|access-date=2020-07-31|website=saemobilus.sae.org|date=February 1983 |doi=10.4271/830484 |language=en}}</ref> Alongside helping drivers in emergencies, such as when their car starts to skid on ice, ABS systems can also assist drivers who may lose control of their vehicle.<ref name=":2" /> With the growing popularity in the 1990s, ABS systems have become standard in vehicles.<ref name=":2" /> [[File:Lexus-LS automatic parking.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|[[Automatic parking]], demonstrated by hands-off driver]]
* [[Automatic parking]] fully takes over control of parking functions, including steering, braking, and acceleration, to assist drivers in parking.<ref name=":3">{{Citation|last=Eskandarian|first=Azim|title=Introduction to Intelligent Vehicles|date=2012|work=Handbook of Intelligent Vehicles|pages=1–13|editor-last=Eskandarian|editor-first=Azim|place=London|publisher=Springer|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-0-85729-085-4_1|isbn=978-0-85729-085-4}}</ref> Depending on the relative cars and obstacles, the vehicle positions itself safely into the available parking spot.<ref name=":3" /> Currently, the driver must still be aware of the vehicle's surroundings and be willing to take control of it if necessary.
* [[Collision avoidance system]] (pre-crash system) uses small radar detectors, typically placed near the front of the car, to determine the car's vicinity to nearby obstacles and notify the driver of potential car crash situations.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=2009-04-22|title=How Pre-Collision Systems Work|url=https://auto.howstuffworks.com/car-driving-safety/safety-regulatory-devices/pre-collision-systems.htm|access-date=2020-07-31|website=HowStuffWorks|language=en}}</ref> These systems can account for any sudden changes to the car's environment that may cause a collision.<ref name=":7" /> Systems can respond to a possible collision situation with multiple actions, such as sounding an alarm, tensing up passengers’ seat belts, closing a sunroof, and raising reclined seats.<ref name=":7" />
* [[Crosswind stabilization]] helps prevent a vehicle from overturning when strong winds hit its side by analyzing  the vehicle's yaw rate, steering angle, lateral acceleration, and velocity sensors.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Hilf|first1=Klaus-Dieter|last2=Matheis|first2=Ingo|last3=Mauss|first3=Jakob|last4=Rauh|first4=Jochen|date=2010-07-01|title=Automated simulation of scenarios to guide the development of a crosswind stabilization function|journal=IFAC Proceedings Volumes|series=6th IFAC Symposium on Advances in Automotive Control|language=en|volume=43|issue=7|pages=768–772|doi=10.3182/20100712-3-DE-2013.00195|issn=1474-6670|doi-access=free}}</ref> This system distributes the wheel load in relation to the velocity and direction of the crosswind.<ref name=":8" />
* [[Cruise control]] can maintain a specific speed pre-determined by the driver.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|date=2001-01-15|title=How Cruise Control Systems Work|url=https://auto.howstuffworks.com/cruise-control.htm|access-date=2020-07-31|website=HowStuffWorks|language=en}}</ref> The car will maintain the speed the driver sets until the driver hits the brake pedal, clutch pedal, or disengages the system.<ref name=":9" /> Specific cruise control systems can accelerate or decelerate, but require the driver to click a button and notify the car of the goal speed.<ref name=":9" /> [[Image:Kontrollleuchte ESP 2 black.svg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|[[Electronic stability control|ESC]] control light]]
* [[Electronic stability control]] (ESC) can reduce the speed of the car and activate individual brakes to prevent understeer and oversteer.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|date=2009-10-05|title=How Electronic Stability Control Works|url=https://auto.howstuffworks.com/car-driving-safety/safety-regulatory-devices/electronic-stability-control.htm|access-date=2020-07-31|website=HowStuffWorks|language=en}}</ref> Understeer occurs when the car's front wheels do not have enough traction to make the car turn and oversteer occurs when the car turns more than intended, causing the car to spin out.<ref name=":12" /> In conjunction with other car safety technologies, such as anti-lock braking and traction control, the ESC can safely help drivers maintain control of the car in unforeseen situations.<ref name=":12" />
* [[Emergency driver assistant]] facilitates emergency counteract measures if the driver falls asleep or does not perform any driving action after a defined length of time.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|title=The new Volkswagen Arteon Innovative driver assistance systems in detail – part 1: Emergency Assist – automatic help in emergencies|url=https://www.volkswagen-newsroom.com:443/en/press-releases/the-new-volkswagen-arteon-innovative-driver-assistance-systems-in-detail-part-1-emergency-assist-automatic-help-in-emergencies-1064|access-date=2020-07-31|website=Volkswagen Newsroom|language=en}}</ref> After a specified period of time, if the driver has not interacted with the accelerator, brake, or steering wheel, the car will send audio, visual, and physical signals to the driver.<ref name=":13" /> If the driver does not wake up after these signals, the system will stop, safely position the vehicle away from oncoming traffic, and turn on the hazard warning lights.<ref name=":13" />
* [[Hill descent control]] helps drivers maintain a safe speed when driving down a hill or other decline.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|last1=Laukkonen|first1=Jeremy|title=How Do Hill Descent Control Systems Work?|url=https://www.lifewire.com/hill-descent-control-systems-534812|date=2021-10-25|access-date=2022-01-26|website=Lifewire|language=en}}</ref> These systems are typically enacted if the vehicle moves faster than 15 to 20&nbsp;mph when driving down. When a change in grade is sensed, hill descent control automates the driver's speed to descend down the steep grade safely.<ref name=":16" /> This system works by pulsing the braking system and controlling each wheel independently to maintain traction down the descent.<ref name=":16" />
* [[Hill holder|Hill-start assist]] also known as hill-start control or hill holder, helps prevent a vehicle from rolling backward down a hill when starting again from a stopped position.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web|date=2009-10-05|title=How Hill-Start Control Works|url=https://auto.howstuffworks.com/car-driving-safety/safety-regulatory-devices/hill-start-control.htm|access-date=2020-07-31|website=HowStuffWorks|language=en}}</ref> This feature holds the brake for you while you transition between the brake pedal and the gas pedal.<ref name=":17" /> For manual cars, this feature holds the brake for you while you transition between the brake pedal, the clutch, and the gas pedal.<ref name=":17" />
* [[Lane centering]] assists the driver in keeping the vehicle centered in a lane.<ref name=":19">{{Cite patent|title=Lane keeping system and lane centering system|country=US|number=9180908B2|gdate=2011-11-17|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US9180908B2/en}}</ref> A lane-centering system may autonomously take over the steering when it determines the driver is at risk of deterring from the lane.<ref name=":19" /> This system uses cameras to monitor lane markings to stay within a safe distance between both sides of the lane.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wardlaw|first=Christian|date=2019-07-08|title=Tech'splaining: What is Lane Centering Assist, How Does It Work?|url=https://ride.tech/self-driving/techsplaining-what-is-lane-centering-assist-how-does-it-work/|access-date=2020-07-31|website=Ride by Kelley Blue Book|language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Lane change assistance]] helps the driver through a safe completion of a lane change by using sensors to scan the vehicle's surroundings and monitor the driver's blind spots.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|last1=Habenicht|first1=Stefan|last2=Winner|first2=Hermann|last3=Bone|first3=Sven|last4=Sasse|first4=Fabian|last5=Korzenietz|first5=Peter|title=2011 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV) |chapter=A maneuver-based lane change assistance system |date=5 July 2011|pages=375–380|doi=10.1109/IVS.2011.5940417|isbn=978-1-4577-0890-9|s2cid=9690965}}</ref> When a driver intends to make a lane change, the vehicle will notify the driver through an audio or visual alert when a vehicle is approaching from behind or is in the vehicle's blind spot.<ref name=":21" /> The visual alert may appear in the dashboard, heads-up-display, or the exterior rear-view mirrors.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lane Change Assistance – Level Five Supplies|date=11 January 2019 |url=https://levelfivesupplies.com/glossary/lane-change-assistance/|access-date=2020-07-31|language=en-GB}}</ref> Several kind of lane change assistance might exist, for instance UNECE regulation 79 considers:<ref>{{cite web |title=UN Regulation No. 79, Revision 4. Uniform provisions concerning the approval of vehicles with regard to steering equipment |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/main/wp29/wp29regs/2018/R079r4e.pdf |publisher=United Nations Economic Commission for Europe |date=2018-11-07}}</ref>
** "ACSF (Automatically commanded steering function) of Category C" (...) a function which is initiated/activated by the driver and which can perform a single lateral manoeuvre (e.g. lane change) when commanded by the driver.
** "ACSF of Category D" (...) a function which is initiated/activated by the driver and which can indicate the possibility of a single lateral manoeuvre (e.g. lane change) but performs that function only following a confirmation by the driver.
** "ACSF of Category E" (...) a function which is initiated/activated by the driver and which can continuously determine the possibility of a manoeuvre (e.g. lane change) and complete these manoeuvres for extended periods without further driver command/confirmation.
* [[Rain sensor]]s detect water and automatically trigger electrical actions, such as the raising of open windows and the closing of open convertible tops.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=Rain Sensing Windshield & Wipers {{!}} Car Rain Sensors {{!}} Safelite|url=https://www.safelite.com/windshield-auto-glass-technology/rain-sensors|access-date=2020-07-31|website=www.safelite.com|language=en}}</ref> A rain sensor can also take in the frequency of rain droplets to automatically trigger windshield wipers with an accurate speed for the corresponding rainfall.<ref name=":24" />
* [[Traction control system]] (TCS) helps prevent traction loss in vehicles and prevent vehicle turnover on sharp curves and turns.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web|date=2005-09-07|title=Traction Control Explained|url=https://auto.howstuffworks.com/28000-traction-control-explained.htm|access-date=2020-07-31|website=HowStuffWorks|language=en}}</ref> By limiting tire slip, or when the force on a tire exceeds the tire's traction, this limits power delivery and helps the driver accelerate the car without losing control.<ref name=":27" /> These systems use the same wheel-speed sensors as the antilock braking systems.<ref name=":27" /> Individual wheel braking systems are deployed through TCS to control when one tire spins faster than the others.<ref name=":27" />
===Visual and environmental monitoring===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120px" widths="160px">
File:Mazda cx-9 active driving display with traffic sign recongnition.jpg|[[Automotive head-up display|Auto-HUD]] displayed on windshield
File:Audi A8 2013 (11209949525).jpg|[[Automotive night vision]] display
File:TT Reversing Camera.jpg|[[Backup camera]] displayed in digital instrument panel
</gallery>
* [[Automotive head-up display]] (auto-HUD) safely displays essential system information to a driver at a vantage point that does not require the driver to look down or away from the road.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=Chao|last2=He|first2=Siyuan|date=2017-06-01|title=Micromirror based virtual image automotive head-up display|journal=Microsystem Technologies|language=en|volume=23|issue=6|pages=1671–1676|doi=10.1007/s00542-016-2955-7|bibcode=2017MiTec..23.1671F |s2cid=113241711|issn=1432-1858}}</ref> Currently, the majority of the auto-HUD systems on the market display system information on a windshield using LCDs.<ref name=":4" />
* [[Automotive navigation system]] use digital mapping tools, such as the global positioning system (GPS) and traffic message channel (TMC), to provide drivers with up to date traffic and navigation information.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Martinelli|first1=Nancy S.|last2=Seoane|first2=Richard|editor-first1=Dennis H. |editor-first2=John R. |editor-last1=Lemieux |editor-last2=Snell, Jr. |date=1999-03-19|title=Automotive night vision system|journal=Thermosense XXI|publisher=International Society for Optics and Photonics|volume=3700|pages=343–346|doi=10.1117/12.342304|bibcode=1999SPIE.3700..343M|s2cid=110749370}}</ref> Through an embedded receiver, an automotive navigation system can send and receive data signals transmitted from satellites regarding the current position of the vehicle in relation to its surroundings.<ref name=":5" />
* [[Automotive night vision]] systems enable the vehicle to detect obstacles, including pedestrians, in a nighttime setting or heavy weather situation when the driver has low visibility. These systems can various technologies, including infrared sensors, GPS, Lidar, and Radar, to detect pedestrians and non-human obstacles.<ref name=":5" />
* [[Backup camera]] provides real-time video information regarding the location of your vehicle and its surroundings.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-06-23|title=How Rearview Cameras Work|url=https://auto.howstuffworks.com/rearview-camera.htm|access-date=2020-07-31|website=HowStuffWorks|language=en}}</ref> This camera offers driver's aid when backing up by providing a viewpoint that is typically a blind spot in traditional cars.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=The Danger of Blind Zones {{!}} Vehicle Blind Spots - Consumer Reports|url=https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/2012/03/the-danger-of-blind-zones/index.htm|access-date=2020-07-31|website=www.consumerreports.org|language=en-US}}</ref> When the driver puts the car in reverse, the camera automatically turns on.<ref name=":6" />
* [[Glare-free high beam]] use Light Emitting Diodes, more commonly known as LEDs, to cut two or more cars from the light distribution.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Kobbert |first1=J |last2=Kosmas |first2=K |last3=Khanh |first3=TQ |date=2018-11-14 |title=Glare-free high beam optimization based on country road traffic simulation |journal=[[Lighting Research & Technology]] |language=en-US |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=922–936 |doi=10.1177/1477153518810997 |issn=1477-1535 |s2cid=116176211 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This allows oncoming vehicles coming in the opposite direction not to be affected by the light of the  high-beams. In 2010, the VW Touareg introduced the first glare-free high beam headlamp system, which used a mechanical shutter to cut light from hitting specific traffic participants.<ref name=":1" />
* [[Omniview technology]] improves a driver's visibility by offering a 360-degree viewing system.<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|title=The World's first 360 Degree Wrap-around View System for automotive applications|url=https://www.fujitsu.com/downloads/CN/fss/services/automotive/dashboard/G08-Emerald-MB86R11_360_Wrap-around_view_system_Factsheet-1010.pdf|website=Fijitsu}}</ref> This system can accurately provide 3D peripheral images of the car's surroundings through video display outputted to the driver.<ref name=":25" /> Currently, commercial systems can only provide 2D images of the driver's surroundings. Omniview technology uses the input of four cameras and a bird's eye technology to provide a composite 3D model of the surroundings.<ref name=":25" />
* [[Traffic sign recognition]] (TSR) systems can recognize common traffic signs, such as a “stop” sign or a “turn ahead” sign, through image processing techniques.<ref name=":28">{{Cite web|title=Clemson Vehicular Electronics Laboratory: Traffic Sign Recognition Systems|url=https://cecas.clemson.edu/cvel/auto/systems/sign-recognition.html|access-date=2020-07-31|website=cecas.clemson.edu}}</ref> This system takes into account the sign's shape, such as hexagons and rectangles, and the color to classify what the sign is communicating to the driver.<ref name=":28" /> Since most systems currently use camera-based technology, a wide variety of factors can make the system less accurate. These include poor lighting conditions, extreme weather conditions, and partial obstruction of the sign.<ref name=":28" />
* [[Vehicular communication systems]] come in three forms: vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), and vehicle-to-everything (V2X). V2V systems allow vehicles to exchange information with each other about their current position and upcoming hazards.<ref name=":29">{{Cite journal|last1=Arena|first1=Fabio|last2=Pau|first2=Giovanni|date=2019-01-24|title=An Overview of Vehicular Communications|journal=Future Internet|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=27|doi=10.3390/fi11020027|issn=1999-5903|doi-access=free}}</ref> V2I systems occur when the vehicle exchanges information with nearby infrastructure elements, such as street signs.<ref name=":29" /> V2X systems occur when the vehicle monitors its environment and takes in information about possible obstacles or pedestrians in its path.<ref name=":29" />
==={{anchor|Blue Cruise}}{{anchor|Super Cruise}} Hands-off systems===
Ford and General Motors provide "hands-off, eyes-on" systems such as Blue Cruise and Super Cruise in North America. These systems allow drivers to take their hands off the steering wheel while the system is engaged. However, drivers must keep their eyes on the road and be ready to take immediate action at all times.
<!-- Tesla is not included because the company says drivers, "must keep your hands on the steering wheel while Full Self-Driving (Supervised) is engaged." -->
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Vehicle miles traveled (VMT) by customers with level 2<ref name="theverge-202307331">{{cite web|author=Andrew J. Hawkins|date=31 July 2023|language=en|title=Hands-free driving is becoming more popular — but is it safe?|url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/7/31/23814104/hands-free-automated-driving-gm-super-cruise-tesla-fsd|website=[[The Verge]]}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator -->.</ref><ref name="teslaAI-2024-0405">{{cite web|author=Tesla AI|date=4 April 2024|language=en|title=Hit >1 billion miles driven on FSD|url=https://x.com/Tesla_AI/status/1776381278071267807|website=[[X (Twitter)|X]]}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator -->.</ref>
! Brand !! Vehicle number !! ADAS suite name !! VMT (hands-free) !! Traveled distance (miles)
|-
| [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] || {{formatnum:225000}} || BlueCruise || 100 million || 150 million
|-
| [[General Motors]]  || {{formatnum:80000}} || Super Cruise || 77 million<ref name="ref_auto_1">On June 9 2023</ref> || ~100 millions<ref name="ref_auto_1" />
|}
==Adoption==
{{Image frame
| caption=
| content =
{{Graph:Chart
|type=pie
|width=90
|x=Toyota, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Volvo, Audi, Others
|y1=.20,.15,.14,.12,.11,.28
|legend=Level 2 features in car sold during Q2 2019
|showValues=format:.0p
}}
}}
In Europe, in Q2 2018, 3% of sold passenger cars had level 2 autonomy driving features. In Europe, in Q2 2019, 325,000 passenger cars are sold with level 2 autonomy driving features, that is 8% of all new cars sold.<ref name="Canalys2019">{{cite news |title=Canalys: 8% of new cars in Europe sold with level 2 autonomy driving features |url=https://www.telecomtv.com/content/automotive/canalys-8-of-new-cars-in-europe-sold-with-level-2-autonomy-driving-features-36247/ |access-date=2022-01-26 |work=TelecomTV |agency=Canalys |date=2019-09-09}}</ref>
According to a 2021 research report from Canalys, approximately 33 percent of new vehicles sold in the United States, Europe, Japan, and China had ADAS features. The firm also predicted that fifty percent of all automobiles on the road by the year 2030 would be ADAS-enabled.<ref name=":34" />
===Branding===
Major car brands with Level 2 features include [[Audi]], [[BMW]], [[Mercedes-Benz]], [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]], [[Volvo]], [[Tata Motors|Tata]], [[Citroën]], [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], [[Hyundai Motor Company|Hyundai]], [[Kia]], [[Mazda]], [[Nissan]], [[Peugeot]], [[Mahindra & Mahindra|Mahindra]] and [[Subaru]].<ref name="Canalys2019" /> Full Level 2 features are included with [[Tesla Autopilot#Full Self-Driving|Full Self-Driving]] from Tesla, [[Pilot Assist]] from Volvo, OpenPilot from Comma.ai and ProPILOT Assist from Nissan.<ref name="Canalys2019" />
Level 3 features are included in [[Drive Pilot]] from Mercedes-Benz.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramey |first=Jay |date=2022-05-09 |title=Mercedes Launches SAE Level 3 Drive Pilot System |url=https://www.autoweek.com/news/technology/a39943287/mercedes-drive-pilot-level-3-autonomous/ |access-date=2022-05-21 |website=Autoweek |language=en-US}}</ref>
<!--
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:100%;text-align:center;"
|+Advanced driver-assistance system branding
|-
! Manufacturer !! Brand !! Level !! class="unsortable" | Notes !! class="unsortable" | Refs.
|-
! Audi !! Driver Assistance Plus
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! BMW !! Active Driving Assistance Pro
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Ford (Lincoln) !! Co-Pilot 360
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! GM (Buick / Chevy) !! Driver Confidence
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! GM (Cadillac) !! Super Cruise
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
| <
|-
! GM !! Ultra Cruise
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/10/6/22712566/gm-ultra-cruise-adas-hands-free-driving |title=GM reveals Ultra Cruise 'hands-free' system that covers '95 percent' of driving scenarios |author=Hawkins, Andrew J. |date=October 6, 2021 |work=The Verge |access-date=20 June 2022}}</ref>
|-
! Honda !! Sensing (AcuraWatch)
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Hyundai & Kia !! Smart Sense (Hyundai)<br/>Drive Wise (Kia)
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Land Rover !! Driver Assist
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Mazda !! i-ACTIVSENSE
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Mercedes-Benz !! Driver Assistance
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Nissan & Infiniti !! ProPILOT Assist
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Porsche !! Active Safe
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Subaru !! EyeSight
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Tesla !! [[Tesla Autopilot|Autopilot]]
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Tesla !! [[Tesla Autopilot|Full Self-Driving]]
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Toyota (Lexus) !! Safety Sense 2.0
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Toyota (Lexus) !! Teammate
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.motortrend.com/news/toyota-lexus-level-2-semi-autonomous-highway-assist-system/ |title=Toyota and Lexus Join Tesla and GM in Level 2 Semi-Autonomous Driving Fray |author=Golden, Conner |date=April 9, 2021 |work=Motor Trend |access-date=20 June 2022}}</ref>
|-
! Volkswagen !! Driver Assistance
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|-
! Volvo !! Pilot Assist
| 2
| style="text-align:left;" |
|
|}
-->
===Crash statistics===
On June 29, 2021, the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA), the branch of the [[United States Department of Transportation]] responsible for federal motor vehicle regulations, issued Standing General Order 2021-01 (SGO&nbsp;2021-01),<ref name=NHTSA-103486>{{cite web |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/laws-regulations/standing-general-order-crash-reporting |title=Standing General Order on Crash Reporting {{!}} For incidents involving ADS and Level 2 ADAS |publisher=United States Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |access-date=15 June 2022}}</ref> which required manufacturers of ADAS (Levels 1 or 2) and Automated Driving Systems (ADS) (Levels 3 through 5) to promptly report crashes that occurred when driver-assistance or automation systems were in use.<ref name=SGO-2021-01>{{cite report |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.gov/files/2021-06/Standing_General_Order_2021_01-digital-06292021.pdf |title=In re: Standing General Order 2021-01 {{!}} Incident Reporting for Automated Driving Systems (ADS) and Level 2 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems |publisher=United States Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=June 29, 2021 |access-date=13 June 2022}}</ref> SGO&nbsp;2021-01 subsequently was amended on August 5, 2021.<ref name=SGO-2021-01a>{{cite report |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.gov/files/2021-08/First_Amended_SGO_2021_01_Final.pdf |title=In re: First Amended Standing General Order 2021-01 {{!}} Incident Reporting for Automated Driving Systems (ADS) and Level 2 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems |publisher=United States Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |date=August 5, 2021 |access-date=13 June 2022}}</ref> Under the amended SGO&nbsp;2021-01, a crash involving ADS or Level 2 ADAS is reportable to the NHTSA if it meets the following criteria:<ref name=SGO-2021-01a/>{{rp|13–15}}
* it happened on a publicly accessible road in the United States
* the Levels 3–5 ADS or Level 2 ADAS was engaged at any time within 30 seconds before the start of the crash through the conclusion of the crash
A severe crash is one that results in one or more of the following:<ref name=SGO-2021-01a/>{{rp|14}}
* transport to a hospital for medical treatment or a fatality, regardless of whether that person was an occupant of the vehicle equipped with the ADS or L2 ADAS
* a vehicle tow-away or an air bag deployment, regardless of whether that is the vehicle equipped with the ADS or L2 ADAS
* involves a vulnerable road user (anyone who is not an occupant of a motor vehicle with more than three wheels: typically pedestrians, wheelchair users, motorcyclists, or bicyclists), regardless of that vulnerable road user's influence on the cause of the crash
The incident report to the NHTSA must be made according to the following schedule:<ref name=SGO-2021-01a/>{{rp|13;14}}
* Severe crashes must be reported within one calendar day after the manufacturer receives notice the crash has occurred. In addition, an updated crash incident report must be made within ten calendar days after the manufacturer receives notice the crash has occurred.
* Otherwise, non-severe crashes involving ADS (excluding L2 ADAS) must be reported on the fifteenth day of the month following the calendar month in which the manufacturer receives notice the crash has occurred.
SGO&nbsp;2021-01 is in effect for three years, starting on June 29, 2021.<ref name=SGO-2021-01a/>{{rp|9}} After gathering data for almost a year (July 1, 2021 through May 15, 2022), the NHTSA released the initial set of data in June 2022 and stated they plan to update the data on a monthly basis.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/press-releases/initial-data-release-advanced-vehicle-technologies |title=NHTSA Releases Initial Data on Safety Performance of Advanced Vehicle Technologies |date=June 15, 2022 |publisher=United States Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |access-date=16 June 2022}}</ref> The data are subject to several caveats and limitations; for instance, manufacturers are not required to report the number of vehicles that have been built and equipped with ADS/ADAS, the number of vehicles operating with ADS/ADAS, or the total distance traveled with ADS/ADAS active, which would be helpful to normalize the incident report data.<ref name=NHTSA-103486/>
According to the initial data covering July 2021 to May 15, 2022, ADS (Levels 3–5) from 25 different manufacturers were involved in 130 crashes, led by Waymo LLC (62), Transdev Alternative Services (34), Cruise LLC (23), General Motors (16), and Argo AI (10); because multiple manufacturers can report the same crash, the sum exceeds the total number of reportable incidents.<ref name=NHTSA-ADS-202206>{{cite report |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.gov/files/2022-06/ADS-SGO-Report-June-2022.pdf |title=Summary Report: Standing General Order on Crash Reporting for Automated Driving Systems |date=June 2022 |publisher=United States Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |access-date=16 June 2022}}</ref>{{rp|4–5}} Of the 130 crashes, 108 had no associated injuries reported; there was only one serious injury associated with the remaining crashes.<ref name=NHTSA-ADS-202206/>{{rp|6}} The most commonly-reported damage location was the rear of the ADS-equipped vehicle.<ref name=NHTSA-ADS-202206/>{{rp|7}}
Similarly, ADAS (Level 2) from 12 different manufacturers were involved in 367 crashes over the same period; 392 crashes were reported in total, but 25 either occurred before July 2021 or had no associated date. Reported incidents were led by Tesla (273), Honda (90), and Subaru (10).<ref name=NHTSA-ADAS-202206>{{cite report |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.gov/files/2022-06/ADAS-L2-SGO-Report-June-2022.pdf |title=Summary Report: Standing General Order on Crash Reporting for Level 2 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems |date=June 2022 |publisher=United States Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |access-date=16 June 2022}}</ref>{{rp|5–6}} Of the 392 crashes, 98 included injury reporting; of the 98, 46 had no injuries reported, 5 resulted in serious injuries and 6 resulted in fatalities.<ref name=NHTSA-ADAS-202206/>{{rp|7}} The most commonly-reported damage location was the front of the ADAS-equipped vehicle.<ref name=NHTSA-ADAS-202206/>{{rp|8}}
==Potential issues and concerns==
===Need for standardization===
According to PACTS, lack of full standardization might make the system have difficulty being understandable by the driver who might believe that the car behaves like another car while it does not.<ref name="pacts.org.uk">
{{cite web |last1=Helmen |first1=Shaun |last2=Carsten |first2=Oliver |date=2019-09-19 |title=What does my Car do? |url=https://www.pacts.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/What-does-my-car-do-2.1_.pdf |publisher=Parliamentary Advisory Council for Transport Safety}}</ref>
{{blockquote|We can't help feeling that this lack of standardisation is one of the more problematic aspects of driver-assistance systems; and it’s one that is likely to be felt more keenly as systems become increasingly commonplace in years to come, particularly if traffic laws change to allow 'hands-off' driving in the future.|EuroNCAP<ref>{{cite news |last1=Griffiths |first1=Hugo |title=Advanced driver assistance systems: how the latest car safety tech is tested |url=https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/features/354927/advanced-driver-assistance-systems-how-latest-car-safety-tech-tested |work=Auto Express |date=2021-05-07}}</ref>}}
ADAS might have many limitations, for instance a pre-collision system might have 12 pages to explain 23 exceptions where ADAS may operate when not needed and 30 exceptions where ADAS may not operate when a collision is likely.<ref name="pacts.org.uk" />
[[File:Adaptive Cruise Control.jpg|thumb|right|[[Adaptive cruise control]] display in the instrument panel of a [[Volkswagen Golf]] [[Volkswagen Golf Mk7|(Mk7)]]]]
Names for ADAS features are not standardized. For instance, adaptive cruise control is called ''Adaptive Cruise Control'' by Fiat, Ford, GM, VW, Volvo and Peugeot, but ''Intelligent Cruise Control'' by Nissan, ''Active Cruise Control'' by Citroen and BMW, and ''DISTRONIC'' by Mercedes.<ref name="pacts.org.uk" /> To help with standardization, [[SAE International]] has endorsed a series of recommendations for generic ADAS terminology for car manufacturers, that it created with [[Consumer Reports]], the [[American Automobile Association]], [[J.D. Power]], and the [[National Safety Council]].<ref name="sae-2020">{{Cite web |last=Huetter |first=John |date=2020-05-15 |title=SAE International endorses generic ADAS terminology recommendations |url=https://www.repairerdrivennews.com/2020/05/15/sae-international-endorses-generic-adas-terminology-recommendations/ |access-date=2020-10-10 |website=Repairer Driven News}}</ref><ref name="nyt-202010">{{Cite web |last=Voelk |first=Tom |date=2020-10-08 |title=New Safety Features in Cars (or Just New to You) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/08/business/new-car-safety-features.html |access-date=2020-10-10 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>
Buttons and dashboard symbols change from car to car due to lack of standardization.<ref name="pacts.org.uk" />
ADAS behavior might change from car to car, for instance ACC speed might be temporarily overridden in most cars, while some switch to standby after one minute.<ref name="pacts.org.uk" />
=== Insurance and economic impact ===
The AV industry is growing exponentially, and according to a report by Market Research Future, the market is expected to hit over $65 billion by 2027. AV insurance and rising competition are expected to fuel that growth.<ref>{{Cite web|title=InfoComm Releases AV Industry Outlook and Trends Analysis for the Americas {{!}} Markets Insider|url=https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/infocomm-releases-av-industry-outlook-and-trends-analysis-for-the-americas-1002255094|access-date=2020-08-01|website=markets.businessinsider.com|language=en-us}}</ref> Auto insurance for ADAS has directly affected the global economy, and many questions have arisen within the general public. ADAS allow autonomous vehicles to enable self-driving features, but there are associated risks with ADAS. AV companies and manufacturers are recommended to have insurance in the following areas in order to avoid any serious litigations. Depending on the level, ranging from 0 to 5, each car manufacturer would find it in its best interest to find the right combination of different insurances to best match their products. Note that this list is not exhaustive and may be constantly updated with more types of insurances and risks in the years to come.
* Technology errors and omissions – This insurance will cover any physical risk if the technology itself has failed. These usually include all of the associated expenses of a car crash.<ref name=":36">{{Cite web|date=2019-07-23|title=Insurance for Autonomous Vehicles & Self-Driving Cars|url=https://foundershield.com/insurance-for-autonomous-vehicles-self-driving-cars/|access-date=2020-08-01|website=Founder Shield|language=en-US}}</ref>
* Auto liability and physical damage – This insurance covers third-party injuries and technology damage.<ref name=":36" />
* Cyber liability – This insurance will protect companies from any lawsuits from third parties and penalties from regulators regarding cybersecurity.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Cyber Liability Insurance|url=https://foundershield.com/coverage/cyber-liability-insurance/|access-date=2020-08-01|website=Founder Shield|language=en-US}}</ref>
* Directors and officers – This insurance protects a company's balance sheet and assets by protecting the company from bad management or misappropriation of assets.<ref name=":37" />
With the technology embedded in autonomous vehicles, these self-driving cars are able to distribute data if a car crash occurs. This, in turn, will invigorate the claims administration and their operations. Fraud reduction will also disable any fraudulent staging of car crashes by recording the car's monitoring of every minute on the road.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-09|title=Autonomous Vehicle Firms Dispute Insurance Study's Low Estimate of Crash Prevention|url=https://www.claimsjournal.com/news/national/2020/06/09/297485.htm|access-date=2020-08-01|website=Claims Journal|language=en-US}}</ref> ADAS are expected to streamline the insurance industry and its economic efficiency with capable technology to fight off fraudulent human behavior. In September 2016, the NHTSA published the Federal Automated Vehicles Policy, which describes the U.S. Department of Transportation's policies related to highly automated vehicles (HAV) which range from vehicles with ADAS features to [[Autonomous car|autonomous vehicles]].
=== Ethical issues and current solutions ===
{{See also|Self-driving car liability|Tesla Autopilot#Fatal crashes}}In March 2014, the US Department of Transportation's [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) announced that it will require all new vehicles under 10,000 pounds (4,500&nbsp;kg) to have rear view cameras by May 2018. The rule was required by Congress as part of the Cameron Gulbransen Kids Transportation Safety Act of 2007.<ref>{{Cite web |title=S. Rept. 110-275 - CAMERON GULBRANSEN KIDS TRANSPORTATION SAFETY ACT OF 2007 |url=https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/110th-congress/senate-report/275/1 |website=Congress.gov}}</ref> The Act is named after two-year-old Cameron Gulbransen. Cameron's father backed up his SUV over him, when he did not see the toddler in the family's driveway <ref>{{Cite news|date=2014-03-31|title=NHTSA Announces Final Rule Requiring Rear Visibility Technology {{!}} National Highway Traffic Safety Administration|url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.dot.gov/files/documents/tp-111-v01-final_tag.pdf}}</ref>
The advancement of autonomous driving is accompanied by ethical concerns. The earliest moral issue associated with autonomous driving can be dated back to as early as the age of the trolleys. The [[trolley problem]] is one of the most well-known ethical issues. Introduced by English philosopher [[Philippa Foot]] in 1967, the trolley problem asks that under a situation which the trolley's brake does not work, and there are five people ahead of the trolley, the driver may go straight, killing the five persons ahead, or turn to the side track killing the one pedestrian, what should the driver do?<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomson|first=Judith Jarvis|date=1985|title=The Trolley Problem|journal=The Yale Law Journal|volume=94|issue=6|pages=1395–1415|doi=10.2307/796133|jstor=796133|issn=0044-0094}}</ref> Before the development of autonomous vehicles, the trolley problem remains an ethical dilemma between utilitarianism and deontological ethics. However, as the advancement in ADAS proceeds, the trolley problem becomes an issue that needs to be addressed by the programming of self-driving cars. The crashes that autonomous vehicles might face could be very similar to those depicted in the trolley problem.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last1=Nyholm|first1=Sven|last2=Smids|first2=Jilles|date=2016-11-01|title=The Ethics of Accident-Algorithms for Self-Driving Cars: an Applied Trolley Problem?|journal=Ethical Theory and Moral Practice|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=1275–1289|doi=10.1007/s10677-016-9745-2|issn=1572-8447|doi-access=free}}</ref> Although ADAS make vehicles generally safer than only human-driven cars, crashes are unavoidable.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> This raises questions such as “whose lives should be prioritized in the event of an inevitable crash?” Or “What should be the universal principle for these ‘crash-algorithms’?”
[[File:UberAutonomousVolvoXC90FatalCrash.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[National Transportation Safety Board|NTSB]] investigators examine the [[Volvo XC90]] operated by [[Uber]] that struck and [[Death of Elaine Herzberg|killed Elaine Herzberg]] (2018).]]
Many researchers have been working on ways to address the ethical concerns associated with ADAS. For instance, the artificial intelligence approach allows computers to learn human ethics by feeding them data regarding human actions.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Russell|first1=Stuart Jonathan|title=Artificial intelligence : a modern approach|date=July 2019|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0-13-461099-3|oclc=1124776132}}</ref> Such a method is useful when the rules cannot be articulated because the computer can learn and identify the ethical elements on its own without precisely programming whether an action is ethical.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goodall|first=Noah J.|date=1 January 2014|title=Ethical Decision Making during Automated Vehicle Crashes|journal=Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board|volume=2424|issue=1|pages=58–65|doi=10.3141/2424-07|s2cid=110782698|issn=0361-1981|arxiv=2010.16309}}</ref> However, there are limitations to this approach. For example, many human actions are done out of self-preservation instincts, which is realistic but not ethical; feeding such data to the computer cannot guarantee that the computer captures the ideal behavior.<ref name=":38">{{Cite journal|last=Tsugawa|first=Sadayuki|date=2006-01-01|title=TRENDS AND ISSUES IN SAFE DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEMS: Driver Acceptance and Assistance for Elderly Drivers|journal=IATSS Research|language=en|volume=30|issue=2|pages=6–18|doi=10.1016/S0386-1112(14)60165-5|issn=0386-1112|doi-access=free}}</ref> Furthermore, the data fed to an artificial intelligence must be carefully selected to avoid producing undesired outcomes.<ref name=":38"/>
Another notable method is a three-phase approach proposed by Noah J. Goodall. This approach first necessitates a system established with the agreement of car manufacturers, transportation engineers, lawyers, and ethicists, and should be set transparently.<ref name=":38"/> The second phase is letting artificial intelligence learn human ethics while being bound by the system established in phase one.<ref name=":38"/> Lastly, the system should provide constant feedback that is understandable by humans.<ref name=":38"/>
== Ratings ==
=== Consumer Reports ===
In October 2023, Consumer Reports rated 17 "active driving assistance systems".<ref name=":40">{{Cite web |date=2023-10-17 |title=Ford's BlueCruise Remains CR's Top-Rated Active Driving Assistance System |url=https://www.consumerreports.org/cars/car-safety/active-driving-assistance-systems-review-a2103632203/ |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=Consumer Reports |language=en-US}}</ref>  Their criteria were:<ref name=":40" />
* Capabilities and performance
* Clear when safe to use
* Ease of use
* Keeping the driver engaged
* Unresponsive driver
Their ratings were:<ref name=":40" />
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Rating
!Manufacturer
!System
|-
|84
|Ford/Lincoln
|BlueCruise
|-
|75
|Chevrolet/GMC/Cadillac
|Super Cruise
|-
|72
|Mercedes-Benz
|Driver Assistance
|-
|69
|BMW
|Driving Assistance Professional
|-
|65
|Lexus/Toyota
|Safety System+ 3.0/Safety Sense 3.0
|-
|63
|Nissan/Infiniti
|ProPILOT Assist 2.0
|-
|62
|Volkswagen/Audi
|Travel Assist/Adaptive Cruise Assist with lane guidance
|-
|61
|Tesla
|Autopilot
|-
|59
|Lucid
|Highway Assist
|-
|59
|Rivian
|Highway Assist
|-
|59
|Hyundai/Kia/Genesis
|Highway Driving Assist 2
|-
|59
|Subaru
|Advanced Adaptive Cruise Control with Lane Centering Assist
|-
|58
|Nissan/Infiniti
|ProPILOT Assist
|-
|58
|Honda/Acura
|Sensing/AcuraWatch
|-
|53
|Jaguar/Land Rover
|Adaptive Cruise w/Steer Assist
|-
|53
|Volvo/Polestar
|Pilot Assist
|-
|47
|Hyundai/Kia/Genesis
|Highway Driving Assist
|}
=== Insurance Institute for Highway Safety ===
In March 2024, the American [[Insurance Institute for Highway Safety]] (IIHS) reported its first "partial automation safeguard ratings".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hawkins |first=Andrew J. |date=2024-03-12 |title=A top auto safety group tested 14 partial automated systems — only one passed |url=https://www.theverge.com/2024/3/12/24098394/iihs-partial-automated-test-rank-ford-gm-tesla |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref> Their criteria were:<ref name=":35" />
* Adaptive cruise control does not automatically resume after a lengthy stop or if the driver is not looking at the road
* Automated lane changes must be initiated or confirmed by the driver
* Automation features cannot be used with seat belt unfastened
* Automation features cannot be used with automatic emergency braking or lane departure prevention/warning disabled
* Fail-safe procedure slows vehicle, notifies manufacturer and keeps automation off limits for remainder of drive
* Lane centering does not discourage steering by driver
* Monitors both the driver’s gaze and hand position
* Uses multiple types of rapidly escalating alerts to get driver’s attention
The ratings were (no system received a "good" rating):<ref name=":35">{{Cite web |date=March 2024 |title=Partial automation safeguard ratings |url=https://www.iihs.org/ratings/partial-automation-safeguards |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=IIHS-HLDI crash testing and highway safety |language=en}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Rating
!Manufacturer<!-- in alphabetical order within rating -->
!System
|-
|data-sort-value="2-Acceptable" | Acceptable
|Lexus
|Teammate with Advanced Drive
|-
|data-sort-value="3-Marginal" | Marginal
|General Motors
|Super Cruise
|-
|data-sort-value="4-Marginal" | Marginal
|Nissan
|ProPILOT Assist with Navi-link
|-
|data-sort-value="4-Poor" | Poor
|BMW
|Active Driving Assistant Pro
|-
|data-sort-value="4-Poor" | Poor
|Ford
|BlueCruise
|-
|data-sort-value="4-Poor" | Poor
|Ford
|Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & Go and Lane Centering Assist
|-
|data-sort-value="4-Poor" | Poor
|Genesis
|Highway Driving Assist 2
|-
|data-sort-value="4-Poor" | Poor
|Genesis
|Smart Cruise Control/Lane Following Assist
|-
|data-sort-value="4-Poor" | Poor
|Lexus
|Dynamic Radar Cruise Control with Lane Tracing Assist
|-
|data-sort-value="4-Poor" | Poor
|Mercedes-Benz
|Active Distance Assist DISTRONIC with Active Steering Assist
|-
|data-sort-value="4-Poor" | Poor
|Nissan
|ProPILOT Assist 2.0
|-
|data-sort-value="4-Poor" | Poor
|Tesla
|[[Tesla Autopilot|Autopilot]], Version 2023.7.10
|-
|data-sort-value="4-Poor" | Poor
|Tesla
|[[Tesla Full Self-Driving|Full Self-Driving]] (Beta), Version 2023.7.10
|-
|Poor
|Volvo
|Pilot Assist
|}
== Future ==
[[Intelligent transportation system|Intelligent transport systems]] (ITS) highly resemble ADAS, but experts believe that ITS goes beyond automatic traffic to include any enterprise that safely transports humans.<ref name=":38" /> ITS is where the transportation technology is integrated with a city’s infrastructure.<ref name=":39">{{cite book |last1=Lewicki |first1=Wojciech |date=2019-11-14 |pages=26–36 |location=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-35542-5 |last2=Stankiewicz |first2=Bogusław |last3=Olejarz-Wahba |first3=Aleksandra A. |title=Smart and Green Solutions for Transport Systems |chapter=The Role of Intelligent Transport Systems in the Development of the Idea of Smart City |series=Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing |volume=1091 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-35543-2_3 |s2cid=209787449 }}</ref> This would then lead to a “smart city”.<ref name=":39" /> These systems promote active safety by increasing the efficiency of roads, possibly by adding 22.5% capacity on average, not the actual count.<ref name=":39" /> ADAS have aided in this increase in active safety, according to a study in 2008. ITS systems use a wide system of communication technology, including wireless technology and traditional technology, to enhance productivity.<ref name=":38" />
''Driver control assistance systems'' (DCAS) is the name of a draft ADAS regulation.<ref>Car industry piling on the pressure for weak assisted driving system safety rules in Europe, 23 June 2023, ETSC
https://etsc.eu/car-industry-piling-on-the-pressure-for-weak-assisted-driving-system-safety-rules-in-europe/</ref>
It would allow hands-free driving with a possible risk of lack of attentiveness.<ref>Driver Attentiveness to the Driving Task During ADAS Use, Commissioned by the Department for Transport (T0305), Oliver Carsten, Mickaël Perrier, Samantha Jamson, May 2023
https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/201448/1/ADAS%20user%20attentiveness%20report%20final.pdf</ref>
Such DCAS regulation would allow system such as Tesla FSD in Europe.<ref>EU Speeds Up Driver Assist Regulations That Would Allow Tesla To Deploy FSD Beta in Europe, 2 May 2023, Cristian Agatie
https://www.autoevolution.com/news/eu-speeds-up-driver-assist-regulations-that-would-allow-tesla-to-deploy-fsd-beta-in-europe-214356.html</ref>
The UNECE driver control assistance systems regulation plan that DCAS shall be designed to ensure that the driver performs the driving task, that the driver's hands must remain on the wheel and that the system shall monitor the driver’s visual engagement.<ref>New UN regulation paves the way for the roll-out of additional driver assistance systems, 01 February 2024 https://unece.org/media/transport/Vehicle-Regulations/press/387961</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Mobileye]]
* [[Applied Intuition]]
* [[EuroFOT]]
* [[Road traffic safety|Road Safety]]
* [[IVBSS| Integrated Vehicle-Based Safety Systems]]
* [[Intelligent transportation system]]
* [[Hands-free driving]]
* [[Traffic psychology]]
* [[Automotive electronics]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Advanced driver assistance systems}}
* [https://www.iihs.org/topics/advanced-driver-assistance Driver Assist Technologies]. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).
{{Self-driving cars and enabling technologies}}
[[Category:Advanced driver assistance systems| ]]
[[Category:Management cybernetics]]