View source for Alans

{{Short description|Ancient Iranic people of the North Caucasus}}
{{Distinguish |Alan (disambiguation)|Alanis (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Alani}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Alans
| native_name      = Alani
| native_name_lang =
| image            = [[File:Alans.jpg|250px]]
| image_caption    = Map showing the migrations of the Alans
| total            = <!-- total population worldwide -->
| total_year       = <!-- year of total population -->
| total_source     = <!-- source of total population; may be ''census'' or ''estimate'' -->
| total_ref        = <!-- references supporting total population -->
| genealogy        =
| regions          =
| languages        = [[Scythian languages|Scythian]], [[Scythian languages#Classification|Alanian]]
| philosophies     =
| religions        =
| related_groups   = [[Ossetians]]
| footnotes        =
}}
{{Indo-European topics}}
The '''Alans''' ([[Latin]]: ''Alani'') were an ancient and medieval [[Iranian peoples|Iranic]] [[Eurasian nomads|nomadic pastoral]] people who migrated to what is today [[North Caucasus]]{{sfn|Golden|2009}}{{sfn|Abaev|Bailey|1985|pages= 801–803}}<ref name="WM Alans">{{harvnb|Waldman|Mason|2006|pp= 12–14}}</ref><ref name="Osprey10">{{harvnb|Brzezinski|Mielczarek|2002|pp= 10–11}}</ref><ref name="Zadneprovskiy467">{{harvnb|Zadneprovskiy|1994|pp= 467–468}}</ref> – while some continued on to Europe and later North-Africa. They are generally regarded as part of the [[Sarmatians]], and possibly related to the [[Massagetae]].{{Sfn|Alemany|2000|p= 1}} Modern historians have connected the Alans with the [[Central Asia]]n [[Yancai]] of [[China|Chinese]] sources and with the [[Aorsi]] of [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] sources.<ref name="Zadneprovskiy465">{{harvnb| Zadneprovskiy|1994|pp= 465–467}}</ref> Having migrated westwards and becoming dominant among the Sarmatians on the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]], the Alans are mentioned by Roman sources in the {{CE|1st century|link=y}}.{{sfn|Golden|2009}}{{sfn|Abaev|Bailey|1985|pages= 801–803}} At that time they had settled the region north of the [[Black Sea]] and frequently raided the [[Parthian Empire]] and the [[South Caucasus]] provinces of the [[Roman Empire]].<ref name="EB Alani">{{cite encyclopedia |url= http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12171/Alani |author= <!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title= Alani |encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online |date= 2015 |access-date= 1 January 2015 |archive-date= 4 November 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131104160114/http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12171/Alani |url-status= dead }}</ref> From {{CE|215 to 250|link=y}} the [[Goths]] broke their power on the [[Pontic Steppe]],<ref name="Osprey10" /> thereby assimilating a sizeable portion of the associated Alans.
Upon the [[Huns|Hunnic]] defeat of the Goths on the Pontic Steppe around {{CE|375}}, many of the Alans migrated westwards along with various [[List of ancient Germanic peoples|Germanic tribes]]. They [[Crossing of the Rhine|crossed]] the [[Rhine]] in 406{{nbsp}}CE along with the [[Vandals]] and [[Suebi]], settling in [[Orléans]] and [[Valence, Drôme|Valence]]. Around 409 CE they joined the Vandals and Suebi in crossing the [[Pyrenees]] into the [[Iberian Peninsula]], settling in [[Lusitania]] and [[Hispania Carthaginensis]].<ref name="EB Spain">{{cite encyclopedia | url= http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/557573/Spain/70357/Visigothic-Spain-to-c-500#ref587098 | title= Spain: Visigothic Spain to c. 500 |author= <!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date= 2015 |encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online | publisher= [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |access-date= 1 January 2015}}</ref> The Iberian Alans, soundly defeated by the [[Visigoths]] in 418 CE, subsequently surrendered their authority to the [[Hasdingi]] [[Vandals]].<ref name="EB Vandals">{{cite encyclopedia | url= http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/622890/Vandal |title= Vandal |author= <!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date= 2015 |encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online |publisher= [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |access-date= 1 January 2015}}</ref> In 428{{nbsp}}CE, the Vandals and Alans crossed the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] into [[North Africa]], where they founded a [[Vandal Kingdom|kingdom]] which lasted until its conquest by forces of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Emperor [[Justinian I]] in 534.<ref name="EB Vandals" />
Eventually in the 9th century those Alans who remained under Hunnic rule established the regionally powerful kingdom of [[Alania]]. It survived until the [[Mongols|Mongol]] [[Mongol invasions and conquests|invasions]] of the 13th century CE. Various scholars regard these Alans as the ancestors of the modern Ossetians.<ref name="EB Alani" /><ref name="Shnirelman">{{cite journal | last1 = Shnirelman | first1 = Victor | year = 2006 | title = The Politics of a Name: Between Consolidation and Separation in the Northern Caucasus | url = http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/acta/23/02_shnirelman.pdf | journal = Acta Slavica Iaponica | volume = 23 |pages = 37–49}}</ref>
The Alans spoke an [[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian language]] which derived from [[Scythian languages|Scytho-Sarmatian]] and which in turn evolved into the modern [[Ossetian language]].{{sfn| Abaev |Bailey|1985|pages= 801–803}}{{sfn|Alemany|2000|pp= 5–7}}<ref>
For [[ethnogenesis]], see [[Walter Pohl]], [http://www.kroraina.com/bulgar/pohl_etnicity.html "Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies"] in ''Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings'', ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, Blackwell, 1998, pp. 13–24.</ref> The name ''Alan'' represents an [[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian]] dialectal form of Old Iranian term ''[[Aryan]]'',{{sfn| Golden|2009}}{{sfn|Abaev|Bailey|1985|pages= 801–803}}{{sfn|Alemany|2000|pp=1–5}} and so is cognate with the name of the country ''[[Iran|Īrān]]'' (from the gen. plur. ''*aryānām'').<ref>{{Citation |last1=Abaev |first1=V. I. |title=ALANS |date=26 August 2020 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/alans-COM_5117|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica Online |access-date=16 November 2023 |publisher=Brill |language=en |last2=Bailey |first2=H. W.}}</ref>
==Name==
The Alans were documented by foreign observers from the 1st century CE onward under similar names: {{Langx|la|Alānī}}; {{langx|el|Ἀλανοί}} ''{{transliteration|el|Alanoi}}''; {{lang-zh|阿蘭聊}} ''{{transliteration|zh|ISO|Alanliao}}'' ([[Pinyin]]; ''Alan'' + ''Liu'') in the 2nd century,<ref>{{cite web| url = http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html| title = The ''Hou Hanshu''}}</ref> {{lang|zh|阿蘭}} ''{{transliteration|zh|ISO|Alan}}'' in the 3rd century,<ref>{{cite web| url = http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html| title = The ''Weilüe''}}</ref> later ''Alanguo'' ({{lang|zh|阿蘭國}});<ref>Kozin, S.A., Sokrovennoe skazanie, M.-L., 1941. pp. 83–84</ref> [[Parthian language|Parthian]] and [[Middle Persian]] ''Alānān'' (plural); [[Arabic]] ''Alān'' (singular); [[Syriac language|Syriac]] ''Alānayē''; [[Classical Armenian]] ''Alank'''; [[Georgian language|Georgian]] ''Alaneti'' ('country of the Alans'); [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Alan'' (pl. ''Alanim'').{{sfn|Alemany|2000|pp=1–2}}{{sfn|Golden|2009}} Rarer Latin spellings include ''Alauni'' or ''Halani''.{{Sfn|Alemany|2000|pp=33, 99}} The name was also preserved in the modern [[Ossetian language]] as ''Allon''.<ref>Abaev V. I. Historical-Etymological Dictionary of Ossetian Language. V. 1. М.–Л., 1958. pp. 47–48.</ref>{{Sfn|Alemany|2000|p=4}}
The [[ethnonym]] ''Alān'' is a dialectal variant of the [[Old Iranian]] *''Aryāna'', itself derived from the root ''arya''-, meaning '[[Aryan]]', the common self-designation of [[Indo-Iranian peoples]].<ref name="Mallory">{{harvnb|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=213|ps=: "Iran ''Alani'' (< *''aryana'') (the name of an Iranian group whose descendants are the Ossetes, one of whose subdivisions is the ''Iron'' [< *''aryana''-)), *''aryranam'' (gen. pi.) ‘of the Aryans’ (> MPers ''Iran'')."}}</ref><ref name="Alemany">{{harvnb|Alemany|2000|pp=3–4|ps=: "Nowadays, however, only two possibilities are admitted as regards [the etymology of ''Alān''], both closely related: (a) the adjective *''aryāna''- and (b) the gen. pl. *''aryānām''; in both cases the underlying OIran. ajective *''arya''- 'Aryan' is found. It is worth mentioning that although it is not possible to give an unequivocal option because both forms produce the same phonetic result, most researchers tend to favour the derivative *''aryāna''-, because it has a more appropriate semantic value ... The ethnic name *''arya''- underlying in the name of the Alans has been linked to the Av. ''Airiianəm Vaēǰō'' 'the Aryan plain'."}}</ref>{{sfn|Golden|2009}} It probably came in use in the early history of the Alans for the purpose of uniting a heterogeneous group of tribes through the invocation of a common, ancestral 'Aryan' origin.{{Sfn|Alemany|2000|p=4}} Like the [[name of Iran]] (*''Aryānām''), the adjective *''aryāna'' is related to ''[[Airyanem Vaejah|Airyanəm Waēǰō]]'' ('stretch of the Aryas'), the mythical homeland of the early Iranians mentioned in the ''[[Avesta]]''.<ref name="Alemany" />{{sfn|Golden|2009}}
Some other ethnonyms also bear the name of the Alans: the ''[[Rhoxolani|Rhoxolāni]]'' ('Bright Alans'), an offshoot of the Alans whose name may be linked to religious practices, and the ''Alanorsoi'' ('White Alans'), perhaps a conglomerate of Alans and [[Aorsi]].{{Sfn|Alemany|2000|p=8}} The personal names ''[[Alan (given name)|Alan]]'' and ''[[Alain (given name)|Alain]]'' (from Latin ''Alanus'') may have been introduced by Alan settlers to Western Europe during the first millennium CE.{{Sfn|Alemany|2000|p=5}}
The Alans were also known over the course of their history by another group of related names including the variations ''Asi'', ''As'', and ''Os'' ([[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''{{lang|ro|Iasi or Olani}}'', [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] ''{{transliteration|bg|Uzi}}'', [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] ''{{lang|hu|Jász}}'', [[Russian language|Russian]] ''{{transliteration|ru|Jasy}}'', [[Georgian language|Georgian]] ''{{transliteration|ka|Osi}}'').{{Sfn|Alemany|2000|pp=5–7}}<ref>Sergiu Bacalov, ''Medieval Alans in Moldova'' / ''Consideraţii privind olanii (alanii) sau iaşii din Moldova medievală. Cu accent asupra acelor din regiunea Nistrului de Jos'' https://bacalovsergiu.files.wordpress.com/2016/05/download-sergiu-bacalov-considerac5a3ii-privind-olanii-alanii-sau-iac59fii-din-moldova-medievalc483.pdf)</ref> It is this name at the root of the modern ''[[Ossetians|Ossetian]]''.{{sfn|Alemany|2000|pp=5–7}}
==History==
===Timeline===
<timeline>
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id:sovereign value:rgb(1,0,0) legend:Sovereign
id:subject value:rgb(1,0.5,0.5) legend:Subject
id:semi value:rgb(1,0.25,0.25) legend:Semi-independent
id:grid value:rgb(0.8,0.8,0.8)
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Period     = from:20 till:2020
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Bardata =
bar:Africa text:"[[Africa Province|Africa]]"
bar:Gaul text:[[Gaul]]
bar:Danube text:[[Danube]]
bar:Ciscaucasus text:[[Ciscaucasus]]
bar:Caucasus text:[[Caucasus]]
Plotdata =
bar:Ciscaucasus from:start till:375 color:sovereign $wide
bar:Ciscaucasus at:20 text:"Ancient Alan kingdoms"
bar:Ciscaucasus at:375 text:[[Huns]]
bar:Ciscaucasus from:375 till:455 color:subject $wide
bar:Danube from:start till:175 color:sovereign $wide
bar:Danube at:30 text:"[[Roxolani]] & [[Iazyges]]"
bar:Danube from:380 till:480 color:subject $wide
bar:Danube at:385 text:"Alans settled in Pannonia"
bar:Gaul from:406 till:499 color:semi $wide
bar:Gaul at:406 text:"Alan kingdoms at~Orléans and Valence"
bar:Africa from:429 till:534 color:sovereign $wide
bar:Africa at:430 text:"Kingdom of the~[[Vandals]] and Alans"
bar:Ciscaucasus from:455 till:1239 color:sovereign $wide
bar:Ciscaucasus from:721 till:965 color:semi $wide
bar:Ciscaucasus at:750 text:"[[Khazars]]"
Bar:Ciscaucasus at:1000 text:"Medieval Alania"
bar:Ciscaucasus from:1239 till:1440 color:subject $wide
bar:Ciscaucasus at:1245 text:[[Mongols]]
bar:Ciscaucasus from:1440 till:1774 color:semi $wide
bar:Ciscaucasus from:1774 till:end color:subject $wide
bar:Ciscaucasus at: 1810 text:"[[North Ossetia-Alania|North Ossetia]]~[[North Ossetia-Alania|/Alania]]"
bar:Danube from:1318 till:end color:subject $wide
bar:Danube at:1500 text:"[[Jassic people|Jassic]] (Jazones) in Hungary"
bar:Caucasus from:1239 till:1440 color:subject $wide
bar:Caucasus from:1440 till:1804 color:semi $wide
bar:Caucasus at:1500 text:
bar:Ciscaucasus at:1500 text:"[[Iron (dialect)|Iron]]~[[Digor (dialect)|Digor]]"
bar:Caucasus from:1804 till:1991 color:subject $wide
bar:Caucasus at:1922 text:"[[South Ossetia]]"
bar:Caucasus from:1991 till:end color:subject $wide
</timeline>
===Origin===
The Alans were formed out of the merger of the [[Massagetae]], a Central Asian Iranian nomadic people, with some old tribal groups. Related to the [[Asii]] who had invaded [[Bactria]] in the 2nd century BCE, the Alans were pushed west by the [[Kangju]] people (known to Graeco-Roman authors as the {{lang|grc|Ἰαξάρται}} {{transliteration|grc|Iaxártai}} in Greek, and the {{lang|la|Iaxartae}} in Latin), the latter of whom were living in the [[Syr Darya]] basin, from where they expanded their rule from Fergana to the Aral Sea region.<ref>{{cite book |last=Olbrycht |first=Marek Jan |date=2000 |title=Collectanea Celto-Asiatica Cracoviensia |chapter=Remarks on the Presence of Iranian Peoples in Europe and Their Asiatic Relations |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/11934986 |location=[[Kraków]] |publisher=[[:pl:Księgarnia Akademicka|Księgarnia Akademicka]] |pages=101–104 |isbn=978-8-371-88337-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Melyukova |first=A. I. |author-link=Anna Melyukova |editor-last=Sinor |translator-last=Crookenden |translator-first=Julia |editor-first=Denis |editor-link=Denis Sinor |date=1990 |title=The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia |volume=1 |url= |location=[[Cambridge]], [[United Kingdom]]; [[New York City]], [[United States]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=97–117 |isbn=978-0-521-24304-9 }}</ref>
===Early Alans===
[[File:Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG).png|thumb|Scythians and related Northeastern Iranic peoples in the Iron Age highlighted in green.]]
[[File:Roman Empire 125.png|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Europe, 117–138 CE, when the Alani were concentrated north of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] (centre right).]]
The first mentions of names that historians link with the ''Alani'' appear at almost the same time in texts from the Mediterranean, Middle East and China.{{sfn|Alemany|2000|p=?}}
In the 1st century CE, the Alans migrated westwards from [[Central Asia]], achieving a dominant position among the Sarmatians living between the [[Don River (Russia)|Don River]] and the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name="Osprey10" /><ref name="Zadneprovskiy467" /> The Alans are mentioned in the Vologases inscription which reads that [[Vologases I]], the Parthian king between around {{nbsp}}45 and 78 CE, in the 11th year of his reign (62 CE), battled [[Kuluk]], king of the Alani.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.lostlanguages.com/parthian.htm| title = Vologeses inscription.}}
</ref> The 1st century CE Jewish historian [[Josephus]] supplements this inscription. Josephus reports in the ''Jewish Wars'' (book{{nbsp}}7, ch.{{nbsp}}7.4) how Alans (whom he calls a "[[Scythia]]n" tribe) living near the [[Sea of Azov]] crossed the [[Gates of Alexander|Iron Gates]] for plunder (72{{nbsp}}CE) and defeated the armies of [[Pacorus of Media Atropatene|Pacorus]], king of [[Medes|Media]], and [[Tiridates I of Armenia|Tiridates]], King of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], two brothers of [[Vologases I of Parthia|Vologeses I]] (for whom the above-mentioned inscription was made):
{{blockquote|text=Now there was a nation of the Alans, which we have formerly mentioned somewhere as being Scythians, and living around [[Tanais]] and [[Sea of Azov|Lake Maeotis]]. This nation about this time laid a design of falling upon [[Medes|Media]], and the parts beyond it, in order to plunder them; with which intention they treated with the king of [[Hyrcania]]; for he was master of that [[Darial Gorge|passage]] which king [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] shut up with iron gates. This king gave them leave to come through them; so they came in great multitudes, and fell upon the [[Medes]] unexpectedly, and plundered their country, which they found full of people, and replenished with abundance of cattle, while nobody dared make any resistance against them; for Pacorus, the king of the country, had fled away for fear into places where they could not easily come at him, and had yielded up everything he had to them, and had only saved his wife and his concubines from them, and that with difficulty also, after they had been made captives, by giving a hundred talents for their ransom. These Alans therefore plundered the country without opposition, and with great ease, and proceeded as far as Armenia, laying waste all before them. Now, Tiridates was king of that country, who met them and fought them but was lucky not to have been taken alive in the battle; for a certain man threw a noose over him and would soon have drawn him in, had he not immediately cut the cord with his sword and escaped. So the Alans, being still more provoked by this sight, laid waste the country, and drove a great multitude of the men, and a great quantity of the other booty from both kingdoms, along with them, and then retreated back to their own country.}}
The fact that the Alans invaded [[Parthian Empire|Parthia]] through [[Hyrcania]] shows that at the time many Alans were still based north-east of the Caspian Sea.<ref name="Osprey10" /> By the early 2nd century CE the Alans were in firm control of the [[Volga River|Lower Volga]] and [[Kuban River|Kuban]].<ref name="Osprey10" /> These lands had earlier been occupied by the [[Aorsi]] and the [[Siraces]], whom the Alans apparently absorbed, dispersed and/or destroyed, since they were no longer mentioned in contemporaneous accounts.<ref name="Osprey10" /> It is likely that the Alans' influence stretched further westwards, encompassing most of the Sarmatian world, which by then possessed a relatively homogenous culture.<ref name="Osprey10" />
In {{CE|135}}, the Alans made a huge raid into [[Asia Minor]] via the Caucasus, ravaging Media and Armenia.<ref name="Osprey10" /> They were eventually driven back by [[Arrian]], the [[Roman governor|governor]] of [[Cappadocia (Roman province)|Cappadocia]], who wrote a detailed report (''Ektaxis kata Alanoon'' or 'War Against the Alans') that is a major source for studying Roman [[military tactics]].
From 215 to 250, the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[Goths]] expanded south-eastwards and broke the Alan dominance on the [[Pontic Steppe]].<ref name="Osprey10" /> The Alans however seem to have had a significant influence on the culture of the Goths, who became excellent horsemen and adopted the Alanic animal style art.<ref name="Osprey10" /> (The Roman Empire, during the chaos of the 3rd century civil wars, suffered damaging raids by the Gothic armies with their heavy cavalry before the [[Illyrian Emperors]] adapted to the Gothic tactics, reorganized and expanded the Roman heavy cavalry, and defeated the Goths under [[Gallienus]], [[Claudius II]] and [[Aurelian]].)
After the Gothic entry to the steppe, many of the Alans seem to have retreated eastwards towards the Don, where they seem to have established contacts with the [[Huns]].<ref name="Osprey10" /> Ammianus writes that the Alans were "somewhat like the Huns, but in their manner of life and their habits they are less savage."<ref name="Osprey10" /> [[Jordanes]] contrasted them with the Huns, noting that the Alans "were their equals in battle, but unlike them in their civilisation, manners and appearance".<ref name="Osprey10" /> In the late 4th century, [[Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus|Vegetius]] conflates Alans and Huns in his military treatise{{snds}} ''Hunnorum Alannorumque natio'', the "nation of Huns and Alans"{{snds}}and collocates Goths, Huns and Alans, ''exemplo Gothorum et Alannorum Hunnorumque''.<ref>Vegetius 3.26, noted in passing by T.D. Barnes, "The Date of Vegetius" ''Phoenix'' '''33'''.3 (Autumn 1979, pp. 254–257) p. 256. "The collocation of these three barbarian races does not recur a generation later", Barnes notes, in presenting a case for a late 4th-century origin for Vegetius' treatise.</ref>
The 4th century Roman historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] noted that the Alans were "formerly called [[Massagetae]],"<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]]. [[Roman History]]. [[s:Roman History/Book XXXI#II|Book XXXI. II. 12]]</ref> while [[Dio Cassius]] wrote that "they are Massagetae."<ref name="Osprey10" /> It is likely that the Alans were an amalgamation of various [[Iranian peoples]], including [[Sarmatians]], Massagetae and [[Saka]]s.<ref name="Osprey10" /> Scholars have connected the Alans to the nomadic state of [[Yancai]] mentioned in [[China|Chinese]] sources.<ref name="Zadneprovskiy465" /> The Yancai are first mentioned in connection with late 2nd century BCE diplomat [[Zhang Qian|Zhang Qian's]] travels in Chapter 123 of ''[[Shiji]]'' (whose author, [[Sima Qian]], died c. 90 BCE).<ref name="Zadneprovskiy465" /><ref>Watson, Burton trans. 1993. ''Records of the Grand Historian by [[Sima Qian]]. Han Dynasty II.'' (Revised Edition), p. 234. [[Columbia University Press]]. New York. {{ISBN|0-231-08166-9|0-231-08167-7}} (pbk.)</ref> The Yancai of Chinese records has again been equated with the [[Aorsi]], a powerful Sarmatian tribe living between the [[Don River (Russia)|Don River]] and the [[Aral Sea]], mentioned in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] records, in particular [[Strabo]].<ref name="Zadneprovskiy465" />
===Link to ''Yancai'' (奄蔡) / ''Hesu'' (闔蘇) / ''Alan'' (阿蘭) ===
The Later [[Han dynasty]] Chinese chronicle, the ''[[Book of Later Han|Hou Hanshu]]'', 88 (covering the period 25–220 and completed in the 5th century), mentioned a report that the ''Yancai'' nation (奄蔡 lit "Vast Steppes" or "Extensive Grasslands" < [[Eastern Han Chinese|LHC]] *''ʔɨam<sup>B</sup>''-''sɑ<sup>C</sup>''; a.k.a. ''Hesu'' (闔蘇), compare [[Latin]] ''Abzoae'',<ref>{{cite journal|last= Yu|first= Taishan|title= A Study of Saka History|journal= Sino-Platonic Papers|issue= 80|date= July 1998|url= http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp080_saka_sai.pdf|quote= Yan Shigu's 顏師古 commentary says: "Hu Guang 胡廣 adds: "Some 1,000 li to the north of Kangju was a state named Yancai, which also was named Hesu. Hence Hesu was identical with Yancai." This shows that the Yancai were also called the Hesu in the Han times.}}</ref><ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' IV [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/pliny_elder-natural_history/1938/pb_LCL352.365.xml p. 365]</ref> identified with the [[Aorsi]] ([[Ancient Greek]] ''Αορσιοι'')<ref>Schuessler, Axel. (2009) ''Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 348</ref><ref>[[Yu Huan]], ''[[Weilüe]]''. draft translation by John E. Hill (2004). ''Translator's Notes'' [https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.html#11_2 11.2] quote: "Yăncài, already mentioned in the text as a country northwest of Kāngjū (at that time in the region of Tashkend), has long been identified with the Aorsoi of western sources, a nomadic people out of whom the well-known Alans later emerged (Pulleyblank [1962: 99, 220; 1968:252])".</ref>) had become a vassal state of the [[Kangju]] and was now known as ''Alan'' (< LHC: *''ʔɑ-lɑn'' 阿蘭)<ref>Schuessler (2009). pp. 211, 246</ref><ref>Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the ''Hou Hanshu''." Revised Edition.</ref>{{efn|According to [[Édouard Chavannes|Chavannes]] (1907), [[Weilüe]] correctly states that Yancai's alternative name is simply 阿蘭 ''Ālán'' instead of 阿蘭聊 ''Ālánliáo'' as recorded in [[Book of Later Han]]; as 聊 ''Liáo'' looks similar to 柳 ''Liǔ'', the name of a separate country already mentioned before 岩 ''Yán'' & 阿蘭 ''Ālán''.<ref>[https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B%E5%BF%97/%E5%8D%B730#%E8%A5%BF%E6%88%8E ''Weilüe'': "Western Regions"], quoted in Sanguozhi vol. 30</ref><ref>''Houhanshu'', Vol. 88: Xiyu zhuan [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%BE%8C%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B788#%E5%A5%84%E8%94%A1%E5%9C%8B Yancai]" quote: "奄蔡國，改名阿兰聊國，居地城，屬康居。土气温和，多桢松、白草。民俗衣服與康居同。"</ref><ref>Hill, John E. (translator). ''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu: The Xiyu juan'' "Chapter on the Western Regions" from Hou Hanshu 88 2nd Ed [https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hhshu/notes19.html "Section 19 – The Kingdom of Alanliao 阿蘭聊 (the Alans)"]</ref>}}
Y. A. Zadneprovskiy suggests that the Kangju subjugation of Yancai occurred in the 1st century BCE, and that this subjugation caused various Sarmatian tribes, including the Aorsi, to migrate westwards, which played a major role in starting the [[Migration Period]].<ref name="Zadneprovskiy465" /><ref name="Zadneprovskiy463">{{harvnb|Zadneprovskiy|1994|pp=463–464}}</ref> The 3rd century [[Weilüe]] also notes that Yancai was then known to be Alans, although they were no longer vassals of the Kangju.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html| title = For an earlier version of this translation}}</ref>
Dutch Sinologist [[A. F. P. Hulsewé]] noted that:<ref>Hulsewé. A. F .P. (1979) ''China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty.'' p. 129, n. 316. cited in John E. Hill. Translator's Notes [https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.html#25_3 25.3 & 25.4] to draft translation of [[Yu Huan]]'s [[Weilüe]]</ref>
{{blockquote|Chavannes (1905), p. 558, note 5, approves of the identification of Yen-ts’ai with the ‘Αορσοι mentioned by Strabo, as proposed by Hirth (1885), p. 139, note 1 ; he believes this identification to be strengthened by the later name Alan, which explains Ptolemy's "Alanorsi". Marquart (1905), pp. 240–241, did not accept this identification, but Pulleyblank (1963), pp. 99 and 220, does, referring for additional support to HSPC 70.6b where the name Ho-su 闔蘇, reconstructed in ‘Old Chinese’ as ĥa̱p-sa̱ĥ, can be compared with Abzoae found in Pliny VI, 38 (see also Pulleyblank (1968), p. 252). Also Humbach (1969), pp. 39–40, accepts the identification, though with some reserve.}}
===Migration to Gaul===
[[File:Butler Migrations of the Barbarians.jpg|thumb|The migrations of the Alans during the 4th–5th centuries CE, from their homeland in the [[North Caucasus]]]]
Around 370, according to Ammianus, the peaceful relations between the Alans and Huns were broken, after the Huns attacked the Don Alans, killing many of them and establishing an alliance with the survivors.<ref name="Osprey10" /><ref>Giovanni de Marignolli, "John De' Marignolli and His Recollections of Eastern Travel", in [https://archive.org/details/cathayandwaythi00marigoog ''Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China''], Volume 2, ed. [[Henry Yule]] (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1866), 316–317.</ref> These Alans successfully invaded the Goths in 375 together with the Huns.<ref name="Osprey10" /> They subsequently accompanied the Huns in their westward expansion.<ref name="Osprey10" />
Following the Hunnic invasion in 370, other Alans, along with other [[Sarmatians]], migrated westward.<ref name="Osprey10" /> One of these Alan groups fought together with the Goths in the decisive [[Battle of Adrianople]] in 378{{nbsp}}CE, in which [[Roman emperor|emperor]] [[Valens]] was killed.<ref name="Osprey10" /> As the Roman Empire [[Decline of the Roman Empire|continued to decline]], the Alans split into various groups; some fought for the Romans while others joined the Huns, [[Visigoths]] or [[Ostrogoths]].<ref name="Osprey10" /> A portion of the western Alans joined the [[Vandals]] and the [[Suebi]] in their invasion of Roman [[Gaul]]. [[Gregory of Tours]] mentions in his ''[[Liber historiae Francorum]]'' ("Book of [[Franks|Frankish]] History") that the Alan king [[Respendial]] saved the day for the [[Vandals]] in an armed encounter with the [[Franks]] at the [[crossing of the Rhine]] on December{{nbsp}}31, 406). According to Gregory, another group of Alans, led by [[Goar]], crossed the Rhine at the same time, but immediately joined the Romans and settled in Gaul.
Under Beorgor ({{lang|la|Beorgor rex Alanorum}}), they moved throughout Gaul, till the reign of [[Petronius Maximus]], when they crossed the [[Alps]] in the winter of 464, into [[Liguria]], but were there [[Battle of Bergamo|defeated]], and Beorgor slain, by [[Ricimer]], commander of the Emperor's forces.<ref>[[Isaac Newton]], ''Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John'' (1733).</ref><ref>[[Paul the Deacon]], ''Historia Romana'', XV, 1.</ref>
In 442, after it became clear to [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]] that he could no longer rely upon the [[Huns]] for support, he turned to [[Goar]] and persuaded him to move some of his people to settlements in the [[Orléanais|Orleanais]] in order to control the [[bacaudae]] of [[Armorica]] and to keep the [[Visigoths]] from expanding their territories northward across the [[Loire]]. [[Goar]] settled a substantial number of his followers in the [[Orléanais|Orleanais]] and the area to the north and personally moved his own capital to the city of [[Orléans|Orleans]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aaGCbuuajFAC|title=A History of the Alans in the West|last=Bachrach|first=Bernard S.|date=1973|publisher=U of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0816656998|pages=63|language=en}}</ref>
Under Goar, they allied with the [[Burgundians]] led by [[Gundaharius]], with whom they installed the Emperor [[Jovinus]] as usurper. Under Goar's successor [[Sangiban]], the Alans of [[Orléans]] played a critical role in repelling the invasion of [[Attila the Hun]] at the [[Battle of Châlons]]. In 463 the Alans defeated the [[Goths]] at the [[Battle of Orleans (463)|battle of Orléans]], and they later defeated the [[Franks]] led by [[Childeric I|Childeric]] in 466.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aaGCbuuajFAC|title=A History of the Alans in the West|last=Bachrach|first=Bernard S.|date=1973|publisher=U of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0816656998|pages=77|language=en}}</ref> Around 502–503 [[Clovis I|Clovis]] attacked [[Armorica]] but was defeated by the Alans. However, the Alans, who were [[Chalcedonian]] Christians like Clovis, desired cordial relations with him to counterbalance the hostile [[Arianism|Arian]] [[Visigoths]] who coveted the land north of the [[Loire]]. Therefore, an accord was arranged by which Clovis came to rule the various peoples of Armorica and the military strength of the area was integrated into the Merovingian military.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jbz9IyOvfPoC|title=Merovingian Military Organization, 481–751|last=Bachrach|first=Bernard S.|date=1972|publisher=U of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0816657001|pages=10|language=en}}</ref>
===Hispania and Africa===
[[File:Alan kingdom hispania.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Kingdom of the Alans in Hispania (409–426 CE).]]
Following the fortunes of the [[Vandals]] and [[Suebi]] into the [[Iberian peninsula]] ([[Hispania]], comprising modern Portugal and Spain) in 409,<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Atlas of the Classical World, 500 BC–AD 600|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SOzKGAAACAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Barnes & Noble Books|isbn=978-0-7607-1973-2|page=2.16}}</ref> the Alans led by Respendial settled in the provinces of [[Lusitania]] and [[Hispania Carthaginensis|Carthaginensis]].<ref>''"Alani Lusitaniam et Carthaginiensem provincias, et Wandali cognomine Silingi Baeticam sortiuntur"'' ([[Hydatius]])</ref> The Kingdom of the Alans was among the first [[Barbarian kingdoms]] to be founded. The [[Silingi|Siling]] Vandals settled in [[Baetica]], the Suebi in coastal [[Gallaecia]], and the [[Hasdingi|Asding]] Vandals in the rest of Gallaecia. Although the newcomers controlled Hispania they were still a tiny minority among a larger Hispano-Roman population, approximately 200,000 out of 6,000,000.<ref name="EB Spain" />
In 418 (or 426 according to some authors<ref>Castritius, 2007</ref>), the Alan king, [[Attaces]], was killed in battle against the Visigoths, and this branch of the Alans subsequently appealed to the Asding Vandal king [[Gunderic]] to accept the Alan crown. The separate ethnic identity of Respendial's Alans dissolved.<ref>For another rapid disintegration of an ''ethne'' in the Early Middle Ages, see [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avars]]. (Pohl 1998:17f).</ref> Although some of these Alans are thought to have remained in [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]], most went to North Africa with the [[Capture of Carthage (439)|Vandals in 429]]. Later the rulers of the [[Vandal Kingdom]] in North Africa styled themselves ''Rex Wandalorum et Alanorum'' ("King of the Vandals and Alans").<ref name="Latham">{{cite book|last=Latham|first=Robert Gordon|author-link1=Robert Gordon Latham|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6CspAAAAYAAJ|title=Russian and Turk From a Geographical, Ethnological, and Historical Point of View|page=170|publisher=[[W. H. Allen & Co.|W. H. Allen]]|year=1878|isbn=}}</ref><ref name="Chrysos">{{cite book|author=[[:el:Ευάγγελος Χρυσός|Evangelos Chrysos]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bj5pAAAAMAAJ|title=Das Reich und die Barbaren|page=58|publisher=[[Böhlau Verlag|Böhlau]]|year=1989|isbn=978-3205051121}}</ref>
[[File:Vandal alan kingdom 526.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans in North Africa (526 CE).]]
There are some vestiges of the Alans in Portugal,<ref>Milhazes, José. [http://www.rtp.pt/index.php?article=264957&visual=16&rss=0 Os antepassados caucasianos dos portugueses] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101100219/http://www.rtp.pt/index.php?article=264957&visual=16&rss=0 |date=1 January 2016 }}&nbsp;– [[Rádio e Televisão de Portugal]] in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].</ref> namely in [[Alenquer, Portugal|Alenquer]] (whose name may be Germanic for the ''Temple of the Alans'', from "Alan Kerk",<ref>Ivo Xavier Fernándes. Topónimos e gentílicos, Volume 1, 1941, p. 144.</ref> and whose castle may have been established by them; the [[Alaunt]] is still represented in that city's coat of arms), in the construction of the castles of [[Castelo de Torres Vedras|Torres Vedras]] and [[Castle of Almourol|Almourol]], and in the city walls of [[Lisbon]], where vestiges of their presence may be found under the foundations of the [[Igreja de Santa Luzia (Lisbon)|Church of ''Santa Luzia'']].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
In the Iberian peninsula the Alans settled in [[Lusitania]] ([[Alentejo]]) and the Cartaginense provinces. They became known in retrospect for their massive hunting and fighting running [[mastiff]]-type dogs, the [[Alaunt]], which they apparently introduced to Europe. The breed is extinct, but its name is carried by a Spanish breed of dog still called ''[[Alano Español|Alano]]'', traditionally used in [[boar]] hunting and [[cattle]] herding. The Alano name, however, has historically been used for a number of dog breeds in a few European countries thought to descend from the original dog of the Alans, such as the German mastiff ([[Great Dane]]) and the French [[Dogue de Bordeaux]], among others.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
===Medieval Alania===
{{Main|Alania}}
The Alans who remained in their original area of settlement north of the Caucasus (and for a time east of the [[Caspian Sea]] as well), came into contact and conflict with the [[Bulgars]], the [[Gökturks]], and the [[Khazars]], who drove most of them from the plains and into the mountains.<ref name="EI2">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Alān | first1 = W. | last1 = Barthold | first2 = V. | last2 = Minorsky| encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume I: A–B | publisher = Brill| location = Leiden and New York | year = 1986 | isbn = 978-90-04-08114-7 | page = 354 | url = http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/alan-SIM_0502}}</ref>
The Alans converted to [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodoxy]] in the first quarter of the 10th century, during the patriarchate of [[Nicholas I Mystikos]]. [[Al-Mas‘udi]] reports that they apostasized in 932, but this seems to have been short-lived. The Alans are collectively mentioned as Byzantine-rite Christians in the 13th century.<ref name="EI2"/> The Caucasian Alans were the ancestors of the modern [[Ossetians]], whose ethnonym derives from the name ''Ās'' (very probably the ancient ''Aorsi''; al-Ma'sudi mentions ''al-Arsiyya'' as guards among the Khazars, and the Rus' called the Alans ''Yasi''), a sister tribe of the Alans. The ''Armenian Geography'' uses the name ''Ashtigor'' for the most westerly located Alans, a name which survives as ''Digor'' and still refers to the western division of the Ossetians. Furthermore, in Ossetian, ''Asi'' refers to the region around [[Mount Elbrus]], where they probably formerly lived.<ref name="EI2"/>
[[Image:Pontic_steppe_region_around_650_AD.png|thumb|right|250px|The [[Pontic steppe]] in c. 650]]
Some of the other Alans remained under the rule of the Huns. Those of the eastern division, though dispersed about the steppes until late [[Middle Ages|medieval]] times, were forced by the [[Mongols]] into the Caucasus, where they remain as the Ossetians. Between the 9th and 12th centuries, they formed a network of tribal alliances that gradually evolved into the Christian kingdom of [[Alania]]. Most Alans submitted to the [[Mongol Empire]] in 1239–1277. They participated in [[Mongol invasion of Europe|Mongol invasions of Europe]] and [[Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty|the Song dynasty in Southern China]], and the [[Battle of Kulikovo]] under [[Mamai]] of the [[Golden Horde]].<ref>Handbuch Der Orientalistik By Agustí Alemany, Denis Sinor, Bertold Spuler, Hartwig Altenmüller, pp. 400–410</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=citation is not referenced properly & work advocates Altaic theory, which is discredited|date=April 2015}}
In 1253, the Franciscan friar [[William of Rubruck]] reported numerous [[Europeans in Medieval China|Europeans in Central Asia]]. It is also known that 30,000 Alans formed the royal guard ([[Asud]]) of the [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] court in [[Khanbaliq|Dadu]] (Beijing). [[Marco Polo]] later reported their role in the Yuan dynasty in his book ''[[Il Milione]]''. It is said that those Alans contributed to a modern Mongol clan, [[Asud]]. [[John of Montecorvino]], archbishop of Dadu (Khanbaliq), reportedly [[Roman Catholicism in China|converted many Alans to Roman Catholic Christianity]] in addition to [[Armenians in China]].<ref>Roux, p. 465</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.luc.edu/publications/medieval/vol2/guzman.html| title = Christian Europe and Mongol Asia: First Medieval Intercultural Contact Between East and West }}</ref> In Poland and Lithuania, Alans were also part of the powerful [[Clan of Ostoja]].
According to the missionary [[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine|Pian de Carpine]], a part of the Alans had successfully resisted a Mongol siege on a mountain for 12 years:<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Tesaev |first=Amin |date=13 November 2020 |title=К личности и борьбе чеченского героя идига (1238–1250 гг.) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347758240 |url-access=subscription |language=ru |conference=МАТЕРИАЛЫ ВСЕРОССИЙСКОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКОЙ КОНФЕРЕНЦИИ МОЛОДЫХ УЧЕНЫХ «НАУКА И МОЛОДЕЖЬ», ПОСВЯЩЕННОЙ ФИЗИКЕ БУДУЩЕГО] |location=Grozny |pages=451–455 |doi=10.36684/30-2020-1-451-454 }} [https://storage.ucomplex.org/files/users/-1/e3044585c4844770.pdf Conference papers online].</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=When they (the Mongols) begin to besiege a fortress, they besiege it for many years, as it happens today with one mountain in the land of the Alans. We believe they have been besieging it for twelve years and they (the Alans) put up courageous resistance and killed many Tatars, including many noble ones.|author=Giovanni da Pian del Carpine|title=|source=report from 1250}}
This twelve-year-long siege is not found in any other report, however the Russian historian A. I. Krasnov connected this battle with two [[Chechen people|Chechen]] folktales he recorded in 1967 that spoke of an old hunter named Idig who with his companions defended the [[Tebulosmta|Dakuoh]] mountain for 12 years against Tatar-Mongols. He also reported to have found several arrowheads and spears from the 13th century near the very mountain the battle took place at:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Krasnov|first=A.I|title=Копье Тебулос-Мта|journal=Вокруг света|volume=9|pages=29}}</ref>
Against the Alans and the Cumans (Kipchaks), the Mongols used divide-and-conquer tactics by first telling the Cumans to stop allying with the Alans and, after the Cumans followed their suggestion, the Mongols then attacked the Cumans<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sinor |first1=Denis |title=The Mongols in the West |journal=Journal of Asian History |date=1999 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–44 |jstor=41933117 }}</ref> after defeating the Alans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Halperin |first1=Charles J. |title=The Kipchak Connection: The Ilkhans, the Mamluks and Ayn Jalut |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |date=2000 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=229–245 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00007205 |jstor=1559539 |s2cid=162439703 }}</ref> Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former [[Kingdom of Qocho]] and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih).<ref name="Rossabi1983">{{cite book|first=Morris|last=Rossabi|title=China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&q=alan+guard+mongols&pg=PA255|year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04562-0|pages=255–}}</ref> Alan and Kipchak guards were used by Kublai Khan.<ref name="Nicolle2004">{{cite book|first=David|last=Nicolle|title=The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgQXAQAAIAAJ&q=alan+guard+mongols|date=2004|publisher=Brockhampton Press|isbn=978-1-86019-407-8|page=85}}</ref> In 1368 at the end of the Yuan dynasty in China Toghan Temür was accompanied by his faithful Alan guards.<ref name="Hatto1991">{{cite book|author=Arthur Thomas Hatto|author-link=Arthur Thomas Hatto|title=Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QxRpAAAAMAAJ&q=alan+guard+mongols|year=1991|publisher=Peter de Ridder Press|page=36}}</ref> Mangu enlisted in his bodyguard half the troops of the Alan prince, Arslan, whose younger son Nicholas took a part in the expedition of the Mongols against Karajang (Yunnan). This Alan imperial guard was still in existence in 1272, 1286 and 1309, and it was divided into two corps with headquarters in the Ling pei province (Karakorúm).<ref name="Yule1915">{{cite book|author=Sir Henry Yule|title=Cathay and the Way Thither, Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMIWlq6JeccC&q=alan+guard+mongols&pg=PA187|year=1915|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1966-1|pages=187–}}</ref> The French-Flemish friar and traveler William of Rubruck mentions Alans numerous times in the account of his 1253–1255 journey through [[Eurasia]] to the [[Great Khan]], e.g. Alans living as Mongol subjects in [[Crimea]], [[Xacitarxan|Old Astrakhan]], the Khan's capital [[Karakorum]], and also still as freemen in their Caucasian homeland ("the Alans or Aas, who are Christians and still fight the Tartars").<ref>W. W. Rockhill: The journey of William of Rubruck to the eastern parts of the world, 1253–55, as narrated by himself, with two accounts of the earlier journey of John of Pian de Carpine. tr. from the Latin and ed., with an introductory notice, by William Woodville Rockhill (London: Hakluyt Society, 1900). Acc. to: http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/rubruck.html. Chaps. IX and XXII.</ref> The reason why the earlier Persian word tersa was gradually abandoned by the Mongols in favour of the Syro-Greek word arkon, when speaking of Christians, manifestly is that no specifically Greek Church was ever heard of in China until the Russians had been conquered; besides, there were large bodies of Russian and Alan guards at Peking throughout the last half of the thirteenth and first half of the fourteenth century, and the Catholics there would not be likely to encourage the use of a Persian word which was most probably applicable in the first instance to the Nestorians they found so degenerated.<ref name="Parker1905">{{cite book|author=Edward Harper Parker|title=China and religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oP4xuxY0B2QC&q=alan+guard+mongols&pg=PA232|year=1905|publisher=E. P. Dutton|pages=232–|isbn=978-0524009512}}</ref> The Alan guards converted to Catholicism as reported by Odorico.<ref name="Arnold1999">{{cite book|first=Lauren|last=Arnold|title=Princely Gifts and Papal Treasures: The Franciscan Mission to China and Its Influence on the Art of the West, 1250–1350|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRunTSqY7msC&q=alan+guard+mongols&pg=PA79|year=1999|publisher=Desiderata Press|isbn=978-0-9670628-0-8|pages=79–}}</ref> They were a "Russian guard".<ref name="Makeham2008">{{cite book|first=John|last=Makeham|title=China: The World's Oldest Living Civilization Revealed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQ4NAQAAMAAJ&q=russian+guard|year=2008|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-25142-3|page=269}}</ref>
[[File:Cumania-Jazygia-1700s.png|thumb|[[Jászság|Jazygia]], inhabited by the [[Jassic people]], in the 18th century within the [[Kingdom of Hungary]].]]
It is believed that some Alans resettled to the North ([[Barsils]]), merging with [[Volga Bulgars]] and [[Burtas]], eventually transforming to [[Volga Tatars]].<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://kitap.net.ru/bayar.php Тайная история татар] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927151902/http://kitap.net.ru/bayar.php |date=27 September 2007 }}</ref>{{unverifiable|date=June 2013}} It is supposed that the Iasi, a group of Alans founded a town in the northeast of Romania (about 1200–1300), near the Prut river, called [[Iași]]. The latter became the capital of [[Moldavia]] in the Middle Ages.<ref>A. Boldur, ''Istoria Basarabiei'', p. 20</ref>
Alan mercenaries were involved in the affair with the [[Catalan Company]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jessee |first1=Scott |last2=Isaenko |first2=Anatoly |chapter=The Military Effectiveness of Alan Mercenaries in Byzantium, 1301–1306 |pages=107–132 |jstor=10.7722/j.ctt31njvf.9 |editor1-first=Clifford J |editor1-last=Rogers |editor2-first=Kelly |editor2-last=DeVries |editor3-first=John |editor3-last=France |title=Journal of Medieval Military History: Volume XI |date=2013 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-84383-860-9 }}</ref>
===Later history===
Descendants of the Alans who live in the autonomous republics of Russia and Georgia speak the [[Ossetian language]] which belongs to the [[Northeastern Iranian]] language group and is the only remnant of the [[Scytho-Sarmatian]] [[dialect continuum]], which once stretched over much of the [[Pontic steppe]] and [[Central Asia]]. Modern Ossetian has two major dialects: ''Digor'', spoken in the western part of North Ossetia; and ''Iron'', spoken in the rest of Ossetia. A third branch of Ossetian, ''[[Jassic dialect|Jassic]]'' (''Jász''), was formerly spoken in Hungary. The literary language, based on the [[Iron dialect]], was fixed by the [[List of national poets|national poet]], [[Kosta Khetagurov]] (1859–1906).
==Physical appearance==
The fourth-century Roman historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] wrote this on the appearance of the Alans:
{{Blockquote|1=Nearly all the Alani are men of great stature and beauty; their hair is somewhat yellow, their eyes are terribly fierce.<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]]. [[Roman History]]. [[s:Roman History/Book XXXI#II|Book XXXI. II. 21]].</ref>}}
==Genetics==
[[File:Ossetians.JPG|thumb|Ossetians]]
In a study conducted in 2014 by V. V.{{nbsp}}Ilyinskyon on bone fragments from 10 Alanic burials on the Don River, DNA could be abstracted from a total of seven. Four of them turned out to belong to yDNA Haplogroup G2 and six of them had mtDNA{{nbsp}}I. The fact that many of the samples share the same y- and mtDNA raises the possibility that the tested individuals belonged to the same tribe or even were close relatives. Nevertheless, this supports the argument for a direct Alan ancestry of [[Ossetians]], competing with the hypothesis that Ossetians are alanized Caucasic-speakers, as the main haplogroup among Ossetians is also G2.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.academia.edu/7061155 |title = Афанасьев Г.Е., Добровольская М.В., Коробов Д.С., Решетова И.К. О культурной, антропологической и генетической специфике донских алан // Е.И. Крупнов и развитие археологии Северного Кавказа. М. 2014. С. 312–315|last1 = Reshetova|first1 = Irina|last2 = Afanasiev|first2 = Gennady}}</ref>
In 2015, the Institute of Archaeology in Moscow conducted research on various Sarmato-Alan and Saltovo-Mayaki culture Kurgan burials. In this analysis, the two Alan samples from the 4th to 6th century CE had yDNAs G2a-P15 and R1a-z94, while from the three Sarmatian samples from 2nd to 3rd century CE two had yDNA J1-M267 and one possessed R1a.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=z6AHBTuUfQao.kwOSocRsvcoo |title = ДДНК Сарматы, Аланы}}</ref> Also, the three Saltovo-Mayaki samples from 8th to 9th century CE turned out to have yDNAs G, J2a-M410 and R1a-z94 respectively.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.academia.edu/15713987 | title=Афанасьев Г.Е., Вень Ш., Тун С., Ван Л., Вэй Л., Добровольская М.В., Коробов Д.С., Решетова И.К., Ли Х.. Хазарские конфедераты в бассейне Дона // Естественнонаучные методы исследования и парадигма современной археологии. М. 2015. С. 146–153| last1=Reshetova| first1=Irina| last2=Afanasiev| first2=Gennady}}</ref>
A genetic study published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in May 2018 examined the remains of six Alans buried in the [[Caucasus]] from c. 100 CE to 1400 CE. The sample of Y-DNA extracted belonged to [[haplogroup R1]] and [[haplogroup Q-M242]]. One of the [[Q-M242]] samples found in Beslan, North Ossetia from 200 CE found 4 relatives among [[Chechens]] from the Shoanoy Teip.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yfull.com/tree/Q-YP4000/|title=Q-YP4000 YTree}}</ref> The samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to [[Haplogroup HV (mtDNA)|HV2a1]], [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U4|U4d3]], [[Haplogroup X (mtDNA)|X2f]], [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H13a2c]], [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)#H5|H5]], and [[Haplogroup W (mtDNA)|W1]].{{sfn|Damgaard et al.|2018}}
==Archaeology==
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2015}}
Archaeological finds support the written sources. P. D. Rau (1927) first identified late Sarmatian sites with the historical Alans. Based on the archaeological material, they were one of the Iranian-speaking nomadic tribes that began to enter the Sarmatian area between the middle of the 1st and the 2nd centuries.
==Language==
The ancient language of the Alans was an [[Eastern Iranian|Eastern Iranian dialect]] either identical, or at least closely related, to ancient Eastern Iranian languages.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA303|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|last1=Mallory|first1=J. P.|last2=Adams|first2=Douglas Q.|date=1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|language=en}}</ref> This is confirmed by comparison of the word for horse in various Indo-Iranian languages and the reconstructed Alanic word for horse:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fdjAAAAMAAJ|title=Studia iranica et alanica|last1=Abaev|first1=Vasiliĭ Ivanovich|last2=l'Oriente|first2=Istituto italiano per l'Africa e|date=1998|publisher=Istituto italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente|language=ru}}{{page needed|date=August 2022}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Language
!Affiliation
!Horse
|-
|[[Alanian language|Alanic]]
|
|*aspa
|-
|[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
|Baltic
|ašvà
|-
|[[Sanskrit]]
|Indo-Aryan
|''áśva''
|-
|[[Khotanese language|Khotanese]]
|Northeastern Iranian
|a''śś''a
|-
|[[Pashto]]
|East Iranian
|ās
|-
|[[Ossetian language|Ossetian]]
|Northeastern Iranian
|efs
|-
|[[Wakhi language|Wakhi]]
|Northeastern Iranian
|yaš
|-
|[[Yaghnobi language|Yaghnobi]]
|Northeastern Iranian
|asp
|-
|[[Avestan]]
|Southeastern Iranian
|aspa
|-
|[[Balochi language|Balochi]]
|Northwestern Iranian
|asp
|-
|[[Kurdish languages|Kurdî]]
|Northwestern Iranian
|hesp
|-
|[[Median language|Median]]
|Northwestern Iranian
|aspa
|-
|[[Old Persian]]
|Southwestern Iranian
|asa
|-
|[[Middle Persian]]
|Southwestern Iranian
|asp
|-
|[[Persian language|Persian]]
|Southwestern Iranian
|asb
|}
==Religion==
[[File:Assumpt monastery church.JPG|thumb|Orthodox church in [[North Ossetia-Alania]]]]
Prior to their Christianisation, the Alans were Indo-Iranian [[polytheism|polytheists]], subscribing either to the poorly understood [[Scythian religion|Scythian pantheon]] or to a polytheistic form of [[Zoroastrianism]]. Some traditions were directly inherited from the Scythians, like embodying their dominant god in elaborate rituals.<ref>Sulimirski, T. (1985). "The Scyths" in: Fisher, W. B. (Ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 2: The Median and Achaemenian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-20091-1}}. pp. 158–159.</ref>
In the 4th{{nsndns}}5th centuries the Alans were at least partially Christianized by Byzantine missionaries of the [[Arianism|Arian]] church. In the 13th century, invading [[Mongol]] hordes pushed the eastern Alans further south into the Caucasus, where they mixed with native Caucasian groups and successively formed three territorial entities each with different developments. Around 1395, [[Timur]]'s army invaded the [[Northern Caucasus]] and massacred much of the Alanian population.
As time went by, [[Digor (people)|Digor]] in the west came under [[Kabard]] and [[Islamic]] influence. It was through the [[Kabard]]ians (an East [[Circassia]]n tribe) that [[Islam]] was introduced into the region in the 17th century. After 1767, all of Alania came under Russian rule, which strengthened [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] in that region considerably. A substantial minority of today's Ossetians are followers of the traditional Ossetian religion, revived in the 1980s as [[Assianism]] (Ossetian: ''Uatsdin'' = 'true faith').<ref>{{cite journal |last=Foltz |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Foltz |title=Scythian Neo-Paganism in the Caucasus: The Ossetian Uatsdin as a 'Nature Religion' |journal=Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature, and Culture |volume=13 |year=2019 |pages=314–332 |issue=3 |doi=10.1558/jsrnc.39114 |s2cid=213692638 }}</ref>
==See also==
* [[List of ancient Iranian peoples]]
* [[Roxolani]], possibly a sub-set of the Alans
* [[Ossetians]]
* [[Jasz people]]
== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
=== General and cited sources ===
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica | title = Alans | last = Abaev | first = V.I. | last2 = Bailey | first2 = H.W. | author-link1 = Vasily Abaev | author-link2 = Harold Walter Bailey | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/alans-an-ancient-iranian-tribe-of-the-northern-scythian-saka-sarmatian-massagete-group-known-to-classical-writers-from | volume = 1 | fascicle = 8 | pages = 801–803 }}
* {{cite book|last=Alemany|first=Agustí|year=2000|title=Sources on the Alans: A Critical Compilation |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-11442-5}}
* [[Bernard Bachrach|Bernard S. Bachrach]], ''A History of the Alans in the West, from their first appearance in the sources of classical antiquity through the early Middle Ages'', [[University of Minnesota]] Press, 1973 {{ISBN|0-8166-0678-1}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bachrach |first1=Bernard S. |title=The Origin of Armorican Chivalry |journal=Technology and Culture |date=1969 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=166–171 |doi=10.2307/3101476 |jstor=3101476 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Brzezinski |first1=Richard |last2=Mielczarek |first2=Mariusz |date=2002 |title=The Sarmatians, 600 BC–AD 450 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-84176-485-6 }}
* Castritius, H. 2007. Die Vandalen. [[Kohlhammer Verlag]].
* {{cite journal |last1=Damgaard |first1=Peter de Barros |last2=Marchi |first2=Nina |last3=Rasmussen |first3=Simon |last4=Peyrot |first4=Michaël |last5=Renaud |first5=Gabriel |last6=Korneliussen |first6=Thorfinn |last7=Moreno-Mayar |first7=J. Víctor |last8=Pedersen |first8=Mikkel Winther |last9=Goldberg |first9=Amy |last10=Usmanova |first10=Emma |last11=Baimukhanov |first11=Nurbol |last12=Loman |first12=Valeriy |last13=Hedeager |first13=Lotte |last14=Pedersen |first14=Anders Gorm |last15=Nielsen |first15=Kasper |last16=Afanasiev |first16=Gennady |last17=Akmatov |first17=Kunbolot |last18=Aldashev |first18=Almaz |last19=Alpaslan |first19=Ashyk |last20=Baimbetov |first20=Gabit |last21=Bazaliiskii |first21=Vladimir I. |last22=Beisenov |first22=Arman |last23=Boldbaatar |first23=Bazartseren |last24=Boldgiv |first24=Bazartseren |last25=Dorzhu |first25=Choduraa |last26=Ellingvag |first26=Sturla |last27=Erdenebaatar |first27=Diimaajav |last28=Dajani |first28=Rana |last29=Dmitriev |first29=Evgeniy |last30=Evdokimov |first30=Valeriy |last31=Frei |first31=Karin M. |last32=Gromov |first32=Andrey |last33=Goryachev |first33=Alexander |last34=Hakonarson |first34=Hakon |last35=Hegay |first35=Tatyana |last36=Khachatryan |first36=Zaruhi |last37=Khaskhanov |first37=Ruslan |last38=Kitov |first38=Egor |last39=Kolbina |first39=Alina |last40=Kubatbek |first40=Tabaldiev |last41=Kukushkin |first41=Alexey |last42=Kukushkin |first42=Igor |last43=Lau |first43=Nina |last44=Margaryan |first44=Ashot |last45=Merkyte |first45=Inga |last46=Mertz |first46=Ilya V. |last47=Mertz |first47=Viktor K. |last48=Mijiddorj |first48=Enkhbayar |last49=Moiyesev |first49=Vyacheslav |last50=Mukhtarova |first50=Gulmira |last51=Nurmukhanbetov |first51=Bekmukhanbet |last52=Orozbekova |first52=Z. |last53=Panyushkina |first53=Irina |last54=Pieta |first54=Karol |last55=Smrčka |first55=Václav |last56=Shevnina |first56=Irina |last57=Logvin |first57=Andrey |last58=Sjögren |first58=Karl-Göran |last59=Štolcová |first59=Tereza |last60=Taravella |first60=Angela M. |last61=Tashbaeva |first61=Kadicha |last62=Tkachev |first62=Alexander |last63=Tulegenov |first63=Turaly |last64=Voyakin |first64=Dmitriy |last65=Yepiskoposyan |first65=Levon |last66=Undrakhbold |first66=Sainbileg |last67=Varfolomeev |first67=Victor |last68=Weber |first68=Andrzej |last69=Wilson Sayres |first69=Melissa A. |last70=Kradin |first70=Nikolay |last71=Allentoft |first71=Morten E. |last72=Orlando |first72=Ludovic |last73=Nielsen |first73=Rasmus |last74=Sikora |first74=Martin |last75=Heyer |first75=Evelyne |last76=Kristiansen |first76=Kristian |last77=Willerslev |first77=Eske |display-authors=1 |title=137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes |journal=Nature |date=May 2018 |volume=557 |issue=7705 |pages=369–374 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2 |pmid=29743675 |bibcode= 2018Natur.557..369D |hdl=1887/3202709 |s2cid=13670282 |ref={{harvid|Damgaard et al.|2018}}|hdl-access=free }}
* [[Norman Golb|Golb, Norman]] and [[Omeljan Pritsak]], ''Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century.'' Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1982. {{ISBN?}}
* {{EI3 | last = Golden | first = Peter B. | authorlink = Peter Benjamin Golden | title = Alāns | year = 2009 | url = https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/alans-COM_22193?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Al%C4%81ns }}
* Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the ''Hou Hanshu''." 2nd Draft Edition. [http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html]
* Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilüe'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 AD.'' Draft annotated English translation. [http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html]
* Yu, Taishan. 2004. ''A History of the Relationships between the Western and Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Western Regions''. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 131 March 2004. Dept. of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania.
* {{cite book |last1=Waldman |first1=Carl |last2=Mason |first2=Catherine |title=Encyclopedia of European |year=2006 |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4381-2918-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Zadneprovskiy |first=Y. A. |chapter=The Nomads of Northern Central Asia After The Invasion of Alexander |editor1-last=Harmatta |editor1-first=János |editor1-link=János Harmatta |date=1 January 1994 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B.C. to A.D. 250 |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000105703 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |pages=457–472 |isbn=978-92-3-102846-5 }}
==External links==
* [http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/notes19.html Strabo and ''Hou Han Shu'' references discussed] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060212031807/http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/notes19.html |date=12 February 2006 }})
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131105035936/http://www.kafkas.org.tr/english/bgkafkas/Ethnicgeography_Ossets.htm Caucasus Foundation: Caucasus Today: Ossets]
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