View source for Ancient institutions of learning in the Indian subcontinent

{{Short description|Ancient University & institutions of learning in the Indian subcontinent}}
The [[Indian subcontinent]] has a long history of education and learning from the era of [[Indus Valley civilization]]. Important ancient institutions of learning in ancient India are the Buddhist [[Mahaviharas]] of Takshashila,  Kashmir Smast, Nalanda, Valabhi, Pushpagiri, Odantapuri, Vikramashila, Somapura, Bikrampur, Jagaddala.
== Takshashila or Taxila ==
'''First university'''
The [[University of ancient Taxila]] was a renowned [[Buddhist]] [[Ancient higher-learning institutions|ancient institute of higher-learning]] located in the city of [[Taxila]] as well.
According to scattered references that were only fixed a millennium later, it may have dated back to at least the fifth century BC.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|last1=Scharfe|first1=Hartmut|title=Handbuch Der Orientalistik: India. Education in ancient India|last2=Bronkhorst|first2=Johannes|last3=Spuler|first3=Bertold|last4=Altenmüller|first4=Hartwig|year=2002|isbn=978-90-04-12556-8|page=141}}</ref> Some scholars date Takshashila's existence back to the sixth century BC.<ref name="Britannica Education">"History of Education", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2007.</ref> The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis.<ref name="ReferenceA" />
[[File:Dharmarajika stupa,Taxila.jpg|thumb|right|Ruins of University of Taxila]]
Takshashila is described in some detail in later [[Jataka tales|Jātaka]] tales, written in [[Sri Lanka]] around the fifth century AD.<ref>Marshall 1975:81</ref>
It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries BC, and continued to attract students until the destruction of the city in the fifth century AD.
=== Important Teachers ===
Important teachers that are said to be teaching at university of Taxila include;
* [[Pāṇini]], the great 5th century BCE Indian grammarian{{sfnp|Lowe|Yasuhara|2016|p=62}}
* [[Kumāralāta]], according to the 3rd century Chinese Buddhist monk and traveller Yuan Chwang, [[Kumāralāta]], the founder of [[Sautrāntika]] school.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watters|first=Thomas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxnUDwAAQBAJ&q=Kum%C4%81ralabdha&pg=PA245|title=On Yuan Chwang's travels in India, 629-645 A.D|date=1904-01-01|publisher=Dalcassian Publishing Company|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Vasubandhu]], the founder of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is said to be teaching there. His famous pupil includes [[Dharmakirti]] and [[Dignaga]].<ref name="acmuller.net">Lusthaus, Dan; [http://www.acmuller.net/yogacara/thinkers/vasubandhu.html Vasubandhu]</ref>
=== Important Students ===
Important pupil from ancient University of Taxila includes;
* King [[Pasenadi]] of [[Kosala]], a close friend of the Buddha.
* [[Jivaka Komarabhacca|Jivaka]], court doctor at [[Rajagriha]] and personal doctor of the Buddha.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Batchelor|first1=Stephen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QU4_XCZL7x8C&pg=PT256|title=Confession of a Buddhist Atheist|date=2010|publisher=Random House Publishing Group|isbn=9781588369840|page=256|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Charaka]], the Indian "father of medicine" and one of the leading authorities in [[Ayurveda]], is also said to have studied at Taxila, and practiced there.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lowe|first1=Roy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=niExDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT62|title=The Origins of Higher Learning: Knowledge networks and the early development of universities|last2=Yasuhara|first2=Yoshihito|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317543268|page=PT62|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gupta|first1=Subhadra Sen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5ru08et_ZAC&pg=PT27|title=Ashoka|date=2009|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9788184758078|page=PT27|language=en}}</ref>
==Somapura Mahavihara==
[[Somapura Mahavihara]] in Paharpur, [[Badalgachhi Upazila]], [[Naogaon District]], [[Bangladesh]] is among the best known [[vihara]]s, monasteries, in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and is one of the most important archaeological sites in the country. It was one of the largest residential university in ancient India. It was designated as a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]] in 1985. It is one of the most famous examples of architecture in pre-Islamic [[Bangladesh]]. It dates from a period to the nearby [[Halud Vihara]] and to the [[Sitakot Vihara]] in [[Nawabganj Upazila, Dinajpur|Nawabganj Upazila]] of Dinajpur District.<ref name=Banglapedia2>{{cite book
|last=Rahman |first=SS Mostafizur |year=2012
|chapter=Sitakot Vihara
|chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sitakot_Vihara
|editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref>
==Nalanda==
[[File:Nalanda University ruins.JPG|thumb|Nalanda University ruins]]
[[Nalanda]] (Pali: नालंंदा) was an ancient Buddhist ''[[Mahavihara]]'', a revered university which served as a renowned centre of learning, in the ancient kingdom of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (modern-day [[Bihar]]) in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nalanda.nic.in/en/history/|title = History &#124; District Nalanda, Government of Bihar &#124; India}}</ref> The university of Nalanda obtained significant fame, prestige and relevance during ancient times, and rose to legendary status due to its contribution to the emergence of India as a great power around the fourth century.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ancient Universities in India |url=https://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/ancient.pdf |website=All India Council for Technical Education |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509132335/https://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/ancient.pdf |archive-date=9 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> The site is located about {{convert|95|km|mi}} southeast of [[Patna]], and was one of the greatest centres of learning in the world from the fifth century CE to {{Circa|1200 CE}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Scharfe|first1=Hartmut|title=Handbuch Der Orientalistik: India. Education in ancient India|last2=Bronkhorst|first2=Johannes|last3=Spuler|first3=Bertold|last4=Altenmüller|first4=Hartwig|year=2002|isbn=978-90-04-12556-8|page=149}}</ref> Today, it is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite news |date=15 July 2016 |agency=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=15 July 2016 |language=en |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1524 |title=Four sites inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List |work=whc.unesco.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716131638/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1524 |archive-date=16 July 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="nalandaET">{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/chandigarhs-capitol-complex-makes-it-to-unescos-world-heritage-list/articleshow/53252789.cms |title=Chandigarh's Capitol Complex makes it to UNESCO's World Heritage List |date=18 July 2016 |access-date=18 July 2016 |newspaper=Economic Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718081019/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/chandigarhs-capitol-complex-makes-it-to-unescos-world-heritage-list/articleshow/53252789.cms |archive-date=18 July 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
== Mithila University ==
[[Ancient Mithila University|University of Mithila]] was famous for Nyaya Sutra and logical Sciences. It was gradually started from the philosophical conferences held by Seeradhwaja [[Janaka]], the [[Ikshwaku]] king of Mithila at his court. Janaka was an ancient Hindu king of Videha which was located in Mithila region, approximately in the 8th or 7th century BC. The rulers of the Videha kingdom were called Janakas. He also appears in epic [[Ramayana]] as a father of [[Goddess Sita]], who was married with [[God]] [[Shri Ram]]. His original name was Seeradhwaja and he had a brother named Kushadhwaja. His father's name was Hrasvaroman, a descendant of the king [[Nimi (king)|Nimi]]. These philosophical conferences led to the formation of a seat of learning and this seat of learning converted into the university of Mithila.
==Valabhi University==
The [[Valabhi University]] was an important centre of [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] learning and championed the cause of [[Hinayana|Hinayana Buddhism]] between 600 CE and 1200 CE. [[Valabhi]] was the capital of the [[Maitraka]] empire during the period 480-775 CE. It was an important port for international trade located in [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]], present day it is called [[Vallabhi]]pur  located in [[Bhavnagar district|Bhavnagar]] district of [[Gujarat]] in western India, identical with the old state of [[Vala State|Vala]]. For some time, the university was considered to be a rival to [[Nalanda]], in [[Bihar]], in the field of education. In September 2017, the Indian central government started to consider a proposal to revive the ancient university.<ref>Prashant Ruperal: [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/ancient-vallabhi-university-to-be-revived/articleshow/60811468.cms Ancient Vallabhi University to be revived], The Times of India, September 24, 2017, accessed on September 25, 2017.</ref>
== Sharada Peeth ==
[[Sharada Peeth]] is a [[Ruins|ruined]] [[Hindu temple]] and ancient centre of learning located in present-day Pakistan-administered Jammu and Kashmir. Between the 6th and 12th centuries CE, it was among the most prominent [[Ancient higher-learning institutions#Ancient India|temple universities]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Known in particular for its library, stories recount scholars travelling long distances to access its texts. It played a key role in the development and popularisation of the [[Sharada script]] in [[North India]].<ref name="Qazi 111–120">{{Cite journal|last1=Qazi|first1=Junaid Ahmad|last2=Samad|first2=Abdul|date=January 2015|editor-last=Shakirullah|editor2-last=Young|editor2-first=Ruth|title=Śarda Temple and the Stone Temples of Kashmir in Perspective: A Review Note|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318307548|journal=Pakistan Heritage|publisher=Hazara University Mansehra-Pakistan|volume=7|pages=111–120|via=Research Gate}}</ref>
=== Library at Sharada Peeth ===
Sharada Peeth was also valued by scholars across the Indian subcontinent for its library, and stories detail long journeys they would take to consult it.
* In the 11th century, the [[Vaishnava]] saint [[Ramanuja|Swami Ramanuja]] traveled from [[Srirangam]] to Sharada Peeth to refer to the [[Brahma Sutras]], before commencing work on writing his commentary on the Brahma sutras, the [[Sri Bhasya]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite news|date=2016-08-04|title=Ramanuja's revelation of the 'secret mantra'|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/Ramanuja%E2%80%99s-revelation-of-the-%E2%80%98secret-mantra%E2%80%99/article14550905.ece|access-date=2020-04-03|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
[[File:Birch bark MS from Kashmir of the Rupavatra Wellcome L0032691.jpg|right|thumb| 17th-century [[birch bark manuscript]] of Pāṇini's grammar treatise from [[Sharada Peeth]] ]]
* The 13th century CE (1277 – 78) text ''[[Prabhavakacarita|Prabhāvakacarita]]'' contains a story of the [[Śvētāmbara]] scholar [[Hemachandra]]. As Sharada Peeth was the only place with a library known to have all such works available in their complete form,<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|title=The Language of the Gods in the World of Men|publisher=University of California Press|year=2006|isbn=0520245008|location=Los Angeles|pages=182|quote=...accordingly, being stored in its most perfect form in the temple of the Goddess of Speech in the far-off land of Kashmir, from where Hemacandra acquired his supremely authoritative exemplars, grammar was at the same time clearly a precious cultural good, one that could be imported and whose very possession secured high prestige for its possessor.}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Suri|first=Chandraprabha|title=Prabhavakacharita}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=Sahana|title=The Educational Heritage of Ancient India|publisher=Notion Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-947586-53-6|location=Chennai|pages=23|quote=Hemachandra is noted to have requested for a copy of all the earlier grammar works that had been written until then, and which were only available in their complete form in the library of Sharada university.}}</ref> Hemachandra requested [[Jayasimha Siddharaja|King Jayasimha Siddharaja]] to send a team to retrieve copies of the existing eight Sanskrit grammatical texts preserved there. These supported his own text of Sanskrit grammar, the [[Hemachandra#Siddha-Hema-Śabdanuśāśana|Siddha-Hema-Śabdanuśāśana]].<ref name="Pollock 2006 588–892">{{harvnb|Pollock|2006|pp=588–89}}</ref>
=== Important Students ===
The important pupil who studied here include:
* [[Vaṭeśvara]], a tenth century [[Indian mathematician]]who presented several [[trigonometric identities]]. He was the author of Vaṭeśvara-siddhānta written in 904 AD, a treatise focusing on astronomy and applied mathematics.
* {{citation needed span|text=[[Kumarajiva]] (344 – 413 CE) was born to a Kashmiri father, [[Kumārāyana]], and a Chinese mother from [[Kucha]]. He was sent to Kashmir at a young age to gain a grounding in Buddhism, where he studied under a Kashmiri scholar of the [[Sarvastivada]] school.|date=May 2021}}
* [[Thonmi Sambhota]] (7th century CE) was sent on a mission to Kashmir to procure an alphabet for [[Standard Tibetan|the Tibetan language]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Thomas|first=Frederick William|title=Festschrift zur Feier des Zweihundertjährigen Bestehens der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen|date=1951|work=Festschrift zur Feier des Zweihundertjährigen Bestehens der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen: II Philologisch-Historische Klasse|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-86704-0|editor-last=Eckhardt|editor-first=Karl August|pages=146–165|language=de|chapter=The Tibetan Alphabet|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-86704-0_7|editor2-last=Pedersen|editor2-first=Holger|editor3-last=Littmann|editor3-first=Enno|editor4-last=Latte|editor4-first=Kurt}}</ref> There, he learned various scripts and grammar treatises from learned ''pandits'', and then devised a script for Tibetan based largely on the Sharada alphabet.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last1=Norbu|first1=Thubten Jigme|title=Tibet|last2=Turnbull|first2=Colin M.|date=1968|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=0-671-20559-5|location=New York|page=140|oclc=1513}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Shakabpa|first=W. D.|title=One Hundred Thousand Moons: an Advanced Political History of Tibet|date=2010|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-474-3076-6|location=Leiden|translator-last=Maher|translator-first=Derek F.|oclc=717020192}}</ref>
[[File: Thomni-sambhota-thangka-72-for-web-1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Thonmi Sambhota]], inventor of Tibetan script]]
* [[Rinchen Zangpo]], a principal lotsawa or translator of [[Sanskrit]] [[Buddhist]] texts into [[Classical Tibetan|Tibetan]], is also said to be studied here.<ref>Rizvi (1996), pp. 58-59.</ref>
[[File:Sharda Fort, Azad Jammu & Kashmir.jpg|thumb|left|Ruins of Sharada Peeth]]
* The Kashmiri historian [[Kalhana|Kalhana Pandit]]<ref name=":32">{{Cite book|last=Kalhana|title=Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅginī: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr|publisher=Archibald Constable and Company, Ltd.|year=1900|isbn=9788120803718|location=Westminster|pages=151–152|translator-last=Stein|translator-first=Marc Aurel}}</ref>
* Hindu philosopher [[Adi Shankara]].<ref name="ReferenceA2">{{Cite book|last=Raina|first=Mohini Qasba|title=Kashur: The Kashmiri Speaking People|publisher=Trafford Publishing|year=2013|isbn=978-1490701653|pages=85, 191}}</ref>
==Pushpagiri Vihara==
[[Pushpagiri Vihara|Pushpagiri]] ([[Odia language|Odia]]: ପୁଷ୍ପଗିରି) was an ancient Buddhist [[mahavihara]] or monastic complex located atop Langudi Hill (or Hills) in [[Jajpur district]] of [[Odisha]], India. Pushpagiri was mentioned in the writings of the Chinese traveller [[Xuanzang]] ({{circa|602|664}}) and some other ancient sources. Until the 1990s, it was hypothesised to be one or all of the [[Lalitgiri]]-[[Ratnagiri, Odisha|Ratnagiri]]-[[Udayagiri, Odisha|Udayagiri]] group of monastic sites, also located in Jajpur district. These sites contain ruins of many buildings, [[stupa]]s of various sizes, sculptures (many now removed to museums), and other artifacts.
However, archaeological excavations conducted at Langudi Hills during 1996-2006 resulted in the discovery of another site, with inscriptions describing the local monastery as ''puṣpa sabhar giriya'', and identified by the excavators as Pushpagiri. This has now become the general view among scholars.  The site has now been made accessible for tourism.
The visit of Xuanzang indicates that Pushpagiri was an important Buddhist site in ancient India. Along with [[Nalanda]], [[Vikramashila]], [[Odantapuri]], [[Takshashila]] and [[Vallabhi]], it is believed to be a major ancient centre of learning. It flourished between 3rd and 11th centuries CE.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kkLeCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 |title=A History of Science in World Cultures: Voices of Knowledge |author1=Scott L. Montgomery |author2=Alok Kumar |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=9781317439066 |page=121 }}</ref>
==Odantapuri University==
[[Odantapuri]] (also called Odantapura or Uddandapura) was a prominent [[Buddhist]] [[Mahavihara]] in what is now [[Bihar]], India. It is believed to have been established by [[Gopala I]] in the 8th century. It is considered the second oldest of India's Mahaviharas after [[Nalanda University]] and was situated in [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]].
==Vikramashila==
[[Vikramashila]] (Sanskrit: विक्रमशिला) was one of the two most important centres of learning in India during the [[Pala Empire]], along with [[Nalanda]]. Its location is now the site of Antichak village, [[Bhagalpur district]] in [[Bihar]].
[[Vikramashila]] was established by the [[Pala Empire|Pala emperor]] [[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]] (783 to 820 AD) in response to a supposed decline in the quality of scholarship at [[Nalanda]]. [[Atiśa]], the renowned [[pandita (Buddhism)|pandita]], is sometimes listed as a notable [[abbot]]. It was destroyed by the forces of [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji]] around 1193.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Alexis Sanderson |author-link1=Alexis Sanderson |editor1-last=Einoo |editor1-first=Shingo |title=Genesis and Development of Tantrism |date=2009 |publisher=Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo |location=Tokyo |pages=89 |chapter=The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period}}</ref><ref name = Eaton>{{cite journal
| last = Eaton
| first = Richard
| title = Temple desecration in pre-modern India
| journal = Frontline
| volume = 17
| issue = 25
| pages = 62–70
| date=December 22, 2000
}}
</ref>
==Bikrampur Vihara==
[[Bikrampur Vihara]] is an ancient Buddhist [[vihara]] at Raghurampur village, [[Bikrampur]], [[Munshiganj District]] in [[Bangladesh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=4,11375,0,0,1,0#.UdL2qTv0F0M|title=Archaeology - Ancient Buddhist Vihara found in Munshiganj|website=www.buddhistchannel.tv|access-date=17 June 2017}}</ref>
==Jagaddala Mahavihara==
[[Jagaddala Mahavihara]] ([[floruit|fl.]] late 11th century - mid-12th century) was a [[Buddhist]] monastery and seat of learning in [[Varendra]], a geographical unit in present north Bengal in Bangladesh.<ref name="India 1962. pg 377">''Buddhist Monks And Monasteries Of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture.'' by Dutt, Sukumar. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London 1962. pg 377</ref>  It was founded by the later kings of the [[Pāla dynasty]], probably [[Ramapala]] (c. 1077–1120), most likely at a site near the present village of Jagdal in [[Dhamoirhat Upazila]] in the north-west [[Bangladesh]] on the border with India,  near Paharapur.<ref name="UNESCO World Heritage website">[https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1212/ UNESCO World Heritage website]</ref>  Some texts also spell the name Jaggadala.
== Other ==
Further centres include [[Telhara, Nalanda district|Telhara]] in Bihar<ref>{{cite web | url=http://yac.bih.nic.in/Documents/Telhara-(Nalanda)-Excavation-Report.pdf | title=TELHARA (NALANDA) EXCAVATION A Brief Report | publisher=yac.bih.nic.in | access-date=17 February 2015 | archive-date=28 June 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628083818/http://yac.bih.nic.in/Documents/Telhara-(Nalanda)-Excavation-Report.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref> (probably older than Nalanda<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.firstpost.com/fwire/telhara-universitys-ruins-older-than-nalanda-vikramshila-1849141.html | title=Telhara University's ruins older than Nalanda, Vikramshila | publisher=firstpost | date=14 December 2014 | access-date=17 February 2015}}</ref>), [[Kanchipuram]], in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Manyakheta]], in [[Karnataka]], [[Ujjain]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]] [[Nagarjunakonda]], in [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Varanasi]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] (eighth century to modern times),[[Abhayagiri Vihāra]], and [[Jetavanaramaya]], in [[Sri Lanka]].
==See also==
*[[Indus Valley civilization]]
*[[Hinduism]]
*[[Buddhism]]
*[[Jainism]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:History of South Asia]]
[[Category:Education in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Education in India]]
[[Category:Education in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Education in Nepal]]