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{{Short description|Group of ancient Mesopotamian deities}}
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[[File:Four statuettes of Mesopotamian gods.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Four copper-alloy [[foundation figures]] depicting ancient Mesopotamian gods wearing characteristic horned crowns ({{circa|2130}} BC)]]
The '''Anunnaki''' (Sumerian: {{cuneiform|𒀭𒀀𒉣𒈾}}, also transcribed as '''Anunaki''', '''Annunaki''', '''Anunna''', '''Ananaki''' and other variations) are a group of [[deity|deities]] of the ancient [[Sumerian religion|Sumerians]], [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadians]], [[Assyria]]ns and [[Babylonian religion|Babylonians]]. In the earliest Sumerian writings about them, which come from the Post-Akkadian period, the Anunnaki are deities in the [[Pantheon (religion)|pantheon]], descendants of [[Anu|An]] (the god of the heavens) and [[Ki (goddess)|Ki]] (the goddess of earth), and their primary function was to [[Time and fate deities|decree the fates of humanity]].
==Etymology==
[[File:Mesopotamian - Cylinder Seal - Walters 42564 - Impression.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]]ian [[cylinder seal]] impression depicting a [[vegetation goddess]], possibly [[Ninhursag]], sitting on a throne surrounded by worshippers ({{circa|2350–2150}} BC)]]
The name ''Anunnaki'' is derived from [[Anu|An]],{{sfn|Leemings|2009|page=21}} the Sumerian god of the sky.{{sfn|Leemings|2009|page=21}} The name is variously written "<sup>''[[determinative|d]]''</sup>a-nuna", "<sup>''d''</sup>a-nuna-ke<sub>4</sub>-ne", or "<sup>''d''</sup>a-nun-na", meaning "princely offspring" or "offspring of An".{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=34}}
The Anunnaki were believed to be the offspring of [[Anu|An]] and the earth goddess [[Ki (goddess)|Ki]]. {{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=34}} [[Samuel Noah Kramer]] identifies Ki with the Sumerian mother goddess [[Ninhursag]], stating that they were originally the same figure.{{sfn|Kramer|1961|page=41}}{{sfn|Kramer|1963|page=122}} The oldest of the Anunnaki was [[Enlil]], the god of air{{sfn|Coleman|Davidson|2015|page=108}} and chief god of the Sumerian pantheon.{{sfn|Kramer|1983|pages=115–121}} The Sumerians believed that, until Enlil was born, heaven and earth were inseparable.{{sfn|Kramer|1961|pages=72–73}} Then, Enlil split heaven and earth in two{{sfn|Kramer|1961|pages=72–73}} and carried away the earth{{sfn|Kramer|1961|pages=72–75}} while his father An carried away the sky.{{sfn|Kramer|1961|pages=72–75}}
==Worship and iconography==
The Anunnaki are chiefly mentioned in literary texts{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}} and very little evidence to support the existence of any cult of them has yet been unearthed.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}{{sfn|Falkenstein|1965|pages=127–140}} This is likely because each member of the Anunnaki had his or her own individual cult, separate from the others.{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} Similarly, no representations of the Anunnaki as a complete group have yet been discovered,{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} although a few depictions of two or three individual members together have been identified.{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} Deities in ancient Mesopotamia were almost exclusively [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=93}} They were thought to possess extraordinary powers{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=93}} and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=93}} The deities typically wore ''melam'', an ambiguous substance which "covered them in terrifying splendor".{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|pages=93–94}} ''Melam'' could also be worn by heroes, kings, giants, and even demons.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|pages=130–131}} The effect that seeing a deity's ''melam'' has on a human is described as ''ni'', a word for the [[Paresthesia|physical tingling of the flesh]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=130}} Deities were almost always depicted wearing horned caps,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=98}}{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|page=185}} consisting of up to seven superimposed pairs of ox-horns.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=102}} They were also sometimes depicted wearing clothes with elaborate decorative gold and silver ornaments sewn into them.{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|page=185}}
The ancient Mesopotamians believed that their deities lived in [[Sumerian religion#Heaven|Heaven]],{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=94}} after an earlier history of visiting earth in the mythological texts, and that a god's statue was a physical embodiment of the god himself.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=94}}{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|page=186}} As such, [[Cult image|cult statues]] were given constant care and attention{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=94}}{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|pages=186–187}} and a set of priests was assigned to tend to them.{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|pages=186–188}} These priests would clothe the statues{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|page=186}} and place feasts before them so they could "eat".{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=94}}{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|pages=186–187}} A deity's [[Temple#Mesopotamian temples|temple]] was believed to be that deity's literal place of residence.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=174}} The gods had boats, full-sized [[barge]]s which were normally stored inside their temples{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|pages=44–45}} and were used to transport their cult statues along waterways during various [[religious festival]]s.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|pages=44–45}} The gods also had [[Chariot#Ancient Near East|chariots]], which were used for transporting their cult statues by land.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=52}} Sometimes a deity's cult statue would be transported to the location of a battle so that the deity could watch the battle unfold.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=52}} The major deities of the Mesopotamian pantheon, which included the Anunnaki, were believed to participate in the "assembly of the gods",{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=98}} through which the gods made all of their decisions.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=98}} This assembly was seen as a divine counterpart to the [[History of democracy#Mesopotamia|semi-democratic legislative system]] that existed during the [[Third Dynasty of Ur]] ({{circa}} 2112 BC – {{circa}} 2004 BC).{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=98}}
==Mythology==
===Sumerian===
[[File:Ea (Babilonian) - EnKi (Sumerian).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Akkadian cylinder seal dating to {{circa|2300}} BC depicting the deities Inanna, Utu, and Enki, three members of the Anunnaki]]
The earliest known usages of the term ''Anunnaki'' come from inscriptions written during the reign of [[Gudea]] ({{circa}} 2144–2124 BC) and the Third Dynasty of Ur.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} In the earliest texts, the term is applied to the most powerful and important deities in the Sumerian pantheon: the descendants of the sky-god An.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}{{sfn|Katz|2003|page=403}}This group of deities probably included the "seven gods who decree":{{sfn|Kramer|1963|page=123}} [[An (god)|An]], [[Enlil]], [[Enki]], [[Ninhursag]], [[Sin (mythology)|Nanna]], [[Utu]], and [[Inanna]].{{sfn|Kramer|1963|pages=122–123}}
Although certain deities are described as members of the Anunnaki, no complete list of the names of all the Anunnaki has survived{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} and they are usually only referred to as a cohesive group in literary texts.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} Furthermore, Sumerian texts describe the Anunnaki inconsistently{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} and do not agree on how many Anunnaki there were, or what their divine function was.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} Originally, the Anunnaki appear to have been heavenly deities with immense powers.{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} In the poem ''Enki and the World Order'', the Anunnaki "do homage" to Enki, sing hymns of praise in his honor, and "take up their dwellings" among the people of Sumer.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}{{sfn|Kramer|1963|page=180}} The same composition twice states that the Anunnaki "decree the fates of mankind".{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}
Virtually every major deity in the Sumerian pantheon was regarded as the patron of a specific city{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|page=179}} and was expected to protect that city's interests.{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|page=179}} The deity was believed to permanently reside within that city's temple.{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|pages=187-189}} One text mentions as many as fifty Anunnaki associated with the city of [[Eridu]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=34}}{{sfn|Edzard|1965|pages=17–140}} In ''[[Inanna#Descent into the underworld|Inanna's Descent into the Netherworld]]'', there are only seven Anunnaki, who reside within the [[Kur|Underworld]] and serve as judges.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}{{sfn|Wolkstein|Kramer|1983|page=60}} [[Inanna]] stands trial before them for her attempt to take over the Underworld;{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}{{sfn|Wolkstein|Kramer|1983|page=60}} they deem her guilty of [[hubris]] and condemn her to death.{{sfn|Wolkstein|Kramer|1983|page=60}}
Major deities in Sumerian mythology were associated with specific celestial bodies.{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|pages=201–203}} Inanna was believed to be the planet [[Venus]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|pages=108–109}}{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|page=203}} Utu was believed to be the sun.{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|page=203}}{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|pages=182–184}} Nanna was the moon.{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|page=203}}{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=135}} An was identified with all the stars of the [[Celestial equator|equatorial sky]], Enlil with those of the [[Northern celestial hemisphere|northern sky]], and Enki with those of the [[Southern Celestial Hemisphere|southern sky]].{{sfn|Rogers|1998|page=13}} The path of Enlil's celestial orbit was a continuous, symmetrical circle around the [[Celestial pole|north celestial pole]],{{sfn|Levenda|2008|page=29}} but those of An and Enki were believed to intersect at various points.{{sfn|Levenda|2008|pages=29–30}}
===Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian===
{{rquote|right|Reverence begets favour, sacrifice prolongs life, and prayer atones for guilt. He who fears the gods is not slighted by [...] He who fears the Anunnaki extends [his days].|Babylonian hymn{{sfn|Leick|2003|page=100}}}}
[[File:Marduk and pet.jpg|thumb|Babylonian representation of the [[national god]] [[Marduk]], who the Babylonians and Assyrians envisioned as a prominent member of the Anunnaki]]
Akkadian texts of the second millennium BC follow similar portrayals of the Anunnaki from ''Inanna's Descent into the Netherworld'', depicting them as [[chthonic]] Underworld deities. In [[Inanna#Akkadian version|an abbreviated Akkadian version of ''Inanna's Descent'']] written in the early second millennium, [[Ereshkigal]], the queen of the Underworld, comments that she "drink[s] water with the Anunnaki".{{sfn|Dalley|1989|page=156}} Later in the same poem, Ereshkigal orders her servant [[Namtar]] to fetch the Anunnaki from Egalgina,{{sfn|Dalley|1989|page=159}} to "decorate the threshold steps with coral",{{sfn|Dalley|1989|page=159}} and to "seat them on golden thrones".{{sfn|Dalley|1989|page=159}}
During the [[First Babylonian dynasty|Old Babylonian Period]] ({{circa}} 1830 BC – c. 1531 BC), a new set of deities known as the [[Igigi]] are introduced.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=106}} The relationship between the Anunnaki and the Igigi is unclear.{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} On some occasions, the categories appear to be used synonymously,{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} but in other writings, such as ''The Poem of Erra'', there is a clear distinction between the two.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}{{sfn|Brisch|2016}} In the late Akkadian ''[[Atra-Hasis]]'' epic, the Igigi are the sixth generation of the gods who are forced to perform labor for the Anunnaki.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=85}}{{sfn|Leick|2003|page=96}} After forty days, the Igigi rebel and the god [[Enki]], one of the Anunnaki, creates humans to replace them.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=85}}{{sfn|Leick|2003|page=96}}
From the [[Kassites|Middle Babylonian Period]] ({{circa}} 1592 – 1155 BC) onward, the name ''Anunnaki'' was applied generally to the deities of the underworld;{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=34}} whereas the name ''Igigi'' was applied to the heavenly deities.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=34}} During this period, the underworld deities [[Damkina]], [[Nergal]], and Madānu are listed as the most powerful among the Anunnaki,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=34}} alongside [[Marduk]], the [[national god]] of ancient Babylon.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=34}}
In the standard Akkadian ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' ({{circa}} 1200 BC) [[Utnapishtim]], the immortal survivor of the [[Flood myth|Great Flood]], describes the Anunnaki as seven judges of the Underworld, who set the land aflame as the storm approaches.{{sfn|Dalley|1989|pages=112}} Later, when the flood comes, [[Ishtar]] (the [[East Semitic]] equivalent to Inanna) and the Anunnaki mourn over the destruction of humanity.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}{{sfn|Dalley|1989|page=113}}
In the Babylonian ''[[Enûma Eliš]]'', Marduk assigns the Anunnaki their positions.{{sfn|Pritchard|2010|pages=33–34}} A late Babylonian version of the epic mentions 600 Anunnaki of the underworld,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=34}} but only 300 Anunnaki of heaven,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=34}} indicating the existence of a complex underworld [[cosmology]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=34}} In gratitude, the Anunnaki, the "Great Gods", build [[Esagila]], a "splendid" temple dedicated to Marduk, Ea, and Ellil.{{sfn|Pritchard|2010|pages=34-35}} In the eighth-century BC ''Poem of Erra'', the Anunnaki are described as the brothers of the god Nergal{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}} and are depicted as antagonistic towards humanity.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=8}}
A badly damaged text from the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian Period]] (911 – 612 BC) describes Marduk leading his army of Anunnaki into the sacred city of [[Nippur]] and causing a disturbance.{{sfn|Oshima|2010|page=145}} The disturbance causes a flood,{{sfn|Oshima|2010|page=145}} which forces the resident gods of Nippur to take shelter in the Eshumesha temple to [[Ninurta]].{{sfn|Oshima|2010|page=145}} Enlil is enraged at Marduk's transgression and orders the gods of Eshumesha to take Marduk and the other Anunnaki as prisoners.{{sfn|Oshima|2010|page=145}} The Anunnaki are captured,{{sfn|Oshima|2010|page=145}} but Marduk appoints his front-runner Mushteshirhablim to lead a revolt against the gods of Eshumesha{{sfn|Oshima|2010|pages=145–146}} and sends his messenger Neretagmil to alert [[Nabu]], the god of literacy.{{sfn|Oshima|2010|pages=145–146}} When the Eshumesha gods hear Nabu speak, they come out of their temple to search for him.{{sfn|Oshima|2010|page=146}} Marduk defeats the Eshumesha gods and takes 360 of them as prisoners of war, including Enlil himself.{{sfn|Oshima|2010|page=146}} Enlil protests that the Eshumesha gods are innocent,{{sfn|Oshima|2010|page=146}} so Marduk puts them on trial before the Anunnaki.{{sfn|Oshima|2010|page=146}} The text ends with a warning from Damkianna (another name for Ninhursag) to the gods and to humanity, pleading them not to repeat the war between the Anunnaki and the gods of Eshumesha.{{sfn|Oshima|2010|page=146}}
===Hurrian and Hittite===
[[File:Yazilikaya B 12erGruppe.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Ancient Hittite relief carving from [[Yazılıkaya]], a sanctuary at [[Hattusa]], depicting twelve gods of the underworld,{{sfn|Collins|2002|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xMDHgzjSU_MC&pg=PA228 228]}}{{failed verification|date=November 2019}} whom the Hittites identified as the Mesopotamian Anunnaki{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=141}}{{sfn|Collins|2002|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xMDHgzjSU_MC&pg=PA225 225]}}]]
In the mythologies of the [[Hurrian religion|Hurrians]] and [[Hittite mythology|Hittites]] (which flourished in the mid to late second millennium BC), the oldest generation of gods was believed to have been banished by the younger gods to the Underworld,{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=141}}{{sfn|Van Scott|1998|page=187}} where they were ruled by the goddess [[Lelwani]].{{sfn|Van Scott|1998|page=187}} Hittite scribes identified these deities with the Anunnaki.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=141}}{{sfn|Collins|2002|page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=xMDHgzjSU_MC&pg=PA225 225]}} In [[Hurrian language|ancient Hurrian]], the Anunnaki are referred to as ''karuileš šiuneš'', which means "former ancient gods",{{sfn|Archi|1990|page=114}} or ''kattereš šiuneš'', which means "gods of the earth".{{sfn|Archi|1990|page=114}} Hittite and Hurrian treaties were often sworn by the old gods in order to ensure that the oaths would be kept.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=141}}{{sfn|Archi|1990|page=114}} In one myth, the gods are threatened by the stone giant [[Ullikummi]],{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|pages=25–26}} so Ea (the later name for Enki) commands the Former Gods to find the weapon that was used to separate the heavens from the earth.{{sfn|Leick|1998|page=141}}{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|page=26}} They find it and use it to cut off Ullikummi's feet.{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|page=26}}
Although the names of the Anunnaki in Hurrian and Hittite texts frequently vary,{{sfn|Collins|2002|page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=xMDHgzjSU_MC&pg=PA225 225]}} they are always eight in number.{{sfn|Collins|2002|page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=xMDHgzjSU_MC&pg=PA225 225]}} In one Hittite ritual, the names of the old gods are listed as: "Aduntarri the diviner, Zulki the dream interpretess, Irpitia Lord of the Earth, Narā, Namšarā, Minki, Amunki, and Āpi."{{sfn|Collins|2002|page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=xMDHgzjSU_MC&pg=PA225 225]}} The old gods had no identifiable cult in the Hurrio-Hittite religion;{{sfn|Collins|2002|page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=xMDHgzjSU_MC&pg=PA225 225]}} instead, the Hurrians and Hittites [[divination|sought to communicate with the old gods]] through the ritual [[sacrifice]] of a [[pig]]let in a pit dug in the ground.{{sfn|Collins|2002|pages= [https://books.google.com/books?id=xMDHgzjSU_MC&pg=PA225 225–226]}} The old gods were often invoked to perform [[ritual purification]]s.{{sfn|Collins|2002|pages=226–227}}
The Hittite account of the old gods' banishment to the Underworld is closely related with the Greek poet [[Hesiod]]'s narrative of the overthrow of the [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]] by the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympians]] in his ''[[Theogony]]''.{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|pages=26–27}} The Greek sky-god [[Uranus (mythology)|Ouranos]] (whose name means "Heaven") is the father of the Titans{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|pages=27–29}} and is derived from the Hittite version of Anu.{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|pages=29–30}} In Hesiod's account, Ouranos is castrated by his son [[Cronus]],{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|pages=27–30}} just as Anu was castrated by his son [[Kumarbi]] in the Hittite story.{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|pages=25–26, 29–30}}
==Pseudoarchaeology and conspiracy theories==
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{{main|Ancient astronauts}}
Over a series of published books (starting with&nbsp;''[[Chariots of the Gods?]]''&nbsp;in 1968), pseudoarchaeologist [[Erich von Däniken]] claimed that extraterrestrial "ancient astronauts" had visited a prehistoric Earth. Däniken explains the origins of religions as reactions to contact with an [[Extraterrestrial intelligence|alien race]], and offers interpretations of Sumerian texts and the [[Old Testament]] as evidence.{{sfn|Fritze|2016|page=292}}{{sfn|Robertson|2016}}<ref>{{harvnb|Story|1976|pp=3–8}}</ref>
In his 1976 book ''The Twelfth Planet'', author [[Zecharia Sitchin]] claimed that the Anunnaki were actually an advanced [[humanoid]] extraterrestrial species from the undiscovered planet [[Nibiru cataclysm|Nibiru]], who came to Earth around 500,000 years ago and constructed a base of operations in order to mine gold after discovering that the planet was rich in the precious metal.{{sfn|Fritze|2016|page=292}}{{sfn|Robertson|2016}}{{sfn|Fritze|2009|page=212}} According to Sitchin, the Anunnaki [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridized]] their species and ''[[Homo erectus]]'' via [[in vitro fertilisation|in vitro fertilization]] in order to create [[Homo sapiens|humans]] as a slave species of miners.{{sfn|Fritze|2016|page=292}}{{sfn|Robertson|2016}}{{sfn|Fritze|2009|page=212}} Sitchin claimed that the Anunnaki were forced to temporarily leave Earth's surface and orbit the planet when Antarctic glaciers melted, causing the [[Flood myth|Great Flood]],{{sfn|Fritze|2009|pages=212–213}} which also destroyed the Anunnaki's bases on Earth.{{sfn|Fritze|2009|pages=212–213}} These had to be rebuilt, and the Anunnaki, needing more humans to help in this massive effort, taught mankind agriculture.{{sfn|Fritze|2009|pages=212–213}}
[[Ronald H. Fritze]] writes that, according to Sitchin, "the Annunaki built the pyramids and all the other monumental structures from around the ancient world that [[ancient astronaut]] theorists consider so impossible to build without highly advanced technologies."{{sfn|Fritze|2016|page=292}} Sitchin expanded on this mythology in later works, including ''The Stairway to Heaven'' (1980) and ''The Wars of Gods and Men'' (1985).{{sfn|Fritze|2009|page=213}} In ''The End of Days: Armageddon and the Prophecy of the Return'' (2007), Sitchin predicted that the Anunnaki would return to earth, [[2012 phenomenon|possibly as soon as 2012]], corresponding to the end of the [[Mesoamerican Long Count calendar]].{{sfn|Robertson|2016}}{{sfn|Fritze|2009|page=213}} Sitchin's writings have been universally rejected by mainstream historians, who have labelled his books as [[pseudoarchaeology]],{{sfn|Fritze|2009|pages=213–214}} asserting that Sitchin seems to deliberately misrepresent Sumerian texts by quoting them out of context, truncating quotations, and mistranslating Sumerian words to give them radically different meanings from their accepted definitions.{{sfn|Fritze|2009|page=214}}
[[David Icke]], the British [[conspiracy theorist]] who popularised the [[reptilian conspiracy theory]], has claimed that the reptilian overlords of his theory are in fact the Anunnaki. Clearly influenced by Sitchin's writings, Icke adapts them "in favor of his own New Age and conspiratorial agenda".{{sfn|Lewis|Kahn|2005|page=51}} Icke's speculation on the Anunnaki incorporates far-right views on history, positing an Aryan master race descended by blood from the Anunnaki.{{sfn|Lewis|Kahn|2005|pages=51-52}} It also incorporates [[dragons]], [[Dracula]], and [[Draconian constitution|draconian]] laws,{{sfn|Lewis|Kahn|2005|page=69|loc=footnote 6}} these three elements apparently linked only by superficial linguistic similarity. He formulated his views on the Anunnaki in the 1990s and has written several books about his theory.<ref>{{Cite magazine|date=2008-11-20|title=Conspiracy Theories |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=https://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1860871_1860876_1861029,00.html|access-date=2021-03-27|issn=0040-781X}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Ancient Mesopotamian religion]]
* ''[[Æsir]]''
* [[Deva (Hinduism)]]
* [[Dingir]]
* [[Elohim]]
* [[Hutena]]
* [[Eridu Genesis]]
* [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]
* [[Where Is Gilgamesh?]]
* [[Tuatha Dé Danann]]
* [[Twelve Olympians]]
==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
=== General and cited references ===
{{refbegin | 30em}}
* {{citation|last=Amin|first=Osama Shukir Muhammed|date=2014-03-31|title=Copper alloy foundation figurines with pegs representing Gods|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2451/|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]}}
* {{citation|last=Archi|first=Alfonso|date=1990|title=The Names of the Primeval Gods|journal=Orientalia|series=NOVA|volume=59|issue=2|pages=114–129|location=Rome |publisher=Gregorian Biblical Press|jstor=43075881}}
* {{citation|last1=Black |first1=Jeremy |first2=Anthony |last2=Green |title=Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary|location=London |publisher=The British Museum Press|year=1992 |isbn= 0-7141-1705-6}}
* {{citation|last=Brisch|first=Nicole|title=Anunna (Anunnaku, Anunnaki) (a group of gods)|url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/amgg/listofdeities/anunna/|website=Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum|date=2016|access-date=2013-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903073103/http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/amgg/listofdeities/anunna/|archive-date=2019-09-03|url-status=dead}}
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{{refend}}
==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20190903073103/http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/amgg/listofdeities/anunna/ Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses: Anunna (Anunnaku, Anunnaki) (a group of gods)]
{{Sumerian mythology}}
{{Epic of Gilgamesh}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Ancient astronaut speculation]]
[[Category:Characters in the Enūma Eliš]]
[[Category:Chthonic beings]]
[[Category:Epic of Gilgamesh]]
[[Category:Hittite deities]]
[[Category:Hurrian deities]]
[[Category:Mesopotamian deities]]
[[Category:Sky and weather deities]]
[[Category:Time and fate deities]]
[[Category:Underworld deities]]