View source for Arch of Galerius and Rotunda

{{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
|WHS         = Rotunda
|Part_of     = [[Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki]]
|Image       = Ac.galerius2.jpg
|Caption     = The Rotunda of Galerius
|image_upright = 1.2
|location    = [[Thessaloniki]], Greece
|Criteria    = Cultural: i, ii, iv
|ID          = 456-002
|Coordinates = {{coord|40|38|00|N|22|57|10.5|E}}
|Year        = 1988
|Area        = 0.587 ha
|locmapin    = Greece
}}
The '''Arch of Galerius''' ({{langx|el|Αψίδα του Γαλερίου}}) or '''Kamara''' (Καμάρα) and the '''Rotunda''' (Ροτόντα) are neighbouring early 4th-century AD monuments in the city of [[Thessaloniki]], in the region of [[Central Macedonia]] in northern [[Greece]]. As an outstanding example of early [[Byzantine art]] and architecture, in addition to the importance of the Rotunda as one of the earliest Christian monuments in the Eastern Roman Empire, both sites were inscribed on the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] in 1988 as part of the [[Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki]].<ref name = "unesco">{{cite web |url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/456 |title = Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki |website = UNESCO World Heritage Convention |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 5 November 2022}}</ref>
==History==
The 4th-century [[Roman emperor]] [[Galerius]] commissioned these two structures as elements of an imperial precinct linked to his Thessaloniki palace. Archeologists have found substantial remains of the palace to the southwest.<ref>The palace of Galerius was built on a massive scale using primarily local materials. It may have been built over the [[destruction layer]] of a fire that cleared an area. Expansive areas of mosaic are preserved in several areas. A structure linked to the palace and called the Octagonal Room is at the southwest end of the excavated area at 40°37'48.53"N, 22°56'55.99"E; thought at one point to be a [[mausoleum]], it may have been a monumental entryway to the palace. Beside the palace to the northeast was a [[hippodrome]].</ref> These three monumental structures were connected by a road that ran through the arch, which rose above the major east–west road of the city.
[[Image:Saint George Rotunda reconstruction.jpg|thumb|left|Rotunda and Arch of Galerius complex reconstruction]]
At the crux of the major axes of the city, the Arch of Galerius emphasized the power of the emperor and linked the monumental structures with the fabric of 4th-century Thessaloniki. The arch was composed of a masonry core faced with [[marble]] sculptural panels celebrating a victory over [[Narseh|Narses]] (Narseh), the seventh emperor in the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid Persian Empire]], in 299 AD. About two-thirds of the arch is preserved.
The Rotunda was a massive circular structure with a masonry core that had an [[Oculus (architecture)|oculus]] like the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in Rome. It has gone through multiple periods of use and modification as a polytheist temple, a Christian basilica, a Muslim mosque, and again a Christian church (and archaeological site). A minaret is preserved from its use as a mosque, and ancient remains are displayed on its southern side.
At some point, the knowledge of why the arch was constructed and who it was dedicated to was lost, as the arch simply depicts scenes from the triumph over the Persians and does not directly name Galerius.  By the time of Ottoman rule of the region as part of [[Salonica vilayet]] in the 19th century, the arch was loosely speculated to be dedicated to one of the famous rulers people were familiar with - [[Constantine the Great]], [[Philip II of Macedon]], and [[Alexander the Great]].  It was sometimes called the "Arch of Philip", "Arc du Constantin", and equivalents during this period.  [[Karl Frederik Kinch]] examined the arch in 1880s, and published a monograph in 1890 identifying that the arch was dedicated to Galerius.<ref name="kiilerich">{{cite journal |title=Karl Frederik Kinch - a Danish pioneer in Thessaloniki |last=Kiilerich  |first=Bente |author-link=Bente Kiilerich |date=2019 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/1956/23717 |journal=CLARA Classical Art and Archaeology |publisher=CLARA |doi= 10.5617/clara.v4i0.6689 |hdl=1956/23717 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
In late 1864, when Frenchman Emmanuel Miller arrived in the city with the aim to remove and take to France the portico known as [[Las Incantadas]] the population of the city loudly objected, and the public outcry grew even more intense when false rumours spread that Miller also intended to dismantle and remove the Arch of Galerius as well; the arch was not touched at all or taken (but Las Incantadas was).<ref>{{Cite book |last= Mazower |first=Mark |url= |title=Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430-1950 |publisher= Harper Collins Publications |year=2006 |isbn=9780007120222 |location=Athens|quote= |pages = 264–268 |access-date=}}</ref>
==Location and description of the Arch==
[[File:Thessaloniki Arch and tomb of Galerius.jpg|thumb|The Arch of Galerius and the Rotunda (with a post added minaret), 299-303 AD]]
The '''Arch of Galerius''' stands on what is now the intersection of [[Egnatia Street, Thessaloniki|Egnatia]] and Dimitriou Gounari streets. Construction of the arch was spanned the years 298 and 299 AD; it was dedicated in 303 AD to celebrate the victory of the [[tetrarchy|tetrarch]] [[Galerius]] over the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid Persians]] at the [[Battle of Satala (298)|Battle of Satala]] and the capture{{Citation needed|date=January 2018}} of their capital [[Ctesiphon]] in 298.<ref>At this point Galerius was a ''Caesar'' (subordinate emperor); he became one of the two ''Augusti'' (head emperors) in 305 AD, when [[Diocletian]] abdicated.</ref>
[[File:Arch of Galerius (Thessaloniki) 20180222.jpg|thumb|left|The Arch of Galerius]]
The structure was an [[octopylon]] (eight-pillared gateway) forming a triple arch that was built of a rubble masonry core faced first with brick and then with marble panels with sculptural relief. The central arched opening was 9.7 m wide and 12.5 m high, and the secondary openings on other side were 4.8 m wide and 6.5 m high. The central arch spanned the portion of the [[Via Egnatia]] (primary Roman road from Dyrrhacium to [[Byzantium]]) that passed through the city as a [[Decumanus Maximus|''decumanus'']] (east-west major street). A road connecting the Rotunda ({{Val |125 | u=m}} northeast) with the Palace complex (235m southwest) passed through the arch along its long axis.
Only the northwestern three of the eight pillars and parts of the [[masonry]] cores of the arches above survive: i.e., the entire eastern side (four pillars) and the southernmost one of the western pillars are lost.<ref>The other parts of the structure were destroyed at an unknown date, probably during one of many [[earthquake]]s, which have damaged Thessaloniki throughout its history.</ref> Extensive consolidation with modern brick has been performed on the exposed masonry cores to protect the monument. The two pillars flanking the central arched passageway retain their sculpted [[marble]] slabs, which depict the wars of Galerius against the Persians in broadly panegyric terms.
===Sculptural program of the Arch===
[[Image:Arch-of-Galerius-1.jpg|thumb|left|Galerius (L) attacks [[Narseh]] (R)]]
Understanding of the sculptural program of the arch is limited by the loss of the majority of the marble panels, but the remains give an impression of the whole. Four vertically stacked registers of sculpted decoration were carved on each pillar, each separated by elaborate moldings. A label for the [[Tigris River]] indicates that there were likely labels on other representations as the builders deemed necessary. Artistic license was taken in the representations, for instance, the Caesar Galerius is shown in personal combat with the Sassanid Shah Narses in one of the panels; although they never met in battle.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} On the arch a mounted Galerius attacks a similarly mounted Narses with a lance as an eagle bearing a victory wreath in its talons approaches Galerius. The Caesar sits securely on his rearing horse, while the Persian king appears nearly unhorsed. Terrified Persians cower under the hooves of the Caesar's horse in the chaos of battle. The panel expresses the power of the Caesar Galerius.
[[Image:Arch of Galerius (sacrifice).jpg|thumb|The imperial family at the sacrifice of thanksgiving.]]
The relief of the imperial family conjoined in a sacrifice of thanksgiving owes its distant prototype to the Augustan reliefs on the ''[[Ara Pacis]]'' in Rome.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Galerius' wife, Diocletian's daughter Valeria, is shown at his side, helping authenticate his connection to his predecessor. Here as elsewhere all the faces have been carefully chiselled off, whether as ''[[damnatio memoriae]]'' or in later cultural intolerance of images.
In another panel, the tetrarchs are all arrayed in the toga as a ''Victoria'' holds a victory wreath out to the heads of the two ''Augusti''. A third panel celebrates the unity of the [[tetrarchy]], with a depiction of the tetrarchs standing together; the depersonalized manner in which the tetrarchs are portrayed is reminiscent of the schematic statues of the tetrarchs in porphyry at [[St. Mark's Basilica]] in Venice.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Only Galerius is dressed in armor, and he makes the offering upon the altar.
What remains of the arch asserts the glory of the tetrarchy and the prominence of Galerius within that system. The arch celebrates the Roman Empire as part of Galerius' victory over the Sassanid king.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Galerius is also pictured on his horse at the right, while attacking a Sassanid guard.
==Rotunda of Galerius==
===Location and description of the Rotunda===
[[File:THES-Rotonde St-Georges plan.svg|thumb|Plan]]
The '''Rotunda of Galerius''', also known as the '''Rotunda of Saint George''', is {{Cvt|125|m}} northeast of the Arch of Galerius at 40°37'59.77"N, 22°57'9.77"E. It is also known (by its consecration and use) as the [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox]] Church of ''[[Saint George|Agios Georgios]]'', and is informally called the Church of the Rotunda (or simply The Rotunda).
The cylindrical structure was built around 306 AD on the orders of the tetrarch [[Galerius]], who was thought to have intended it to be his [[mausoleum]]. Its circular, centrally planned structure resembles other structures such as [[Santa Costanza]] in Rome and is similarly topped by a dome. The structure was converted into a church in the late fourth century and an apsidal choir extension was added as well as a wide ambulatory around the perimeter.<ref name="Kiilerich Torp 2017">{{cite book | last=Kiilerich | first=Bente | last2=Torp | first2=Hjalmar | title=The rotunda in Thessaloniki and its mosaics | publisher=Kapon Editions | publication-place=Athens, Greece | year=2017 | isbn=978-618-5209-11-7 | oclc=959266684}}</ref>
The Rotunda has a diameter of 24.5 m. Its walls are more than 6 m thick, which is why it has withstood Thessaloniki's earthquakes. The walls are interrupted by eight rectangular bays, with the west bay forming the entrance. A flat brick dome, 30 m high at the peak, crowns the cylindrical structure. In its original design, the dome of the Rotunda had an ''[[Oculus (architecture)|oculus]]'', as does the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in Rome.
===Uses of the Rotunda===
[[Image:Rotunda of Galerius (February 2009).jpg|thumb|240px|left|The altar view of the Rotunda of Galerius, initially a [[Mausoleum]] of the Roman Emperor [[Galerius]], later a Christian church, and then a mosque. It is now a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]. On some days of the year, it functions as a church.]]
After Galerius's death in 311, he was buried at Felix Romuliana ([[Gamzigrad]]) near [[Zajecar]], [[Serbia]]. The Rotunda stood empty for several decades until the Emperor [[Theodosius I]] ordered its conversion into a Christian church in the late fourth century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nasrallah |first1=Laura |title=Empire and Apocalypse in Thessaloniki: Interpreting the Early Christian Rotunda |journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies |date=2005 |volume=13 |issue=4 |page=475|doi=10.1353/earl.2006.0008 |s2cid=170780866 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:12215654 }}</ref> The church was embellished with very high quality [[mosaics]]. Only fragments have survived of the original decoration, for example, a band depicting saints with hands raised in prayer, in front of complex architectural fantasies.
The building was used as a church dedicated to the Archangels ({{transl|el|Asomatoi}}, {{lit.|Incorporeal Ones}}) for over 1,200 years until the city fell to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. In 1590 it was converted into a [[mosque]], called the Mosque of Suleyman Hortaji Effendi, and a [[minaret]] was added to the structure. It was used as a mosque until 1912, when the Greeks captured the city during the [[Balkan War]]. Greek Orthodox officials reconsecrated the structure as a church, and they left the minaret. The structure was damaged during an earthquake in 1978 but was subsequently restored. {{As of|2004}}, the minaret was still being stabilized with scaffolding. The building is now a historical monument under the [[Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities]] of the [[Greek Ministry of Culture]], although the Greek Orthodox Church has access to the monument for various festivities some days of the year (as Church of Saint George).
The Rotunda is the oldest of Thessaloniki's churches. Some Greek publications claim it is the oldest Christian church in the world, although there are competitors for that title. It is the most important surviving example of a church from the early Christian period of the Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire.
===Mosaics of the Rotunda===
The Rotunda's cupola and the barrel vaults were originally entirely covered in mosaics, many of which are now lost. The surviving mosaics depict many organic forms such as a garland of fruit and [[evergreen]] plants that surrounded the lost image of Christ in the cupola. The evergreen wreath is composed of twenty-five sections of branches with white [[Lilium|lilies]], [[laurels]], [[Pear|pears]], [[Grape|grapes]] and [[Pomegranate|pomegranates]].<ref name="Kiilerich Torp 2017" /> The presence of this evergreen suggests ideas of rebirth and by extension the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] while the inclusion of various plants associated with all the four seasons could symbolize renewal and eternity. In the light openings there are scrolls of ripe fruit accompanied by white lilies. These fruits could symbolize the abundance of heaven while the lily a visual reminder of Christian purity. In the strongly colored barrel vaults one panel displays a variety of fruits including grapes while another depicts a golden cross surrounded by many stylized flowers and [[Acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves.<ref name="Kiilerich Torp 2017" /> Acanthus leaves are an ornament dating back to antiquity and were often heavily employed in Greco-Roman architectural adornment. Traditionally acanthus leaves have been interpreted to symbolize enduring life and immortality, making them suitable to promulgate Christian ideas of enduring life with Christ after death, adopting pagan symbolism into Christian ornament in a syncretic manner.
==See also==
*[[List of Roman triumphal arches]]
*[[List of Roman domes]]
==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}
==Notes==
===The arch===
*Dyggve, E. (Copenhagen, 1945). "Recherches sur le palais imperial de Thessalonique".
*Engemann, J. (JAC 22, 1979). "Akklamationsrichtung, Sieger- und Besiegtenrichtung auf dem Galeriusbogen in Saloniki".
*Garrucci, P. (W. Wylie, trans.). (NC 10, 1870). "Brass Medallion Representing the Persian Victory of Maximianus Galerius".
*Hébrard, E. (BCH 44, 1920). "L'Arc de Galère & l'église Saint-Georges à Salonique".
*Kinch, K. F. (Paris, 1890). "L'arc de triomphe de Salonique".
*Laubscher, H. P. (Berlin, 1975). "Der Reliefschmuck des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki".
*Makaronas, C. J. (Salonica, 1970). The Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki.
*Meyer, H. (JdI 95, 1980). "Die Frieszyklen am sogenannten Triumphbogen des Galerius in Thessaloniki".
*Pond Rothman, M. S. (AJA 81, 1977). "The Thematic Organization of the Panel Reliefs on the Arch of Galerius".
*Pond Rothman, M. S. (Byzantine Studies/Etudes Byzantines 2:1, 1975). "The Panel of the Emperors Enthroned on the Arch of Galerius".
*Sutherland, C. H. V. (London, 1967), RIC IV: From Diocletian's Reform (A.D. 294) to the Death of Maximinus (A. D. 313)
*Velenis, G. (AA, 1979). "Architektonische Probleme des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki".
*Velenis, G. (AA, 1983). "Nachträgliche Beobachtungen am Oberbau des Galeriusbogens in Thessaloniki".
*Vermeule, C. C. (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1968). "Roman Imperial Art in Greece and Asia Minor".
*von Schönebeck, H. (BZ 37, 1937). "Die zyklische Ordnung der Triumphalreliefs am Galeriusbogen in Saloniki".
*von Schönebeck, H. (JbBerlMus 58, 1937). (Preserves image of the now lost head of Galerius, possibly from the large Arch of Galerius. The relief head was in Berlin.)
===The palace===
*Αθανασιου, Φ. et al. (ΑΕΜΘ 8, 1994). "Νεα στοιχεια για το Οκταγωνο του γαλεριανου συγκροτηματος".
*Αθανασιου, Φ. et al. (Θεσσαλονικεων πολις 3, 1981). "τα ανακτορα του Γαλεριου στη Θεσσαλονικη, Μεθοδολογια αποκαταστασης".
*Αθανασιου, Φ. et al. (Θεσσαλονικεων πολις 4, 2001). "Το λουτρα του ανακτορικου συγκροτηματος του Γαλεριου".
*Dyggve, E. (Copenhagen, 1945). "Recherches sur le palais imperial de Thessalonique".
*Dyggve, E. (Dissertationes Pannonicae ser. 2, 11, 1941). "Kurzer vorläufiger Bericht über die Ausgrabungen im Palastviertel von Thessaloniki".
*Hébrard, E. (BCH 44, 1920). "Les Travaux du Service archéologique d'[[Armée d'Orient (1914)|Armée d'Orient]] a l'arc de triomphe de Galère & à l'arc de triomphe de Galère et à l'église Saint-Georges de Salonique".
*Καραμπερη, Μ. (AAA 23–28, 1990-1995). "Ο πολος του Οκταγωνο στο γαλεριανο συγκροτημα και η σχεση του με το νοτιο μεγαλο περιστυλιο".
*Καραμπερη, Μ. (Θεσσαλονικεων πολις 3, 2000). "Η αυτοκρατορικη εδρα Θεσσαλονικη".
*Sasel, J. (ed.). Tabula Imperii Romani (Sheet K34).
*Vichers, M. (BSA 66, 1971). "A note on the Byzantine Palace at Thessaloniki".
*Ward-Perkins, J. B. (New York, 1981). "Roman Imperial Architecture".
===General reference===
*Bianchi-Bandinelli, R. (New York, 1971). "Rome: The Late Empire".
*Brilliant, R. (L'Arte 10, 1970). "Temporal Aspects in Late Roman Art".
*Brown, P. (New York, 1971). "The World of Late Antiquity".
*Cameron, A. (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1993). "The Later Roman Empire, A. D. 284-430".
*Kleiner, D. E. E. (New Haven, 1992). "Roman Sculpture".
==Further reading==
*Machabée, Stéphanie, ''[https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/gsas_dissertations/630/ Religion and Contested Cultural Heritage: The Rotunda and Hagia Sophia as Church, Mosque, and Museum]'', Yale University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, 2022.
*[[Kurt Weitzmann|Weitzmann, Kurt]], ed., ''[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Age_of_Spirituality_Late_Antique_and_Early_Christian_Art_Third_to_Seventh_Century Age of spirituality: late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century]'', no. 107 & 491, 1979, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York, {{ISBN|9780870991790}}; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
==External links==
{{Commons category|Arch of Galerius (Thessaloniki)}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070820000052/http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=1812 Hellenic Ministry of Culture]
{{Landmarks of Thessaloniki}}
{{Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Greece}}
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 4th century]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman buildings and structures in Greece]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman triumphal arches]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Churches in Greece]]
[[Category:Rotundas in Europe|Tomb of Galerius]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Thessaloniki]]
[[Category:Byzantine architecture]]
[[Category:Former mosques in Greece]]
[[Category:Roman Thessalonica]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Thessaloniki]]
[[Category:Galerius]]
[[Category:4th-century architecture in Greece]]
[[Category:Mosques converted from churches in Ottoman Greece]]