View source for Avitus

{{short description|Western Roman emperor from 455 to 456}}
{{about|the Roman emperor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Avitus
| image        = Solidus Avitus Arles (obverse).jpg
| alt          = Golden coin depicting Avitus
| caption      = [[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]] of Avitus marked:<br/>{{Smallcaps|{{Abbreviation|d·n·|DOMINUS NOSTER}} avitus {{Abbreviation|per·|PERPETUUS}}
{{Abbreviation|p·f·|PIUS FELIX}} {{Abbreviation|aug·|AUGUSTUS}}}}
| succession   = [[Roman emperor]] in the [[Western Roman Empire|West]]
| moretext     = <br/>(unrecognized in the [[Eastern Roman Empire|East]])
| reign        = 9 July 455 – 17 October 456
| predecessor  = [[Petronius Maximus]]
| regent       = [[Marcian]]
| reg-type     = [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern]] emperor
| successor    = [[Majorian]]
| birth_date   = late 4th century<ref>Avitus was appointed to his first political task shortly before 421. [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] (''Carmina'' VII 208) described him as a ''iuvenis'' at the time, so he was probably between the ages of 30 and 45. For ''iuvenis'' as an age category, see Andrew Gillet, "The Birth of Ricimer,"  ''Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte'', Vol. 44, No. 3, 1995, p. 383 note 23.</ref>
| birth_place  = [[Clermont-Ferrand|Arvernis]], [[Gaul]]
| death_date   = 456/7
| death_place  = Arvernis, Gaul
| burial_place = [[Brioude|Brivas]]
| issue        = {{ubl|[[Agricola (vir inlustris)|Agricola]]|[[Ecdicius]]|[[Papianilla (wife of Sidonius Apollinaris)|Papianilla]]}}
| full name    = Eparchius Avitus
| regnal name  =
| father       = [[Agricola (consul 421)|Agricola]] (possibly)
| religion     = [[Chalcedonian Christianity]]
}}
'''Eparchius Avitus'''{{efn-lr|This is the name given by the ''[[Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire|PLRE]]'', ''[[Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft|RE]]'', [[Oxford Classical Dictionary|''OCD'']] and ''[[Roman Imperial Coinage|RIC]]'', citing an inscription recorded in [[Giovanni Battista de Rossi|Rossi]], [[iarchive:dli.granth.84588/page/344/mode/2up|''Inscriptiones christianae Urbis Romae'' I, p. 344]]. Ersch & Gruber's [[s:de:Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste|''Allgemeine Encyklopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste'']] reports that "Marcus Maecilius" and "Flavius Maecilius" are found on Avitus' coins, while "Flavius Eparchius" appears in inscriptions (vol. Appellation – Arzilla, pp. 505–508, Winterhalder [1820]). ''RE'' ([[s:de:RE:Avitus 5|vol. II,2, col. 2395]]) notes that one such coin, bearing the inscription <small>M. MAECIL. AVITHUS</small> ''(sic)'', [[Joseph Hilarius Eckhel|Eckhel]], ''Doctrina Numorum Veterum'' viii. 193, was authenticated only by [[Anselmo Banduri|Banduri]], and perhaps suspect. [[J. B. Bury]] in his ''History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian'' (1923) suggested "Marcus Maecilius Flavius Eparchius Avitus".}} (died 456/7) was [[Roman emperor]] of the [[Western Roman Empire|Western Empire]] from July 455 to October 456. He was a [[Roman Senate|senator]] of [[Roman Gaul|Gallic]] extraction and a high-ranking officer both in the civil and military administration, as well as [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Piacenza-Bobbio|Bishop of Piacenza]].
He opposed the reduction of the [[Western Roman Empire]] to [[Roman Italy|Italy]] alone, both politically and from an administrative point of view. For this reason, as Emperor he introduced several Gallic senators in the Imperial administration; this policy, however, was opposed by the senatorial aristocracy and by the people of Rome, who had suffered from the [[sack of Rome (455)|sack of the city]] by the [[Vandals]] in 455.
Avitus had a good relationship with the [[Visigoths]], in particular with their king [[Theodoric II]], who was a friend of his and who acclaimed Avitus Emperor. The possibility of a strong and useful alliance between the Visigoths and Romans faded, however, when Theodoric invaded [[Hispania]] at Avitus' behest, which rendered him unable to help Avitus against the rebel Roman generals who deposed him.
==Origins and early career==
[[File:Tremissis Avitus-RIC 2402.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tremissis]] of Emperor Avitus]]
Avitus was born in [[Clermont-Ferrand|Clermont]] to a family of the [[Gallo-Roman culture|Gallo-Roman]] [[Nobiles|nobility]]. His father was possibly [[Agricola (consul 421)|Agricola]], [[Roman consul|consul]] in 421. Avitus had two sons, [[Agricola (vir inlustris)|Agricola]] (fl 455 – living 507, a ''[[vir illustris]]'') and [[Ecdicius|Ecdicius Avitus]] (later ''[[patrikios|patricius]]'' and ''[[magister militum]]'' under Emperor [[Julius Nepos]]) and a daughter [[Papianilla (wife of Sidonius Apollinaris)|Papianilla]]; she married [[Sidonius Apollinaris]], whose letters and panegyrics remain an important source for Avitus' life and times.
Avitus followed a course of study typical for a young man of his rank, including law. Before 421 he was sent to the powerful ''patricius'' [[Constantius III|Flavius Constantius]] (briefly Emperor in 421) to ask for a tax reduction for his own country; this embassy was successful. His relative Theodorus was held hostage at the court of the King of the [[Visigoths]], [[Theodoric I]]. In 425–426, Avitus went and met him and the King, who let Avitus enter his own court. Here, around 439, Avitus met the son of Theodoric, [[Theodoric II]], who later became King. Avitus inspired the young Theodoric to study Latin poets.
He then started a military career serving under the ''magister militum'' [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]] in his [[Aetius campaign in the Alps]] against the [[Juthungi]] and the [[Noricum|Norics]] (430–431) and against the [[Burgundians]] (436). In 437, after being elevated to the rank of ''[[vir illustris]]'', he returned to [[Clermont-Ferrand|Avernia]], where he held a high office, probably ''magister militum per Gallias''. In the same year, he defeated a group of [[Huns#Unified Empire under Attila|Hunnic]] raiders near Clermont and obliged Theodoric to lift the siege of [[Narbonne]]. In 439, he became [[Praetorian prefecture of Gaul|Praetorian prefect of Gaul]] and renewed the friendship treaty with the Visigoths.
Before the summer of 440, he retired to private life at his estate, Avitacum, near Clermont. Here he lived until 451, when the [[Huns]], led by [[Attila]], invaded the Western Roman Empire; Avitus persuaded Theodoric into an alliance with Rome, and the combined forces of Theodoric and Aetius defeated Attila in the [[Battle of Châlons]]; Theodoric died in the battle.
==Rise to the throne==
[[File:Solidus Petronius Maximus-RIC 2201.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Petronius Maximus]], who obtained the throne at the death of [[Valentinian III]], recalled Avitus from his private life and sent him to ask for support to the Visigoths, but, at the death of Maximus, they acclaimed Avitus Emperor]]
In the late spring of 455, Avitus was recalled to service by emperor [[Petronius Maximus]] and was elevated to the rank of ''[[magister militum]]'', probably ''praesentalis''; Maximus sent Avitus in an embassy to the court of [[Theodoric II]], who had succeeded to his father, at [[Toulouse]]. This embassy probably confirmed the new king and his people as ''[[foederati]]'' of the Empire and asked for their support for the new Emperor.<ref>Petronius Maximus ascended to the throne on 17 March 455, after Emperor [[Valentinian III]] had been killed by a conspiracy in which Petronius was involved.</ref>
While Avitus was at Theodoric's court, news came of the death of Petronius Maximus (31 May) and of the [[sack of Rome (455)|sack of Rome]] by the [[Vandals]] of [[Gaiseric]]. Theodoric acclaimed Avitus Emperor in Toulouse; on 9 July,<ref>''[[Fasti vindobonenses priores]]'' record date about 10 July.</ref> the new Emperor was acclaimed by the Gallic chiefs gathered in Viernum,<ref>According to [[Sidonius Apollinaris]], vii.571–579, Avitus was crowned with a [[torc]], the typical Gallic neck ring with which [[Julian (Roman emperor)|Julian]] had also been crowned.</ref> near [[Arles|Arelate]] (Arles), and later, around 5 August, before Avitus reached Rome, he received the recognition of the [[Roman Senate]].<ref>''[[Fasti vindobonenses priores]]'', n. 575; [[Cassiodorus]], 1264.</ref>
Avitus stayed in Gaul for three months, to consolidate his power in the region that was the center of his support, and later went to Italy with a Gallic army, probably reinforced with a [[Goths|Gothic]] force. He probably travelled to [[Noricum]] to restore the imperial authority in that province, and then passed through [[Ravenna]], where he left a Gothic force under the new ''[[Patrikios|patricius]]'' and ''magister militum'' [[Remistus]], a Visigoth. On 21 September, finally, he entered Rome.<ref>''Auctarium Prosperi'', 7.</ref>
==Consolidation of power==
The effective power of Avitus depended on the support of all the major players in the Western Roman Empire in the mid-5th century. The new Emperor needed the support of both the civil institutions, the [[Roman Senate]] and the Eastern Roman Emperor [[Marcian]], as well as that of the army and its commanders (the generals [[Majorian]] and [[Ricimer]]) and the [[Vandals]] of [[Gaiseric]].
On 1 January 456, Avitus took the consulate,<ref>On this occasion, [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] declamed his panegyric.</ref> as traditionally the Emperors held the consulate in the first year upon assuming the purple. However, his consulate ''sine collega'' (without a second Consul) was not recognised by the Eastern court, which nominated two consuls, [[Iohannes (consul 456)|Iohannes]] and [[Varanes (consul 456)|Varanes]]. The fact that the two courts did not agree on a couple of consuls but each nominated its own means that despite the efforts of Avitus to receive the recognition of the Eastern Emperor,<ref>[[Hydatius]] writes (''Chronicle'', 166) that Avitus sent some ambassadors to Marcian to discuss the separation of their spheres of influences, and later (''Chronicle'', 169) adds that the two emperors ruled in agreement.</ref> the relationship between the two halves of the Empire was not optimal.
==Foreign policy==
Treaties under [[Marcian]] and a treaty of 442 between emperor [[Valentinian III]] and the Vandal king [[Gaiseric]] had failed to reduce Vandal incursions and raids along the Italian coast. Avitus' own efforts secured a temporary winter truce with them; but in March 456, Vandals destroyed [[Capua]]. Avitus sent [[Ricimer]] to defend [[Sicily]], and the Romans defeated the Vandals twice, once in a [[Battle of Agrigentum (456)|land battle]] near [[Agrigento]] and another in a [[Battle of Corsica|naval battle]] off [[Corsica]].<ref>See [[Priscus]], ''History'', fragment 24, and Hydatius, 176–177.</ref>
{{Main|Gothic War in Spain (456)}}
During the reign of Avitus, the [[Visigoths]] expanded into [[Hispania]], nominally under Roman authorisation but actually to promote their own interests. In 455, Avitus had sent an ambassador, ''[[comes]]'' Fronto, to the [[Suebi]] and then to [[Theodoric II]] to ask them to formally recognise Roman rule. When the Suebi invaded the Roman province of [[Hispania Tarraconensis]], the Visigoths attacked and defeated them 5 October 456 at the Campus Paramus, twelve miles from [[Astorga, Spain|Astorga]], on the banks of the [[Órbigo|Órbigo (Urbicus)]],<ref>E. A. Thompson, "The End of Roman Spain. Part II", ''Nottingham Medieval Studies'', 1977.</ref> subsequently occupying the province as nominal ''[[foederati]]'' of the Empire.
==Fall==
{{Main|Roman civil war of 456}}
[[File:As Majorian-RIC 2646v.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Majorian]], ''[[comes domesticorum]]'' of Avitus, and [[Ricimer]], a general of barbaric descent, rebelled against their Emperor, defeated him near [[Piacenza]], and obliged him to become Bishop of the city. It was Majorian who succeeded Avitus on the throne.]]
In the meantime, resentment amongst the population of Italy against the "foreigner" Avitus grew. The population of Rome, devastated by the [[sack of Rome (455)|sack of Rome]], suffered from food shortages due to the Vandal control of the naval routes, aggravated by the requirements of the foreign troops that had arrived with Avitus. The imperial treasury was almost empty and, after disbanding his Visigoth guard because of popular pressure, Avitus was obliged to pay their huge wages by melting down and selling the bronze of some statues.<ref>[[John of Antioch (chronicler)|John of Antioch]], fragment 202.</ref>
Counting on the popular discontent, on the disbandment of the imperial guard, and on the prestige gained through their victories, [[Ricimer]] and the ''[[comes domesticorum]]'' [[Majorian]] rebelled against Avitus; the Emperor was obliged to leave Rome in early autumn and to move north. Ricimer had the Roman Senate depose Avitus and ordered the murder of the ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Remistus]] in the ''Palatium'' at [[Classe, ancient port of Ravenna|Classe]], on 17 September 456.<ref>''Fasti vindobonenses priores'', 579; ''[[Auctarium Prosperi Havniense]]'', 1.</ref>
Avitus decided to react. First he chose Messianus, one of his collaborators in his embassy to the Visigoths ordered by [[Petronius Maximus]], as the new ''magister militum''; then he probably went to Gaul ([[Hydatius]] says to [[Arles|Arelate]])<ref>Hydatius, 177.</ref> to collect all the available forces, probably the Visigoth guard he had just disbanded; finally he led his forces against the troops of Ricimer, near [[Piacenza]]. The Emperor and his army entered the city and attacked the huge army led by Ricimer, but after a great massacre of his men, including Messianus, Avitus fled on 17 or 18 October 456. In the immediate aftermath Ricimer spared his life, but forced him to become [[Bishop of Piacenza]].<ref>''Fasti vindobonenses priores'', 580 (reporting 17 October as the day of the battle); ''Auctarium Prosperi'', ''s.a.'' 456 (reporting 18 October); Victor of Tuenna, ''s.a.'' 455 (reporting Avitus' consecration by the Bishop of Milan, Eusebius).</ref>
==Death==
Avitus' Gallic supporters may still have recognised him as emperor, despite his deposition. [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] tells of a failed ''coup d'état'' in Gaul organised by one Marcellus<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Letters'', i.11.6.</ref> and probably aimed at bringing Avitus back to the throne.<ref name=mathisen>Mathisen.</ref> The contemporary historian [[Hydatius]], who lived in Spain, considered the year 457 the third of Avitus' reign;<ref>Hydatius, ''Chronicle'', 183.</ref> Avitus' own intentions are not known, nor are the manner and date of his death, of which there are several versions. In some, he was told that the [[Roman Senate]] had condemned him to death, and so he tried to flee to Gaul, officially travelling there to bring donations to the basilica of Saint Julian in [[Clermont-Ferrant|Avernia]], his homeland; according to [[Gregory of Tours]], he died during this journey.<ref>Gregory of Tours, ''Historia Francorum'', ii.11.</ref> Other sources have him strangled or starved to death, by order of his successor. Avitus died in 457, or late in 456, very soon after his deposition, and was buried at [[Brioude]], next to Saint Julian's tomb.<ref>For modern scholarly analyses and list of ancient and modern sources for the circumstances of Avitus' final year and death, see Ralph W. Mathisen, "The Third Regnal Year of Eparchius Avitus," ''Classical Philology,'' Vol. 80, No. 4 (Oct., 1985), pp. 326–335. For a response, and alternative interpretations of the same materials, see R. W. Burgess, "The Third Regnal Year of Eparchius Avitus: A Reply," ''Classical Philology'', Vol. 82, No. 4 (Oct., 1987), pp. 335–345.</ref>
==Footnotes==
{{reflist|group=lower-roman}}
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==Bibliography==
===Primary sources===
Major source for Avitus' life until his rise to the throne is the panegyric written in occasion of his consulate by Sidonius Apollinaris (431–486):
* [[Sidonius Apollinaris]], ''Panegyric for Avitus''
For the history of his reign, the major sources are the Spaniard historian Hydatius (400 c. – 469 c.) and the Byzantine chronicler John of Antioch (first half of the 7th century):
* [[Hydatius]], ''Chronicle''
* [[John of Antioch (chronicler)|John of Antioch]], ''Chronicle''
===Secondary sources===
* [[Arnold Hugh Martin Jones|Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin]], John Robert Martindale, [[John Morris (historian)|John Morris]], "Eparchius Avitus 5", ''[[Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire]]'', Volume 2, Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-20159-4}}, pp.&nbsp;196–198.
* Mathisen, Ralph W., [http://www.roman-emperors.org/avitus.htm "Avitus (9/10 July 455 – 17/18 October 456)"], ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''
* Max, Gerald E., ''Political Intrigue During the Reigns of the Western Roman Emperors Avitus and Majorian,'' Historia, 1979, pp.&nbsp;225–237.
* Randers-Pehrson, Justine Davis. "Barbarians and Romans: The Birth Struggle of Europe, A.D. 400–700". Norman University of Oklahoma Press, 1983. p.&nbsp;251.{{ISBN?}}
*{{cite journal| author=Massimo Gusso |title= ''Sidonio Apollinare e il 'senato in esilio': intorno a una metafora poetica 'repubblicana''' |journal= Lexis |year= 2021 | publisher= Lexis Num. 39 (n.s.) – Fasc. 1, pp. 154–192 |doi= 10.30687/Lexis/2724-1564/2021/01 |s2cid= 243244394 |doi-access= free }}
* {{Cite journal |title=Avitus, Italy and the East in AD 455–456 |journal=[[:ru:Byzantion|Byzantion]] |last=Mathisen |first=Ralph W. |author-link=Ralph W. Mathisen |issue=1 |volume=51 |pages=232–247 |year=1981 |location=Brussels |language=en |issn=0378-2506 |jstor=44170681}}
==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Avitus}}
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext97/dfre310h.htm Gibbon chapter XXXVI]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070826163557/http://home.casema.nl/marcelkuyper/sidonius_bestanden/sid_carmen_vii.html Latin text of Sidonius's ''carmen'']
* [https://archive.org/stream/doctrinanumorum04hohlgoog#page/n208/mode/2up]
* [https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofgre01smituoft#page/434/mode/2up Arthur Penryhn Stanley, "M. Maecilius Avitus"], in the [[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]], [[William Smith (lexicographer)|William Smith]], ed., vol. I, p.&nbsp;435 (1870).
{{s-start}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Petronius Maximus]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=Western [[Roman emperor]] | years=455–456 }}
{{s-aft | after=[[Majorian]] }}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | before= [[Valentinian III|Valentinian Augustus]]|before2=[[Anthemius|Procopius Anthemius]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[List of Roman consuls|Roman consul]] | years=456|regent1=[[Iohannes (consul 456)|Iohannes]] and [[Varanes (consul 456)|Varanes]]}}
{{s-aft | after= [[Constantinus (consul 457)|Constantinus]]|after2=[[Rufus (consul 457)|Rufus]] }}
{{s-end}}
{{Roman emperors}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:4th-century births]]
[[Category:457 deaths]]
[[Category:5th-century Italian bishops]]
[[Category:5th-century Christians]]
[[Category:5th-century Gallo-Roman people]]
[[Category:5th-century Western Roman emperors]]
[[Category:5th-century western Roman consuls]]
[[Category:Bishops of Piacenza]]
[[Category:Magistri militum]]
[[Category:Praetorian prefects of Gaul]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:Year of death uncertain]]