View source for Bangkok

{{Short description|Capital and largest city of Thailand}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Bangkok
| other_name         =
| native_name        = {{nobold|{{lang|th|กรุงเทพมหานคร}}}}
| native_name_lang   = th
| official_name      = Krung Thep Maha Nakhon
| settlement_type    = [[List of municipalities in Thailand|Special administrative area]]
| image_skyline      = Bangkok Montage 2024.jpg
| image_size         = 250px
| image_alt          =
| image_caption      = From top, left to right: [[Sathon]] business district, [[Wat Benchamabophit]], [[Grand Palace]], [[Giant Swing]], [[Democracy Monument]], and [[Wat Arun]]
| image_flag         = Flag of Bangkok.svg
| flag_alt           = A green rectangular flag with the seal of Bangkok in the centre
| image_seal         = Seal Bangkok Metropolitan Admin (green).svg
| seal_alt           = A round seal bearing the image of Indra riding Airavata among clouds, with the words &quot;Krung Thep Maha Nakhon&quot; (in Thai) across the top
| nickname           = City of Angels, The Big Mango
| image_map          = {{maplink|frame=yes|plain=yes|frame-align=center|frame-width=280|frame-height=280|frame-coord=SWITCH:{{coord|qid=Q1861}}###{{coord|qid=Q869}}###{{coord|qid=Q48}}|zoom=SWITCH:9;5;1|type=SWITCH:shape-inverse;shape;point|marker=city|stroke-width=2|stroke-color=#5f5f5f|id2=Q869|type2=shape|fill2=#ffffff|fill-opacity2=SWITCH:0;0.1;0.1|stroke-width2=2|stroke-color2=#5f5f5f|stroke-opacity2=SWITCH:0;1;1|switch=Bangkok;Thailand;Asia}}
| coordinates        = {{coord|13|45|09|N|100|29|39|E|region:TH-10_type:city(8,300,000)|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_footnotes = <ref name="BMA geo"/>
| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   = [[Thailand]]
| subdivision_type1  = [[Regions of Thailand|Region]]
| subdivision_name1  = [[Central Thailand]]
| established_title  = First settlements
| established_date   = {{Circa|15th century}}
| established_title1 = Founded as capital
| established_date1  = 21 April 1782
| established_title2 = Re-incorporated
| established_date2  = 13 December 1972
| founder            = [[Rama I]]
| seat_type          = Governing body
| seat               = [[Bangkok Metropolitan Administration]]
| government_footnotes =
| government_type    = [[Special administrative area (Thailand)|Special administrative area]]
| leader_party       =
| leader_title       = [[Governor of Bangkok|Governor]]
| leader_name        = [[Chadchart Sittipunt]] (Indp.)
<!-- display settings  --------->| total_type         = City
| unit_pref          = Metric
<!-- ALL fields with measurements have automatic unit conversion -->
<!-- for references: use <ref> tags -->| area_footnotes     = <ref name="BMA geo"/>
| area_urban_footnotes = <!-- -->
| area_rural_footnotes = <!-- -->
| area_metro_footnotes = <ref name="Tangchonlatip"/>
| area_magnitude     = <!-- -->
| area_note          =
| area_water_percent =
| area_rank          =
| area_blank1_title  =
| area_blank2_title  = <!-- square km -->
| area_total_km2     = 1568.737
| area_land_km2      =
| area_water_km2     =
| area_urban_km2     =
| area_rural_km2     =
| area_metro_km2     = 7761.6
| area_blank1_km2    =
| area_blank2_km2    =
| length_km          =
| width_km           =
| dimensions_footnotes =
| elevation_footnotes = <ref name="Sinsakul"/>
| elevation_m        = 1.5
| population_footnotes = <ref name="2010 census 1">{{cite book|title=The 2010 Population and Housing Census: Whole Kingdom|chapter=Table 1 Population by sex, household by type of household, changwat and area |chapter-url=http://popcensus.nso.go.th/report/WholeKingdom_T.pdf |publisher=National Statistical Office|access-date=6 September 2020|date=2012|page=32|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190312075524/http://popcensus.nso.go.th/report/WholeKingdom_T.pdf|archive-date=12 March 2019}}</ref>
| population_total   = 8305218
| population_metro   = 17400000
| population_as_of   = 2010 census
| pop_est_footnotes  = <ref name=GPP/>
| pop_est_as_of      = 2021
| population_est     = 9034000
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_metro_km2 = auto
| population_demonym = Bangkokian
| demographics1_title1 = HDI
| demographics1_info1 = 0.943&nbsp;(<span style="color:#090;">very high</span>) ([[Provinces of Thailand|1st]])
| population_note    =
| demographics_type2 = GDP
| demographics2_footnotes = <ref name=GPP>{{cite web|title=Gross Regional and Provincial Product (GPP)|url=https://www.nesdc.go.th/nesdb_en/more_news.php?cid=156&filename=index|website=nesdc.go.th|access-date=24 April 2024|archive-date=17 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717193304/https://www.nesdc.go.th/nesdb_en/more_news.php?cid=156&filename=index|url-status=live}}</ref>
| demographics2_title1 = City
| demographics2_info1 = [[baht]] 5.747 trillion<br />([[US$]] 164 billion) (2022)
| demographics2_title2 = Metro
| demographics2_info2 = baht 8.096 trillion<br />(US$ 232 billion) (2022)
| timezone1          = [[Time in Thailand|ICT]]
| utc_offset1        = +07:00
| postal_code_type   = Postal code
| postal_code        = 10###
| area_code_type     =
| area_code          = 02
| iso_code           = TH-10
| website            = {{URL|https://main.bangkok.go.th/}}
| footnotes          =
}}
'''Bangkok''',{{efn|1={{IPAc-en|UKlang|b|æ|ŋ|'|k|ɒ|k}},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/bangkok|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805015627/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/bangkok|archive-date=5 August 2017|title=Bangkok|website=British and World English Dictionary|publisher=Oxford Dictionaries|access-date=4 August 2017}}</ref><ref name=collins/> {{IPAc-en|USlang|'|b|æ|ŋ|k|ɒ|k}}<ref name=collins>{{cite web|title=Definition of "Bangkok"|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bangkok|website=Collins English Dictionary (online)|publisher=HarperCollins|access-date=26 March 2014|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428220555/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bangkok|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/bangkok|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805055650/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/bangkok|archive-date=5 August 2017|title=Bangkok|website=US English Dictionary|publisher=Oxford Dictionaries|access-date=4 August 2017}}</ref>}} officially known in [[Thai language|Thai]] as '''Krung Thep Maha Nakhon'''{{efn|1={{lang|th|กรุงเทพมหานคร}}, {{IPA|th|krūŋ tʰêːp mahǎː nákʰɔ̄ːn|pron|Th-Krung Thep Maha Nakhon.ogg}}, where the phrase "Maha Nakhon" literally translates to "large (or great) city"}} and colloquially as '''Krung Thep''',{{efn|1={{Audio|Th-Krung Thep.ogg|Thai pronunciation}}}} is the capital and most populous city of [[Thailand]]. The city occupies {{convert|1568.7|km2}} in the [[Chao Phraya River]] delta in [[central Thailand]] and has an estimated population of 9.0&nbsp;million as of 2021, 13% of the country's population. Over 17.4 million people (25%) live within the surrounding [[Bangkok Metropolitan Region]] as of the 2021 estimate, making Bangkok a [[megacity]] and an extreme [[primate city]], dwarfing Thailand's other urban centres in both size and importance to the national economy.<ref name=GPP/>
Bangkok traces its roots to a small trading post during the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]] in the 15th century, which eventually grew and became the site of two capital cities, [[Thonburi Kingdom|Thonburi]] in 1767 and [[Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)|Rattanakosin]] in 1782. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam during the late-19th century, as the country faced pressures from the West. The city was at the centre of the country's political struggles throughout the [[20th century]], as Siam—later renamed Thailand—abolished absolute monarchy, adopted constitutional rule, and underwent numerous coups and several uprisings. The city, incorporated as a special administrative area under the [[Bangkok Metropolitan Administration]] in 1972, grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailand's politics, economy, education, media and modern society.
The [[Tiger Cub Economies|Asian investment boom]] in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their regional headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance, business and pop culture. It is an international hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a centre for the arts, fashion, and entertainment. The city is known for its street life and cultural landmarks, as well as its [[red-light district]]s. The [[Grand Palace]] and [[Buddhist temple]]s including [[Wat Arun]] and [[Wat Pho]] stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the nightlife scenes of [[Khaosan Road]] and [[Patpong]]. Bangkok is among the world's top tourist destinations, and has been named the world's most visited city consistently in several international rankings.
Bangkok's rapid growth coupled with little [[urban planning]] has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure. Despite an extensive [[Expressway Authority of Thailand|expressway network]], an inadequate road network and substantial private car usage have led to chronic and crippling [[traffic congestion]], which caused severe air pollution in the 1990s. The city has since turned to public transport in an attempt to solve the problem, operating [[Rail transport in Bangkok|10 urban rail lines]] and building other public transit; however, congestion remains a prevalent issue.
==History==
{{Main|History of Bangkok}}
[[File:La Loubere map of Bangkok (English).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=An engraved map titled &quot;A Map of Bancock&quot;, showing a walled settlement on the west of a river, and a fort on the east|Map of 17th-century Bangkok, from [[Simon de la Loubère]]'s ''Du Royaume de Siam'']]
The history of Bangkok dates at least back to the early 15th century, to when it was a village on the west bank of the [[Chao Phraya River]], under the rule of [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]].<ref name="Tipawan"/> Because of its strategic location near the mouth of the river, the town gradually increased in importance. Bangkok initially served as a customs outpost with forts on both sides of the river, and was the site of [[Siege of Bangkok|a siege in 1688]] in which the French were expelled from Siam. After the fall of Ayutthaya to the [[Konbaung dynasty|Burmese]] in 1767, the newly crowned King [[Taksin]] established his capital at the town, which became the base of the [[Thonburi Kingdom]]. In 1782, King [[Phutthayotfa Chulalok]] (Rama I) succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern bank's [[Rattanakosin Island]], thus founding the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)|Rattanakosin Kingdom]]. The [[City Pillar]] was erected on 21 April 1782, which is regarded as the date of foundation of Bangkok as the capital.<ref name="200 years"/>
Bangkok's economy gradually expanded through international trade, first with [[China]], then with Western merchants returning in the early-to-mid 19th century. As the capital, Bangkok was the centre of Siam's modernization as it faced pressure from Western powers in the late-19th century. The reigns of Kings [[Mongkut]] (Rama IV, {{abbr|r.|reigned}} 1851–68) and [[Chulalongkorn]] (Rama V, {{abbr|r.|reigned}} 1868–1910) saw the introduction of the steam engine, printing press, rail transport and utilities infrastructure in the city, as well as formal education and healthcare. Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country [[Siamese revolution of 1932|abolished absolute monarchy in 1932]].<ref name="History of Thailand" />
[[File:View of Bangkok by John Heaviside Clark (1828).jpg|thumb|left|Engraving of the city from British diplomat [[John Crawfurd]]'s embassy in 1822]]
As [[Thailand]] allied with [[Japan]] [[Thailand in World War II|in World War II]], Bangkok was subjected to [[Bombing of Bangkok in World War II|Allied bombing]], but rapidly grew in the post-war period as a result of US aid and government-sponsored investment. Bangkok's role as a US military [[R&R (military)|R&R]] destination boosted its tourism industry as well as firmly establishing it as a sex tourism destination. Disproportionate urban development led to increasing income inequalities and migration from rural areas into Bangkok; its population surged from 1.8&nbsp;million to 3&nbsp;million in the 1960s.<ref name="History of Thailand" />
Following the US withdrawal from [[Vietnam]] in 1973, Japanese businesses took over as leaders in investment, and the expansion of export-oriented manufacturing led to growth of the financial market in Bangkok.<ref name="History of Thailand">Baker & Pongpaichit 2005, pp. 37–41, 45, 52–71, 149–150, 162, 199–204.</ref> Rapid growth of the city continued through the 1980s and early 1990s, until it was stalled by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]]. By then, many public and social issues had emerged, among them the strain on infrastructure reflected in the city's notorious traffic jams. Bangkok's role as the nation's political stage continues to be seen in strings of popular protests, from the student uprisings in [[14 October 1973 uprising|1973]] and [[6 October 1976 massacre|1976]], anti-military demonstrations [[Black May (1992)|in 1992]], and [[History of Thailand since 2001|frequent street protests since 2006]], including those by groups opposing and supporting former prime minister [[Thaksin Shinawatra]] from 2006 to [[2013–2014 Thai political crisis|2013]], and a renewed student-led movement [[2020 Thai protests|in 2020]].<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Beech|first1=Hannah|last2=Suhartono|first2=Muktita|date=2020-10-14|title=As Motorcade Rolls By, Thai Royal Family Glimpses the People's Discontent|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/14/world/asia/thailand-protests-queen-king.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014174057/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/14/world/asia/thailand-protests-queen-king.html |archive-date=2020-10-14 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2020-10-15|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
Administration of the city was first formalized by King Chulalongkorn in 1906, with the establishment of [[Monthon]] Krung Thep Phra Maha Nakhon ({{lang|th|มณฑลกรุงเทพพระมหานคร}}) as a national subdivision. In 1915, the ''monthon'' was split into several provinces, the administrative boundaries of which have since further changed. The city in its current form was created in 1972 with the formation of the [[Bangkok Metropolitan Administration]] (BMA), following the merger of Phra Nakhon province on the eastern bank of the Chao Phraya and Thonburi province on the west during the previous year.<ref name="200 years"/>
==Name==
The origin of the name ''Bangkok'' ({{lang|th|บางกอก}}, pronounced in Thai as {{IPA|th|bāːŋ kɔ̀ːk||Th-Bangkok.ogg}}) is unclear. {{lang|th-Latn|Bang}} {{lang|th|บาง}} is a Thai word meaning 'a village on a stream',<ref>{{cite web |script-title=th:พจนานุกรม ฉบับราชบัณฑิตยสถาน พ.ศ. ๒๕๔๒ |trans-title=Royal Institute Dictionary, B.E. 1999 (online edition)|url=http://rirs3.royin.go.th/word24/word-24-a3.asp |publisher=Royal Institute |language=th |access-date=12 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112051933/http://rirs3.royin.go.th/word24/word-24-a3.asp |archive-date=12 November 2013 }}</ref> and the name might have been derived from {{lang|th-Latn|Bang Ko}} ({{lang|th|บางเกาะ}}), {{lang|th-Latn|ko}} {{lang|th|เกาะ}} meaning 'island', stemming from the city's watery landscape.<ref name="Tipawan">{{cite web |last1=Chandrashtitya |first1=Tipawan |script-title=th:ประวัติเมืองธนบุรี |trans-title=History of Thonburi City |url=http://dit.dru.ac.th/home/012/attractions_history.html |website=Arts & Cultural Office |publisher=Dhonburi Rajabhat University |access-date=11 December 2011 |first2=Chiraporn |last2=Matungka |language=th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100713001017/http://dit.dru.ac.th/home/012/attractions_history.html |archive-date=13 July 2010 }}</ref> Another theory suggests that it is shortened from {{lang|th-Latn|Bang Makok}} ({{lang|th|บางมะกอก}}), {{lang|th-Latn|makok}} {{lang|th|มะกอก}} being the name of ''[[Elaeocarpus hygrophilus]]'', a plant bearing olive-like fruit.{{efn|Two plants are known in Thai by the name {{lang|th-Latn|makok}}: ''E. hygrophilus'' ({{lang|th-Latn|makok nam}}, 'water {{lang|th-Latn|makok}}') and ''[[Spondias pinnata]]'' ({{lang|th-Latn|makok pa}}, 'jungle {{lang|th-Latn|makok}}'). The species that grew in the area was likely {{lang|th-Latn|makok nam}}.}} This is supported by the former name of [[Wat Arun]], a historic temple in the area, that used to be called ''Wat Makok''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Sujit |last=Wongthes |author-link=Sujit Wongthes |script-title=th:กรุงเทพฯ มาจากไหน? |trans-title=Bangkok: A Historical Background |isbn=978-616-7686-00-4 |year=2012 |publisher=Dream Catcher |location=Bangkok |url=http://www.sujitwongthes.com/2012/03/nonfiction2555-1/ |language=th |access-date=9 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217125517/http://www.sujitwongthes.com/2012/03/nonfiction2555-1/ |archive-date=17 December 2014 |page=37 }}</ref>
Officially, the town was known as {{lang|th-Latn|Thonburi Si Mahasamut}} ({{lang|th|ธนบุรีศรีมหาสมุทร}}, from [[Pali]] and [[Sanskrit]], literally 'city of treasures gracing the ocean') or {{lang|th-Latn|Thonburi}}, according to the ''[[Ayutthaya Chronicles]]''.<ref name="Wang Derm-Thonburi">{{cite web |script-title=th:สาระน่ารู้กรุงธนบุรี |trans-title=Interesting facts about the city of Thonburi |url=http://www.wangdermpalace.org/thonburi/index_thai.html |website=Phra Racha Wang Derm |publisher=Phra Racha Wang Derm Restoration Foundation |access-date=11 December 2011 |language=th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302033915/http://www.wangdermpalace.org/thonburi/index_thai.html |archive-date=2 March 2012 }}</ref> ''Bangkok'' was likely a colloquial name, albeit [[Endonym and exonym| one widely adopted by foreign visitors]], who continued to use it to refer to the city even after the new capital's establishment.
When King Rama I established his new capital on the river's eastern bank, the city inherited Ayutthaya's ceremonial name, of which there were many variants, including {{lang|th-Latn|Krung Thep Thawarawadi Si Ayutthaya}} ({{lang|th|กรุงเทพทวารวดีศรีอยุธยา}}) and {{lang|th-Latn|Krung Thep Maha Nakhon Si Ayutthaya}} ({{lang|th|กรุงเทพมหานครศรีอยุธยา}}).<ref name="Chanchai">{{cite journal|last=Phakathikhom |first=Chanchai |script-title=th:นามพระนคร "ศรีอยุธยา" มาแต่ไหน |journal=Senathipat |year=2005 |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=114–123 |url=http://cdsd-rta.net/images/stories/valasan/valsan%20y54%20b3%20year2548/155403.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020085443/http://www.cdsd-rta.net/images/stories/valasan/valsan%20y54%20b3%20year2548/155403.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2020 |access-date=31 July 2013 |trans-title=What were the origins of the capital name "Si Ayutthaya"? |language=th |issn=0857-3891 }}</ref> [[Edmund Roberts (diplomat)|Edmund Roberts]], visiting the city as envoy of the United States in 1833, noted that the city, since becoming capital, was known as {{lang|th-Latn|Sia-Yut'hia}}, and this is the name used in international treaties of the period.<ref name="Roberts">{{cite book|last= Roberts|first= Edmund|author-link= Edmund Roberts (diplomat)|title= Embassy to the Eastern courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat: in the U.S. sloop-of-war Peacock during the years 1832–3–4|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=aSgPAAAAYAAJ|date= 1837|orig-date= 1837|publisher= Harper & Brothers|oclc= 12212199|page= image 288|chapter= Chapter XVIII —City of Bang-kok|isbn= 978-0-608-40406-6|access-date= 5 April 2013|quote= The spot on which the present capital stands, and the country in its vicinity, on both banks of the river for a considerable distance, were formerly, before the removal of the court to its present situation called Bang-kok; but since that time, and for nearly sixty years past, it has been named Sia yuthia, (pronounced See-ah you-tè-ah, and by the natives, Krung, that is, the capital;) it is called by both names here, but never Bang-kok; and they always correct foreigners when the latter make this mistake. The villages which occupy the right hand of the river, opposite to the capital, pass under the general name of Bang-kok.|archive-date= 23 January 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230123212347/https://books.google.com/books?id=aSgPAAAAYAAJ|url-status= live}}</ref>
The city's ceremonial name came into use during the reign of King Mongkut.{{efn|While this ceremonial name is generally believed, based on writings by the Somdet Phra Wannarat (Kaeo), to have originally been given by King Rama I and later modified by King Mongkut, it did not come into use until the latter reign.<ref name="Chanchai"/>}}<ref name="200 years">{{cite book|last=Committee for the Rattanakosin Bicentennial Celebration|title=จดหมายเหตุการอนุรักษ์กรุงรัตนโกสินทร์ |trans-title=Rattanakosin City conservation archives|publisher=Department of Fine Arts|year=1982}} Reproduced in {{cite web|title=กว่าจะมาเป็นกรุงเทพฯ |trans-title=The path to become Bangkok |url=http://203.155.220.230/info/passbkk/frame.asp |publisher=BMA Data Center |access-date=1 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219220002/http://203.155.220.230/info/passbkk/frame.asp |archive-date=19 December 2014 }}</ref> The full name reads as follows:<ref name="Royal Institute Newsletter">{{cite journal|journal=Royal Institute Newsletter|volume=3|issue=31|date=December 1993|title=กรุงเทพมหานคร}} Reproduced in {{cite web|script-title=th:กรุงเทพมหานคร|trans-title=Krung Thep Mahanakhon |language=th|url=http://www.royin.go.th/th/knowledge/detail.php?ID=639|access-date=12 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206140602/http://www.royin.go.th/th/knowledge/detail.php?ID=639|archive-date=2014-12-06}}</ref>{{efn|This ceremonial name uses two ancient Indian languages, [[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]], prefaced with the only one Thai word, ''Krung'', which means 'capital'. According to the romanisation of these languages, it can actually be written as ''[[wikt:กรุง#Thai|Krung]]-[[wikt:देव#Sanskrit|dēva]] [[wikt:महा#Sanskrit|mahā]] [[wikt:नगर#Sanskrit|nagara]] [[wikt:अमर#Sanskrit|amara]] [[wikt:रत्न#Sanskrit|ratana]]kosindra [[wikt:महा#Sanskrit|mah]] [[wikt:इन्द्र#Sanskrit|indr]] [[wikt:अयोध्या#Sanskrit|āyudhyā]] [[wikt:महा#Sanskrit|mahā]] [[wikt:तिलक#Sanskrit|tilaka]] [[wikt:भाव#Sanskrit|bhava]] [[wikt:नव#Numeral 2|nava]] [[wikt:रत्न#Sanskrit|ratana]] [[wikt:राजा#Sanskrit|rāja]] [[wikt:धानी#Sanskrit|dhānī]] [[wikt:पुरी#Sanskrit|purī]] [[wikt:रम्य#Sanskrit|ramya]] [[wikt:उत्तम#Sanskrit|uttama]] [[wikt:राजा#Sanskrit|rāja]]nivēsana [[wikt:महा#Sanskrit|mah]] [[wikt:आस्थान#Sanskrit|āsthāna]] [[wikt:अमर#Sanskrit|amara]] [[wikt:विमान#Sanskrit|vimāna]] [[wikt:अवतार#Sanskrit|avatāra]] [[wikt:स्थिति#Sanskrit|sthitya]] shakrasdattiya [[wikt:विष्णु#Sanskrit|viṣṇu]] [[wikt:कर्मन्#Sanskrit|karma]] [[wikt:प्रसिद्धि#Sanskrit|prasiddhi]]''{{Audio|Bangkok ceremonial name in Sanskrit.ogg|(listen)}}.}}
{{listen|filename=Th-Bangkok ceremonial name.ogg|title=Full ceremonial name}}
{{blockquote|Krungthepmahanakhon Amonrattanakosin Mahintharayutthaya Mahadilokphop Noppharatratchathaniburirom Udomratchaniwetmahasathan Amonphimanawatansathit Sakkathattiyawitsanukamprasit<br/>{{Lang|th|กรุงเทพมหานคร อมรรัตนโกสินทร์ มหินทรายุธยา มหาดิลกภพ นพรัตนราชธานีบูรีรมย์ อุดมราชนิเวศน์มหาสถาน อมรพิมานอวตารสถิต สักกะทัตติยวิษณุกรรมประสิทธิ์}}}}
The name, composed of [[Pali]] and [[Sanskrit]] root words, translates as:<ref name="Royal Institute Newsletter" />
{{blockquote|City of angels,<!-- {{efn|Although 'city of angels' is a common translation, ''krung'' more precisely translates as 'capital'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thai2english.com/dictionary/1264888.html|title=กรุง - Thai / English dictionary meaning - กรุง ภาษาอังกฤษ แปล ความหมาย - thai2english.com|work=thai2english.com}}</ref>}} --> great city of immortals, magnificent city of the [[Navaratna|nine gems]], seat of the king, city of royal palaces, home of gods incarnate, erected by [[Vishvakarman]] at [[Indra]]'s behest.}}
The name is listed in ''[[Guinness World Records]]'' as the world's [[longest place name]], at 168 letters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Longest place name |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/67273-longest-place-name |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=Guinness World Records |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322190956/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/67273-longest-place-name |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|In contrast to the 169-letter-long transcription provided above in this article, the form recorded in the Guinness World Records is missing the first letter "h" in ''Amonphimanawatansathit'', resulting in a word 168 letters long.}} Many Thais who recall the full name do so because of its use in the 1989 song "Krung Thep Maha Nakhon" by Thai rock band [[Asanee–Wasan]], the lyrics of which consist entirely of the city's full name, repeated throughout the song.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Heider, Carsten (a report by), Saarländischer Rundfunk (produced by), Perspektive Medienproduktion GmbH (English version) |date=26 November 2017 |title= Welcome to Bangkok, Thailand {{!}} DW Documentary |medium= YouTube video |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xC4h7SA6sBc&t=1368 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/xC4h7SA6sBc| archive-date=2021-10-28|access-date=22 September 2020 |time=0:22:48 |publisher=Deutsche Welle}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
Today, the city is officially known in Thai by a shortened form of the full ceremonial name, {{lang|th-Latn|Krung Thep Maha Nakhon}} ({{lang|th|กรุงเทพมหานคร}}), which is colloquially further shortened to {{lang|th-Latn|Krung Thep}} ({{lang|th|กรุงเทพฯ}}). {{lang|th-Latn|Krung}} {{lang|th|กรุง}} is a Thai word of [[Khmer language|Khmer]] origin,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Askew |first=Marc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt6FAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |title=Bangkok: Place, Practice and Representation |date=2004-08-02 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-65986-9 |language=en }}</ref> meaning 'capital, king',<ref>{{Cite RID|platform=web|access-date=16 February 2024}}</ref> while {{lang|th-Latn|thep}}, {{lang|th|เทพ}} is from Pali/Sanskrit ''[[deva (Hinduism)|deva]]'', meaning 'deity' or 'god'. The name is more commonly translated as 'City of Angels', which is also used to draw comparisons with [[Los Angeles]] in the United States, a comparably sized city with similar traffic issues.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sinclair |first1=Niall |title=Angels and demons: a tale of two cities (part one) |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/general/500375 |access-date=16 February 2024 |work=Bangkok Post |date=18 March 2015 |language=en |archive-date=16 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216105134/https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/general/500375 |url-status=live }}</ref> Another nickname sometimes used to refer to the city is The Big Mango, a tongue-in-cheek comparison to [[The Big Apple]] for [[New York City]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/learning/meaning/Big+Mango|title=Big Mango (noun)|work=Bangkok Post Learning|access-date=16 February 2024|archive-date=16 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216025942/https://www.bangkokpost.com/learning/meaning/Big+Mango|url-status=live}}</ref>
==<span id="Administration"></span>Government==
{{main|Bangkok Metropolitan Administration}}
[[File:Full name of Bangkok.JPG|alt=A granite sign with a long name in Thai script, and a building in the background|thumb|The city's [[#Name|ceremonial name]] is displayed in front of Bangkok City Hall.]]
The city of Bangkok is locally governed by the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA). Although its boundaries are at the provincial (''[[changwat]]'') level, unlike the other 76 provinces Bangkok is a special administrative area whose governor is directly elected to serve a four-year term. The governor, together with four appointed deputies, form the executive body, who implement policies through the BMA civil service headed by the Permanent Secretary for the BMA. In separate elections, each district elects one or more city councillors, who form the Bangkok Metropolitan Council. The council is the BMA's legislative body, and has power over municipal ordinances and the city's budget.<ref>Thavisin et al. (eds) 2006, p.&nbsp;86.</ref> The [[2022 Bangkok gubernatorial election|latest gubernatorial election]] took place on 22 May 2022 after an extended lapse following the [[2014 Thai coup d'état]], and was won by [[Chadchart Sittipunt]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangkok votes in new governor for first time in nine years |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/bangkok-votes-new-governor-first-time-nine-years-2022-05-22/ |access-date=23 May 2022 |work=Reuters |date=22 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=22 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522185359/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/bangkok-votes-new-governor-first-time-nine-years-2022-05-22/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Bangkok is divided into [[Districts of Bangkok|fifty districts]] (''khet'', equivalent to ''[[amphoe]]'' in the other provinces), which are further subdivided into [[Khwaeng|180 sub-districts]] (''khwaeng'', equivalent to ''[[tambon]]''). Each district is managed by a district director appointed by the governor. District councils, elected to four-year terms, serve as advisory bodies to their respective district directors.
The BMA is divided into sixteen departments, each overseeing different aspects of the administration's responsibilities. Most of these responsibilities concern the city's infrastructure, and include city planning, building control, transportation, drainage, waste management and city beautification, as well as education, medical and rescue services.<ref>Thavisin et al. (eds) 2006, pp.&nbsp;80–82.</ref> Many of these services are provided jointly with other agencies. The BMA has the authority to implement local ordinances, although civil law enforcement falls under the jurisdiction of the [[Metropolitan Police Bureau (Thailand)|Metropolitan Police Bureau]].
The seal of the city shows [[Hindu]] god [[Indra]] riding in the clouds on [[Airavata]], a divine [[white elephant]] known in Thai as Erawan. In his hand Indra holds his weapon, the ''[[vajra]]''.<ref>Thavisin et al. (eds) 2006, p.&nbsp;78.</ref> The seal is based on a painting done by [[Prince Naris]]. The tree symbol of Bangkok is ''[[Ficus benjamina]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnp.go.th/EPAC/province_plant/bangkok.htm|script-title=th:ไทรย้อยใบแหลม|trans-title=Golden fig|language=th|last=Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation|website=DNP website|access-date=25 September 2012}}</ref> [[Giant barb]] (''[[Catlocarpio siamensis]]'') has been chosen as the aquatic animal of Bangkok.<ref>{{cite web|language=thai|date=2024-11-05|accessdate=2015-07-03|work=[[PPTV (Thai TV channel)|PPTV HD]]|url=https://www.pptvhd36.com/news/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99/13982|title=ประมงเลือก "ปลากระโห้" เป็นสัตว์น้ำประจำกรุงเทพฯ|trans-title=Fisheries choose "Giant barb" as the aquatic animal of Bangkok}}</ref> The official city slogan, adopted in 2012, reads:
{{blockquote|As built by deities, the administrative centre, dazzling palaces and temples, the capital of Thailand <br/>กรุงเทพฯ ดุจเทพสร้าง เมืองศูนย์กลางการปกครอง วัดวังงามเรืองรอง เมืองหลวงของประเทศไทย<ref>{{cite journal|title=Bangkok Finally Gets Its Own Provincial Slogan |journal=Bangkok Inter News |volume=5 |issue=2 |date=April–June 2012 |page=10 |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/internew/623-55%20new.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016093625/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/internew/623-55%20new.pdf |archive-date=16 October 2015 }}</ref>}}
As the capital of Thailand, Bangkok is the seat of all branches of the [[Government of Thailand|national government]]. The [[Government House (Thailand)|Government House]], [[Parliament House (Thailand)|Parliament House]] and [[Supreme Court of Thailand|Supreme]], [[Administrative Court of Thailand|Administrative]] and [[Constitutional Court of Thailand|Constitutional]] Courts are all in the city. Bangkok is the site of the [[Grand Palace]] and [[Dusit Palace]], respectively the official and ''de facto'' residence of the king. Most government ministries also have headquarters and offices in the capital.
==Geography==
[[File:Bangkok satellite city-area.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Satellite image showing a river flowing into the ocean, with large built-up areas along its sides just before the river mouth|The city of Bangkok is highlighted in this satellite image of the lower Chao Phraya delta. The built-up urban area extends northward and southward into Nonthaburi and Samut Prakan provinces.]]
Bangkok covers an area of {{convert|1568.7|km2}}, ranking 69th among the other 76 provinces of Thailand. Of this, about {{convert|700|km2}} form the built-up urban area.<ref name="BMA geo"/> It is ranked 73rd in the world in terms of land area.<ref name="CityMayors">{{cite web|url=http://www.citymayors.com/statistics/largest-cities-area-125.html|title=The largest cities in the world by land area, population and density|date=6 January 2007|website=[[City Mayors]]|access-date=19 July 2008|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080718162540/http://www.citymayors.com/statistics/largest-cities-area-125.html|archive-date= 18 July 2008 |url-status = live}}</ref> The city's [[urban sprawl]] reaches into parts of the six other provinces that it borders, namely, in clockwise order from northwest: [[Nonthaburi province|Nonthaburi]], [[Pathum Thani province|Pathum Thani]], [[Chachoengsao province|Chachoengsao]], [[Samut Prakan province|Samut Prakan]], [[Samut Sakhon province|Samut Sakhon]], and [[Nakhon Pathom province|Nakhon Pathom]]. With the exception of Chachoengsao, these provinces, together with Bangkok, form the greater [[Bangkok Metropolitan Region]].<ref name="Tangchonlatip">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.ipsr.mahidol.ac.th/ipsr/annualconference/conferenceiii/Articles/Article02.htm |chapter=กรุงเทพมหานคร: เมืองโตเดี่ยวตลอดกาลของประเทศไทย |trans-chapter=Bangkok: Thailand's forever primate city |first=Kanchana |last=Tangchonlatip |title=ประชากรและสังคม 2550 |trans-title=Population and society 2007 |editor1-first=Varachai |editor1-last=Thongthai |editor2-first=Sureeporn |editor2-last=Punpuing |place=Nakhon Pathom, Thailand |publisher=Institute for Population and Social Research |year=2007 |access-date=26 September 2012 |archive-date=4 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304041608/http://www.ipsr.mahidol.ac.th/ipsr/annualconference/conferenceiii/Articles/Article02.htm }}</ref>
===Topography===
Bangkok is situated in the Chao Phraya River delta in Thailand's [[Central Thailand|central plain]]. The river meanders through the city in a southerly direction, emptying into the [[Gulf of Thailand]] approximately {{convert|25|km}} south of city centre. The area is flat and low-lying, with an average elevation of {{convert|1.5|m}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]].<ref name="Sinsakul">{{cite journal|last=Sinsakul|first=Sin|title=Late Quaternary geology of the Lower Central Plain, Thailand|journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences|date=August 2000|volume=18|issue=4|pages=415–426|doi=10.1016/S1367-9120(99)00075-9 |bibcode=2000JAESc..18..415S |issn=1367-9120}}</ref>{{efn|The BMA gives an elevation figure of {{convert|2.31|m}}.<ref name="BMA geo"/>}} Most of the area was originally [[swampland]], which was gradually drained and irrigated for agriculture by the construction of canals (''[[khlong]]'') which took place from the 16th to 19th centuries. The course of the river as it flows through Bangkok has been modified by the construction of [[Chao Phraya River#River engineering|several shortcut canals]].
[[File:Chaophrayashortcut.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Bangkok's major canals are shown in this map, detailing the original course of the river and its shortcut canals.]]
The city's waterway network served as the primary means of transport until the late 19th century, when modern roads began to be built. Up until then, most people lived near or on the water, leading the city to be known during the 19th century as the "[[Venice]] of the East".<ref>{{cite book|first=H. Warrington |last=Smyth|title=Five years in Siam: from 1891 to 1896|year=1898|place=New York|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|volume=II|page=9}} Quoted in Baker & Phongpaichit 2005, p.&nbsp;90.</ref> Many of these canals have since been filled in or paved over, but others still criss-cross the city, serving as major drainage channels and transport routes. Most canals are now badly polluted, although the BMA has committed to the treatment and cleaning up of several canals.<ref>Thavisin et al. (eds) 2006, p.&nbsp;35.</ref>
The geology of the Bangkok area is characterised by a top layer of soft [[marine clay]], known as "Bangkok clay", averaging {{convert|15|m}} in thickness, which overlies an [[aquifer]] system consisting of eight known units. This feature has contributed to the effects of [[subsidence]] caused by extensive groundwater pumping. First discovered in the 1970s, subsidence soon became a critical issue, reaching a rate of {{convert|120|mm}} per year in 1981. Ground water management and mitigation measures have since lessened the severity of the situation, and the rate of subsidence decreased to {{convert|10|to|30|mm}} per year in the early 2000s, though parts of the city are now {{convert|1|m}} below sea level.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Phien-wej |first1=N. |first2=P.H. |last2=Giao |first3=P |last3=Nutalaya |title=Land subsidence in Bangkok, Thailand|journal=Engineering Geology|date=2 February 2006 |volume=82|issue=4|pages=187–201|doi=10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.10.004|bibcode=2006EngGe..82..187P }}</ref>
Subsidence has resulted in increased flood risk, as Bangkok is already prone to flooding due to its low elevation and an inadequate drainage infrastructure,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Deviller |first1=Sophie |title=With rising sea levels, Bangkok struggles to stay afloat |url=https://phys.org/news/2018-09-sea-bangkok-struggles-afloat.html |access-date=25 July 2019 |work=PHYS ORG |date=2 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Gluckman|first=Ron|title=Bangkok: The sinking city faces severe climate challenges|url=https://www.preventionweb.net/go/65887|access-date=2020-11-15|website=preventionweb.net|date=11 June 2019 |publisher=[[Urban Land Institute]]|language=en|archive-date=27 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527104222/https://www.preventionweb.net/news/view/65887}}</ref> often compounded by blockage from rubbish pollution (especially plastic waste).<ref>{{Cite web|last=hermesauto|date=2016-09-06|title=Plastic bags clogging Bangkok's sewers complicate efforts to fight floods|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/plastic-bags-clogging-bangkoks-sewers-complicate-efforts-to-fight-floods|access-date=2020-11-17|website=The Straits Times|language=en|archive-date=14 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814062209/https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/plastic-bags-clogging-bangkoks-sewers-complicate-efforts-to-fight-floods|url-status=live}}</ref> The city now relies on flood barriers and augmenting drainage from canals by pumping and building drain tunnels, but parts of Bangkok and its suburbs are still regularly inundated. Heavy downpours resulting in [[urban runoff]] overwhelming drainage systems, and runoff discharge from upstream areas, are major triggering factors.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Surapee|last=Engkagul|title=Flooding features in Bangkok and vicinity: Geographical approach|journal=GeoJournal|volume=31|issue=4|year=1993|pages=335–338|doi=10.1007/BF00812783|bibcode=1993GeoJo..31..335E|s2cid=189881863|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00812783|access-date=1 February 2020|archive-date=27 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627201335/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00812783|url-status=live}}</ref> Severe flooding affecting much of the city occurred in 1995 and [[2011 Thailand floods|2011]]. In 2011, most of Bangkok's northern, eastern and western districts were flooded, in some places for over two months.
[[File:Bangkok, Thailand Population Density and Low Elevation Coastal Zones (5457306973).jpg|thumb|Bangkok population density and low elevation coastal zones. Bangkok is especially vulnerable to [[sea level rise]].]]
Bangkok's coastal location makes it particularly vulnerable to [[rising sea level]]s due to [[global warming]] and climate change. A study by the [[OECD]] has estimated that 5.138&nbsp;million people in Bangkok may be exposed to [[coastal flooding]] by 2070, the seventh highest figure among the world's port cities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nicholls |first1=R. J. |first2= S. |last2= Hanson |first3=C. |last3= Herweijer |first4=N. |last4=Patmore |first5=S. |last5=Hallegatte |first6=J. |last6=CorfeeMorlot |first7=Jean |last7=Chateau |first8=Robert |last8=Muir-Wood |year=2008|title=Ranking Port Cities with High Exposure and Vulnerability to Climate Extremes: Exposure Estimates| journal=OECD Environment Working Papers|issue=1 |doi=10.1787/011766488208|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/download/5kzssgshj742.pdf?expires=1443516109&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=86F9E81D60F674BDFA259B0843C4A964 |access-date=22 May 2014}}</ref>{{RP|8}} There are fears that the city may be submerged by 2030.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2007/TECH/science/10/22/thailand.water.rising.ap/index.html |title=Rising seas, sinking land threaten Thai capital |website=CNN International|access-date=24 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030034936/http://edition.cnn.com/2007/TECH/science/10/22/thailand.water.rising.ap/index.html|archive-date=30 October 2007|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2084358,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721214027/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2084358,00.html|archive-date=21 July 2011|title=Thailand, Sinking: Parts of Bangkok Could Be Underwater in 2030|first=Bruno|last= Philip| magazine=Time|date=21 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Sattaburuth|first1=Aekarach|title=Bangkok 'could be submerged in 15 years'|url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/learning/learning-news/632520/bangkok-could-be-submerged-in-15-years|access-date=23 January 2017|work=Bangkok Post|date=2015-07-23}}</ref> A study published in October 2019 in ''[[Nature Communications]]'' corrected earlier models of coastal elevations<ref>{{cite book |title=Climate Risks and Adaptation in Asian Coastal Megacities |date=September 2010 |publisher=The World Bank |location=Washington DC |pages=23–31 |chapter-url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/Resources/226300-1287600424406/coastal_megacities_fullreport.pdf |access-date=1 November 2019 |chapter=3. Estimating Flood Impacts and Vulnerabilities in Coastal Cities |archive-date=1 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701082644/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/Resources/226300-1287600424406/coastal_megacities_fullreport.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and concluded that up to 12&nbsp;million Thais—mostly in the greater Bangkok metropolitan area—face the prospect of annual flooding events.<ref name="NC-20191029">{{cite journal |last1=Kulp |first1=Scott A |last2=Strauss |first2=Benjamin H |title=New elevation data triple estimates of global vulnerability to sea-level rise and coastal flooding |journal=Nature Communications |date=29 October 2019 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=5752 |url= |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-13552-0|pmid=31831733 |pmc=6908705 }}</ref><ref name="BBC-20191030">{{cite news |last1=Amos |first1=Jonathan |title=Climate change: Sea level rise to affect 'three times more people' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50236882 |access-date=1 November 2019 |work=BBC |date=30 October 2019 |archive-date=6 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200106151232/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50236882 |url-status=live }}</ref> This is compounded by coastal erosion, which is an issue in the gulf coastal area, a small length of which lies within Bangkok's [[Bang Khun Thian District]]. Tidal flat ecosystems existed on the coast; however, many have been reclaimed for agriculture, aquaculture, and salt works.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murray |first1=N.J. |last2=Clemens |first2=R.S. |last3=Phinn |first3=S.R. |last4=Possingham |first4=H.P. |last5=Fuller |first5=R.A. |title=Tracking the rapid loss of tidal wetlands in the Yellow Sea |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=2014 |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=267–272 |doi=10.1890/130260 |bibcode=2014FrEE...12..267M |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/60169/1/130260.pdf |access-date=29 October 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207073933/https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/60169/1/130260.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
There are no mountains in Bangkok. The closest mountain range is the [[Khao Khiao Massif]], about {{convert|40|km|0|abbr=on}} southeast of the city. Phu Khao Thong, the only hill in the metropolitan area, originated with a very large [[stupa|chedi]] that King [[Rama III]] (1787–1851) built at [[Wat Saket]]. The chedi collapsed during construction because the soft soil could not support its weight. Over the next few decades, the abandoned mud-and-brick structure acquired the shape of a natural hill and became overgrown with weeds. The locals called it ''phu khao'' ({{lang|th|ภูเขา}}), as if it were a natural feature.<ref>[http://dlxs.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=sea;cc=sea;sid=fd258f1374ff0bf467cbfbf937e68f4e;rgn=full%20text;idno=sea141;view=image;seq=14 Old photo (around 1900) of dilapidated prang from the collection of Cornell University Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904061247/http://dlxs.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=sea;cc=sea;sid=fd258f1374ff0bf467cbfbf937e68f4e;rgn=full%20text;idno=sea141;view=image;seq=14 |date=4 September 2015 }} (last access 2009-09-24).</ref> In the 1940s, enclosing concrete walls were added to stop the hill from eroding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wikimapia.org/11129/Temple-of-the-Golden-Mount-or-Phu-Khao-Thong-%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87|title=Phu Khao Thong (Golden Mount)|website=wikimapia.org|access-date=14 June 2014|archive-date=10 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210031643/http://wikimapia.org/11129/Temple-of-the-Golden-Mount-or-Phu-Khao-Thong-%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87|url-status=live}}</ref>
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===Climate===
Like most of Thailand, Bangkok has a [[tropical savanna climate]] (Aw) under the [[Köppen climate classification]] and is under the influence of the [[Asian monsoon]] system. The city experiences three seasons: hot, rainy, and cool, although temperatures are fairly hot year-round, ranging from an average low of {{convert|23.2|C}} in December to an average high of {{convert|35.7|C}} in April. The annual average temperature is {{convert|28.9|C}}. The rainy season begins with the arrival of the southwest [[monsoon]] around mid-May. September is the wettest month, with an average rainfall of {{convert|335.9|mm}}. The rainy season lasts until October, when the dry and cool northeast monsoon takes over until February. The hot season is generally dry, but also sees occasional summer storms.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Climate of Thailand |url=http://www.tmd.go.th/en/archive/thailand_climate.pdf |last=Climatological Group, Meteorological Development Bureau |publisher=Thai Meteorological Department |date=January 2012 |access-date=26 September 2012 |archive-date=1 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801225446/http://www.tmd.go.th/en/archive/thailand_climate.pdf }}</ref> The surface magnitude of Bangkok's [[urban heat island]] has been measured at {{convert|2.5|C-change|sigfig=2}} during the day and {{convert|8.0|C-change|sigfig=2}} at night.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Assessment with satellite data of the urban heat island effects in Asian mega cities |first1=Hung |last1=Tran |first2=Daisuke |last2=Uchihama |first3=Shiro |last3=Ochi |first4=Yoshifumi |last4=Yasuoka|journal=International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation |volume=8|issue=1|date=January 2006 |pages=34–48 |doi=10.1016/j.jag.2005.05.003 |bibcode=2006IJAEO...8...34T |doi-access=free }}</ref> The highest recorded temperature of Bangkok metropolis was {{convert|41.0|C}} on 7 May 2023,<ref name=CNN>{{Cite news |last=Subramaniam |first=Tara |title=Vietnam and Laos record hottest temperatures ever as heat wave grips Southeast Asia |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/08/asia/vietnam-laos-record-high-temperatures-intl-hnk/index.html |date=8 May 2023 |work=[[CNN]] |access-date=2 June 2023 |archive-date=6 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230706194150/https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/08/asia/vietnam-laos-record-high-temperatures-intl-hnk/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the lowest recorded temperature was {{convert|9.9|C}} in January 1955.<ref name="extreme minimum">{{cite web|title=Extreme minimum temperature during winter season in Thailand 71 year period (1951–2021)|url=https://www4.tmd.go.th/programs/uploads/tempstat/min_stat_latest_en.pdf|website=Thai Meteorological Department|access-date=19 March 2023|archive-date=19 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319074858/https://www4.tmd.go.th/programs/uploads/tempstat/min_stat_latest_en.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The Climate Impact Group at NASA's [[Goddard Institute for Space Studies]] projected severe weather impacts on Bangkok caused by [[climate change]]. It found that Bangkok in 1960 had 193 days at or above 32&nbsp;°C. In 2018, Bangkok can expect 276 days at or above 32&nbsp;°C. The group forecasts a rise by 2100 to, on average, 297 to 344 days at or above 32&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Popovich |first1=Nadja |last2=Migliozzi |first2=Blacki |last3=Taylor |first3=Rumsey |last4=Williams |first4=Josh |last5=Watkins |first5=Derek |title=How Much Hotter Is Your Hometown Than When You Were Born? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/08/30/climate/how-much-hotter-is-your-hometown.html |access-date=1 September 2018 |work=The New York Times |date=n.d. |type=Interactive graphic |archive-date=21 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221104933/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/08/30/climate/how-much-hotter-is-your-hometown.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Weather box
|location = Bangkok Metropolis (1991–2020, extremes 1951–present)
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan record high C = 37.6
|Feb record high C = 38.8
|Mar record high C = 40.1
|Apr record high C = 40.0
|May record high C = 41.0
|Jun record high C = 38.8
|Jul record high C = 38.4
|Aug record high C = 38.2
|Sep record high C = 37.4
|Oct record high C = 37.9
|Nov record high C = 38.8
|Dec record high C = 37.1
|year record high C =
|Jan high C = 32.7
|Feb high C = 33.7
|Mar high C = 34.7
|Apr high C = 35.7
|May high C = 35.1
|Jun high C = 34.1
|Jul high C = 33.5
|Aug high C = 33.3
|Sep high C = 33.2
|Oct high C = 33.3
|Nov high C = 33.1
|Dec high C = 32.3
|year high C = 33.7
|Jan mean C = 27.4
|Feb mean C = 28.6
|Mar mean C = 29.7
|Apr mean C = 30.7
|May mean C = 30.3
|Jun mean C = 29.7
|Jul mean C = 29.2
|Aug mean C = 29.2
|Sep mean C = 28.6
|Oct mean C = 28.4
|Nov mean C = 28.4
|Dec mean C = 27.3
|year mean C = 28.9
|Jan low C = 23.4
|Feb low C = 24.8
|Mar low C = 26.4
|Apr low C = 27.2
|May low C = 26.9
|Jun low C = 26.4
|Jul low C = 26.1
|Aug low C = 25.9
|Sep low C = 25.4
|Oct low C = 25.2
|Nov low C = 24.7
|Dec low C = 23.2
|year low C = 25.4
|Jan record low C = 9.9
|Feb record low C = 14.9
|Mar record low C = 13.7
|Apr record low C = 19.9
|May record low C = 21.1
|Jun record low C = 21.1
|Jul record low C = 21.9
|Aug record low C = 21.2
|Sep record low C = 21.3
|Oct record low C = 18.3
|Nov record low C = 14.2
|Dec record low C = 10.5
|year record low C =
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 23.6
|Feb precipitation mm = 21.4
|Mar precipitation mm = 51.0
|Apr precipitation mm = 93.3
|May precipitation mm = 216.8
|Jun precipitation mm = 198.5
|Jul precipitation mm = 189.7
|Aug precipitation mm = 227.1
|Sep precipitation mm = 335.9
|Oct precipitation mm = 288.7
|Nov precipitation mm = 44.6
|Dec precipitation mm = 11.6
|year precipitation mm = 1702.1
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 1.9
|Feb precipitation days = 1.9
|Mar precipitation days = 3.4
|Apr precipitation days = 5.4
|May precipitation days = 12.4
|Jun precipitation days = 13.4
|Jul precipitation days = 14.1
|Aug precipitation days = 15.6
|Sep precipitation days = 18.0
|Oct precipitation days = 14.4
|Nov precipitation days = 3.8
|Dec precipitation days = 1.0
|year precipitation days =
|Jan humidity = 67.9
|Feb humidity = 70.5
|Mar humidity = 72.6
|Apr humidity = 72.0
|May humidity = 74.4
|Jun humidity = 75.2
|Jul humidity = 75.5
|Aug humidity = 76.4
|Sep humidity = 79.3
|Oct humidity = 78.0
|Nov humidity = 68.8
|Dec humidity = 65.6
|year humidity =
|Jan sun = 216.0
|Feb sun = 215.8
|Mar sun = 234.2
|Apr sun = 226.6
|May sun = 196.2
|Jun sun = 158.4
|Jul sun = 140.7
|Aug sun = 128.9
|Sep sun = 129.6
|Oct sun = 157.5
|Nov sun = 194.8
|Dec sun = 213.5
|year sun = 2212.2
| Jan uv  =10
| Feb uv  =12
| Mar uv  =12
| Apr uv  =12
| May uv  =12
| Jun uv  =12
| Jul uv  =12
| Aug uv  =12
| Sep uv  =12
| Oct uv  =11
| Nov uv  =10
| Dec uv  =9
| Jan dew point C = 20.4
| Feb dew point C = 22.2
| Mar dew point C = 23.9
| Apr dew point C = 24.8
| May dew point C = 24.9
| Jun dew point C = 24.6
| Jul dew point C = 24.2
| Aug dew point C = 24.2
| Sep dew point C = 24.4
| Oct dew point C = 23.9
| Nov dew point C = 21.7
| Dec dew point C = 19.2
|source 1 = [[World Meteorological Organization]],<ref name=WMOCLINO>{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230927104846/https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-2-WMO-Normals-9120/Thailand/CSV/BangkokMetropolis_48455.csv
| archive-date = 27 September 2023
| url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-2-WMO-Normals-9120/Thailand/CSV/BangkokMetropolis_48455.csv
| title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020
| publisher = World Meteorological Organization
| access-date = 2 August 2023
| url-status = bot: unknown
}}</ref> Thai Meteorological Department (Feb–May record highs, 1951–2022;<ref>{{cite web |script-title=th:สถิติอุณหภูมิสูงที่สุดในช่วงฤดูร้อนของประเทศไทยระหว่าง พ.ศ. 2494 - 2565 |trans-title=Extreme maximum temperature during summer season in Thailand (1951 - 2022) |url=https://www4.tmd.go.th/programs/uploads/tempstat/max_stat_latest.pdf |website=Thai Meteorological Department |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=19 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319074901/https://www4.tmd.go.th/programs/uploads/tempstat/max_stat_latest.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Nov–Feb record lows, 1951–2021<ref name="extreme minimum" />), CNN (May record high),<ref name=CNN/> Ogimet (other record highs/lows){{full citation needed|date=July 2024}}
|source 2 = Weather Atlas (UV),<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/thailand/bangkok-climate
|title = Bangkok, Thailand – Detailed climate information and monthly weather forecast
|publisher = Weather Atlas
|access-date = 1 August 2022
|archive-date = 13 October 2022
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221013142836/https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/thailand/bangkok-climate
|url-status = live
}}</ref> Meteo Climat (record)<ref name = meteoclimat>
{{cite web |url=http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/station-691-1840-2023.php |title=Station Bangkok |publisher=Meteo Climat |language=fr |access-date = 11 June 2016}}</ref>
}}
===Districts===
[[File:Khet_Bangkok.svg|thumb|center|upright=1.8|alt=A map of Bangkok|Map showing the 50 districts of Bangkok ([[:File:Districts and Sub-districts of Bangkok.png|labelled version showing subdistricts]])]]
[[List of districts of Bangkok|Bangkok's fifty districts]] serve as administrative subdivisions under the authority of the BMA. Thirty-five of these districts lie to the east of the Chao Phraya, while fifteen are on the western bank, known as the Thonburi side of the city. The fifty districts, arranged by district code, are:<ref>[http://203.113.86.149/xstat/p5210_01.html Department of Provincial Administration, Ministry of Interior, Royal Thai Government. As of December 2009] {{in lang|th}} {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206092856/http://203.113.86.149/xstat/p5210_01.html |date=2011-02-06 }}</ref>
{{Div col|colwidth=15em}}
# [[Phra Nakhon district]]
# [[Dusit district]]
# [[Nong Chok district]]
# [[Bang Rak district]]
# [[Bang Khen district]]
# [[Bang Kapi district]]
# [[Pathum Wan district]]
# [[Pom Prap Sattru Phai district]]
# [[Phra Khanong district]]
# [[Min Buri district]]
# [[Lat Krabang district]]
# [[Yan Nawa district]]
# [[Samphanthawong district]]
# [[Phaya Thai district]]
# [[Thon Buri district]]
# [[Bangkok Yai district]]
# [[Huai Khwang district]]
# [[Khlong San district]]
# [[Taling Chan district]]
# [[Bangkok Noi district]]
# [[Bang Khun Thian district]]
# [[Phasi Charoen district]]
# [[Nong Khaem district]]
# [[Rat Burana district]]
# [[Bang Phlat district]]
# [[Din Daeng district]]
# [[Bueng Kum district]]
# [[Sathon district]]
# [[Bang Sue district]]
# [[Chatuchak district]]
# [[Bang Kho Laem district]]
# [[Prawet district]]
# [[Khlong Toei district]]
# [[Suan Luang district]]
# [[Chom Thong district, Bangkok|Chom Thong district]]
# [[Don Mueang district]]
# [[Ratchathewi district]]
# [[Lat Phrao district]]
# [[Watthana district]]
# [[Bang Khae district]]
# [[Lak Si district]]
# [[Sai Mai district]]
# [[Khan Na Yao district]]
# [[Saphan Sung district]]
# [[Wang Thonglang district]]
# [[Khlong Sam Wa district]]
# [[Bang Na district]]
# [[Thawi Watthana district]]
# [[Thung Khru district]]
# [[Bang Bon district]]
{{Div col end}}
===Cityscape===
[[File:Chao Phraya River from CAT building (8134954465).jpg|thumb|alt=View of Chao Phraya River surrounded by buildings on both sides|View of the [[Chao Phraya River]] as it passes through Bang Kho Laem and Khlong San districts]]
Bangkok's districts often do not accurately represent the functional divisions of its neighbourhoods or land usage. Although [[urban planning]] policies date back to the commission of the "Litchfield Plan" in 1960, which set out strategies for land use, transportation and general infrastructure improvements, zoning regulations were not fully implemented until 1992. As a result, the city grew organically throughout the period of its rapid expansion, both horizontally as [[ribbon development]]s extended along newly built roads, and vertically, with increasing numbers of high rises and skyscrapers being built in commercial areas.<ref>{{cite book|first=Medhi |last=Krongkaew |chapter=The changing urban system in a fast-growing city and economy: The case of Bangkok and Thailand |editor1-first=Fu-chen |editor1-last=Lo |editor2-first=Yue-man |editor2-last=Yeung |title=Emerging World Cities in Pacific Asia |publisher=United Nations University Press |year=1996|isbn=978-92-808-0907-7|page=322}}</ref>
The city has grown from its original centre along the river into a sprawling metropolis surrounded by swaths of suburban residential development extending north and south into neighbouring provinces. The highly populated and growing cities of [[Nonthaburi (city)|Nonthaburi]], [[Pak Kret]], [[Rangsit (city)|Rangsit]] and [[Mueang Samut Prakan District|Samut Prakan]] are effectively now suburbs of Bangkok. Nevertheless, large agricultural areas remain within the city proper at its eastern and western fringes, and a small number of forest area is found within the city limits: {{convert|3887|rai|km2 sqmi|sigfig=2}}, amounting to 0.4 per cent of city area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://forestinfo.forest.go.th/Content/file/stat2562/Table_2.pdf |script-title=th:ตารางที่ 2 พื้นที่ป่าไม้ แยกรายจังหวัด พ.ศ.2562 |year=2019 |website=Royal Forest Department |language=Thai |trans-title=Table 2 Forest area, separated by province, 2019 |access-date=6 April 2021 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203032946/https://forestinfo.forest.go.th/Content/file/stat2562/Table_2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Land use in the city consists of 23 per cent residential use, 24 per cent agriculture, and 30 per cent used for commerce, industry, and government.<ref name="BMA geo"/> The BMA's City Planning Department (CPD) is responsible for planning and shaping further development. It published master plan updates in 1999 and 2006, and a third revision is undergoing public hearings in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bangkokplan.org/website/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=54&lang=en |title=History |website=CPD |publisher=City Planning Department|access-date=25 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101120642/http://www.bangkokplan.org/website/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=54&lang=en |archive-date=1 January 2013 }}</ref>
[[File:บรรยากาศงาน อุ่นไอรัก คลายความหนาว ครั้งที่ 2 (38).jpg|alt=A large plaza with a bronze statue of a man riding on horseback; beyond the plaza is a large two-storey building with a domed roof, arched windows and columns|left|thumb|The [[Royal Plaza (Thailand)|Royal Plaza]] in Dusit District was inspired by King Chulalongkorn's visits to Europe.]]
Bangkok's historic centre remains the [[Rattanakosin Island]] in Phra Nakhon District.<ref name="EBOT">{{cite news|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/travel/1389986/exploring-bangkoks-old-town |title=Exploring Bangkok's old town|last=Mekloy|first=Pongpet|newspaper=Bangkok Post|year=2018}}</ref> It is the site of the Grand Palace and the City Pillar Shrine, primary symbols of the city's founding, as well as important Buddhist temples. Phra Nakhon, along with the neighbouring Pom Prap Sattru Phai and Samphanthawong Districts, formed what was the city proper in the late 19th century. Many traditional neighbourhoods and markets are found here, including the Chinese settlement of [[Sampheng]].<ref name="EBOT"/> The city was expanded toward Dusit District in the early 19th century, following King Chulalongkorn's relocation of the royal household to the new [[Dusit Palace]]. The buildings of the palace, including the neoclassical [[Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall]], as well as the [[Royal Plaza (Thailand)|Royal Plaza]] and [[Ratchadamnoen Avenue]] which leads to it from the Grand Palace, reflect the heavy influence of European architecture at the time. Major government offices line the avenue, as does the [[Democracy Monument]]. The area is the site of the country's seat of power as well as the city's most popular tourist landmarks.<ref name="EBOT"/>
[[File:View from Baiyoke Sky Hotel, Bangkok (7053110333) cropped.jpg|thumb|alt=A lot of high-rise buildings|The [[Sukhumvit Road|Sukhumvit]] area appears as a sea of high-rise buildings from [[Baiyoke Tower II]], the tallest building in Bangkok from 1997 to 2015.]]
In contrast with the low-rise historic areas, the business district on [[Si Lom Road|Si Lom]] and [[Sathon Road|Sathon]] Roads in Bang Rak and Sathon Districts teems with skyscrapers. It is the site of many of the country's major corporate headquarters, but also of some of the city's [[red-light district]]s. The [[Siam area|Siam]] and [[Ratchaprasong]] areas in Pathum Wan are home to some of the largest shopping malls in [[Southeast Asia]]. Numerous retail outlets and hotels also stretch along [[Sukhumvit Road]] leading southeast through Watthana and Khlong Toei Districts. More office towers line the streets branching off Sukhumvit, especially [[Asok Montri Road|Asok Montri]], while upmarket housing is found in many of its [[soi|''soi''s]] ('alley' or 'lane').
[[File:(2022) อนุสาวรีย์ชัยสมรภูมิ เขตราชเทวี กรุงเทพมหานคร (1).jpg|thumb|alt=View of Victory Monument|[[Victory Monument (Bangkok)|Victory Monument]] in 2021]]
Bangkok lacks a single distinct [[central business district]]. Instead, the areas of Siam and Ratchaprasong serve as a "central shopping district" containing many of the bigger malls and commercial areas in the city, as well as [[Siam Station]], formerly the only transfer point between the city's then-two elevated train lines (the [[Sukhumvit Line|Sukhumvit]] and [[Silom Line|Silom]] BTS lines).<ref name="McGrath CSD">{{cite book |last1=McGrath |first1= Brian |editor1-last= Benites |editor1-first= Cecilia |editor2-last= Lyster |editor2-first= Clare |title= Regarding Public Space |date=2005 |publisher= Princeton Architectural Press |location= New York|isbn= 978-1-56898-544-2 |pages=46–53 |chapter= Bangkok's CSD}}</ref> The [[Victory Monument (Bangkok)|Victory Monument]] in Ratchathewi District is among its most important road junctions, serving over 100 bus lines as well as an elevated train station. From the monument, [[Phahonyothin Road|Phahonyothin]] and [[Ratchawithi Road|Ratchawithi]]&nbsp;/ Din Daeng Roads respectively run north and east linking to major residential areas. Most of the high-density development areas are within the {{convert|113|km2|adj=on}} area encircled by the [[Ratchadaphisek Road|Ratchadaphisek]] inner ring road. Ratchadaphisek is lined with businesses and retail outlets, and office buildings also cluster around Ratchayothin Intersection in Chatuchak District to the north. Farther from the city centre, most areas are primarily mid- or low-density residential. The Thonburi side of the city is less developed, with fewer high rises. With the exception of a few secondary urban centres, Thonburi, in the same manner as the outlying eastern districts, consists mostly of residential and rural areas.
While most of Bangkok's streets are fronted by vernacular [[shophouse]]s, the largely unrestricted building euphoria of the 1980s has transformed the city into an urban area of skyscrapers and high rises of contrasting and clashing styles.<ref>Hamilton 2000, pp.&nbsp;465–466.</ref> There are 581 [[Skyscraper|skyscrapers]] over {{convert|90|m|abbr=off}} tall in the city. Bangkok was ranked as the world's eighth tallest city in 2016.<ref name="tudl0867.home.xs4all.nl">{{Cite web|url=http://tudl0867.home.xs4all.nl/skylines.html|title=The World's Best Skylines|website=tudl0867.home.xs4all.nl|access-date=10 October 2016|archive-date=4 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004041936/http://tudl0867.home.xs4all.nl/skylines.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As a result of persistent [[economic disparity]], many slums have emerged in the city. In 2000 there were over one million people living in about 800 [[informal settlements]].<ref name="TA">{{cite web |url=http://www.thaiappraisal.org/pdfNew/HABITAT1new.pdf |title=Global report on human settlements 2003 – City report: Bangkok |last=Pornchokchai |first=Sopon |year=2003 |access-date=19 September 2018 |archive-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413123830/http://www.thaiappraisal.org/pdfNew/HABITAT1new.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some settlements are [[Squatting in Thailand|squatted]] such as the large slums in [[Khlong Toei District]]. In total there were 125 squatted areas.<ref name="TA" />
{{wide image|Bangkok Night Wikimedia Commons.jpg|640px|Skyscrapers of [[Ratchadamri]] and Sukhumvit at night, viewed across [[Lumphini Park]] from the [[Si Lom]] – [[Sathon]] business district|alt=An expansive cityscape with several skyscrapers in the foreground, a park in the centre, and a large group of buildings across the park}}
===Parks and green zones===
[[File:Panorama_of_Lumphini_Park_and_Thai-Belgium_Bridge.jpg|alt=A park with many trees and a lake at sunset; many buildings in the background|thumb|Panorama of [[Lumphini Park]] at sunset, an oasis amid the skyscrapers of [[Ratchadamri]] and Sukhumvit]]
[[File:Chatuchak Park (I).jpg|thumb|[[Chatuchak Park]]]]
Bangkok has several parks, although these amount to a [[per capita]] total park area of only {{convert|1.82|m2}} in the city proper. Total green space for the entire city is moderate, at {{convert|11.8|m2}} per person. In the more densely built-up areas of the city these numbers are as low as {{convert|1.73|and|0.72|m2}} per person.<ref name="Bunvong"/> More recent numbers claim that there is {{convert|3.3|m2|ft2}} of green space per person,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ocharoenchai |first1=Nanticha |title=Seeing green is believing |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/lifestyle/social-and-lifestyle/1578442/seeing-green-is-believing |access-date=2018-12-14 |work=Bangkok Post |date=2018-11-19}}</ref> compared to an average of {{convert|39|m2|ft2}} in other cities across Asia. In Europe, London has 33.4 m<sup>2</sup> of green space per head.<ref>{{cite news|title=Tower project 'suspicious'|url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1278859/tower-project-suspicious|access-date=1 July 2017|work=Bangkok Post|date=2017-07-01|department=Editorial|archive-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701185634/http://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1278859/tower-project-suspicious|url-status=live}}</ref> Bangkokians thus have 10 times less green space than is standard in the region's urban areas.<ref>{{cite news|title=A shopping complex, or a 'green lung'|url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/opinion/A-shopping-complex-or-a-green-lung-30259964.html|access-date=13 May 2015|work=The Nation|date=2015-05-13}}</ref> [[Green belt]] areas include about {{convert|700|km2}} of rice paddies and orchards on the eastern and western edges of the city, although their primary purpose is to serve as flood [[detention basin]]s rather than to limit urban expansion.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Beyond greenbelts and zoning: A new planning concept for the environment of Asian mega-cities|journal=Landscape and Urban Planning|volume=47|issue=3–4 |pages=159–171|first1=Makoto |last1=Yokohari |first2=Kazuhiko|last2=Takeuchi|first3=Takashi |last3=Watanabe |first4=Shigehiro |last4=Yokota|date=10 April 2000|doi=10.1016/S0169-2046(99)00084-5 |bibcode=2000LUrbP..47..159Y }}</ref> [[Bang Kachao]], a {{convert|20|km2|adj=on}} conservation area on an oxbow of the Chao Phraya, lies just across the southern riverbank districts, in [[Samut Prakan province]]. A master development plan has been proposed to increase total park area to {{convert|4|m2}} per person.<ref name="Bunvong">{{cite journal|last1=Thaiutsa|first1=Bunvong|first2=Ladawan |last2=Puangchit|first3=Roger |last3=Kjelgren|first4=Wanchai |last4=Arunpraparut |title=Urban green space, street tree and heritage large tree assessment in Bangkok, Thailand|journal=Urban Forestry & Urban Greening|date=1 August 2008|volume=7|issue=3|pages=219–229|doi=10.1016/j.ufug.2008.03.002|bibcode=2008UFUG....7..219T }}</ref>
One of Bangkok's largest parks is the centrally located [[Lumphini Park]] near the Silom–Sathon business district with an area of {{convert|57.6|ha}}. It is connected by a 1.3&nbsp;km elevated pedestrian and bicycle walkway to the Benjakitti Park, which includes a recently completed expansion including wetlands, skywalks and rare plants. Other parks include the {{convert|80|ha|adj=on}} [[Suanluang Rama IX]] in the east of the city, and the [[Chatuchak Park|Chatuchak]]–[[Queen Sirikit Park|Queen Sirikit]]–[[Wachirabenchathat Park|Wachirabenchathat]] park complex in northern Bangkok, which has a combined area of {{convert|92|ha}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bangkok.go.th/publicpark/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121220110719/http://www.bangkok.go.th/publicpark/ |archive-date=2012-12-20 |website=bangkok.go.th |title=Public Park Office, Environment Department |access-date=18 September 2012}}</ref> More parks are expected to be created through the Green Bangkok 2030 project, which aims to leave the city with {{convert|10|m2|ft2}} of green space per person, including 30% of the city having tree cover.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://newsroom.unfccc.int/blog/the-greening-of-bangkok |title=The Greening of Bangkok |publisher=UNFCCC |date=18 March 2021 |access-date=2 April 2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627210130/https://newsroom.unfccc.int/blog/the-greening-of-bangkok |archive-date= Jun 27, 2021 }}</ref>
==<span id="Demographics"></span>Demography==
[[File:Bangkok population pyramid.svg|thumb|Bangkok population pyramid, based on 2021 population registry]]
{{Historical populations
|title        = Historical census populations
|percentages  = off
|shading      =
|width        =
|subbox       =
|footnote     =
|source       = National Statistical Office (1919–2000,<ref>{{cite book|title=2010 Thailand Statistical Yearbook|author=Statistical Forecasting Bureau|year=2010|publisher=National Statistical Office|url=http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/download/syb_53/SYB53_T.pdf|edition=Special|access-date=18 September 2012|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205300/http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/download/syb_53/SYB53_T.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> 2010<ref name="2010 census 1"/>)
|1919 |437294
|1929 |713384
|1937 |890453
|1947 |1178881
|1960 |2136435
|1970 |3077361
|1980 |4697071
|1990 |5882411
|2000 |6355144
|2010 |8305218
}}
The city of Bangkok has a population of 8,305,218 according to the 2010 census, or 12.6 per cent of the national population,<ref name="2010 census 1"/> while 2020 estimates place the figure at 10.539&nbsp;million (15.3 per cent).<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |title=Thailand |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/thailand/ |website=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA |access-date=26 September 2020 |archive-date=10 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610164345/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/thailand/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Roughly half are internal migrants from other Thai provinces;<ref name="BP-20180715">{{cite news |last1=Wangkiat |first1=Paritta |date=15 July 2018 |title=Strong Cities Needed |work=Bangkok Post |format=in Spectrum |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/special-reports/1503802/strong-cities-needed |access-date=16 July 2018}}</ref> population registry statistics recorded 5,676,648 residents belonging to 2,959,524 households in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://stat.bora.dopa.go.th/stat/statnew/statTDD/views/showDistrictData.php?rcode=10&statType=1&year=61|title=รายงานสถิติจำนวนประชากรและบ้าน ประจำปี พ.ศ. 2561 (Population and household statistics, 2018)|publisher=Department of Provincial Administration|access-date=26 September 2020|archive-date=4 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004104237/https://stat.bora.dopa.go.th/stat/statnew/statTDD/views/showDistrictData.php?rcode=10&statType=1&year=61|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|1=The population registry does not account for most internal migration, thus its figures will underestimate the city's actual population.}} Much of Bangkok's daytime population commutes from surrounding provinces in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, the total population of which is 14,626,225 (2010 census).<ref name="2010 census 1"/> Bangkok is a cosmopolitan city; the census showed that it is home to 567,120 expatriates from Asian countries (including 71,024 Chinese and 63,069 Japanese nationals), 88,177 from Europe, 32,241 from the Americas, 5,856 from Oceania and 5,758 from Africa. Migrants from neighbouring countries include 216,528 Burmese, 72,934 Cambodians and 52,498 Lao.<ref name="2010 census 5">{{cite book|title=The 2010 Population and Housing Census: Bangkok|chapter=Table 5 Population by nationality and sex|chapter-url=http://popcensus.nso.go.th/report/Bangkok_T.pdf|publisher=National Statistical Office|access-date=5 January 2019|date=2012|archive-date=13 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190313062155/http://popcensus.nso.go.th/report/Bangkok_T.pdf}}</ref> In 2018, numbers show that there are 370,000 international migrants registered with the Department of Employment, more than half of them migrants from Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar.<ref name="BP-20180715" />
Following its establishment as capital city in 1782, Bangkok grew only slightly throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries. British diplomat [[John Crawfurd]], visiting in 1822, estimated its population at no more than 50,000.<ref>{{cite book|first=John|last=Crawfurd|title=Journal of an embassy from the governor-general of India to the courts of Siam and Cochin China; exhibiting a view of the actual state of those kingdoms |year=1830|volume=2|place=London|publisher=H. Colburn and R. Bentley|url=https://archive.org/details/journalanembass03crawgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/journalanembass03crawgoog/page/n239 215]}}</ref> As a result of Western medicine brought by missionaries as well as increased immigration from both within Siam and overseas, Bangkok's population gradually increased as the city modernized in the late 19th century. This growth became even more pronounced in the 1930s, following the discovery of antibiotics. Although family planning and birth control were introduced in the 1960s, the lowered birth rate was more than offset by increased migration from the provinces as economic expansion accelerated. Only in the 1990s have Bangkok's population growth rates decreased, following the national rate; Thailand had long since become highly centralized around the capital. In 1980, Bangkok's population was fifty-one times that of [[Hat Yai]] and [[Songkhla]], the second-largest urban centre at the time, making it the world's most prominent [[primate city]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The growth of the population of the world's pre-eminent "primate city": Bangkok at its bicentenary|first=Larry|last=Sternstein|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|volume=15|issue=1|doi=10.1017/S0022463400012200 |pmid=12266027|date=March 1984|pages=43–68|s2cid=38248222 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fong|first1=Jack|title=Political Vulnerabilities of a Primate City: The May 2010 Red Shirts Uprising in Bangkok, Thailand.|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270425419|date=May 2012|volume=48|issue=3|pages=332–347|url-access=subscription |doi=10.1177/0021909612453981|s2cid=145515713}}</ref>
[[File:(2022) ตึกแถวริมถนนเยาวราช เขตสัมพันธวงศ์ กรุงเทพมหานคร (4).jpg|alt=A street during daytime lined with many stalls and shops with a lot of signs bearing Thai and Chinese names|left|thumb|[[Yaowarat Road]], the centre of [[Bangkok's Chinatown]]. Chinese immigrants historically formed the majority of the city's population.]]
The majority of Bangkok's population identify as [[Thai people|Thai]],{{efn|Thai ethnicity is rather a question of cultural identity than of genetic origin.<ref name="Thak">{{Citation |author=Thak Chaloemtiarana |title=Thailand: The Politics of Despotic Paternalism |publisher=Cornell Southeast Asia Program |place=Ithaca, NY |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8772-7742-2 |pages=245–246}}</ref> Many people in Bangkok who self-identify as Thai have at least some Chinese ancestry.<ref>{{cite book|last=Askew |first=Marc |title=Bangkok: Place, Practice and Representation| year=2004|page= 38|publisher=Routledge |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt6FAgAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1-134-65986-9}}</ref>}} although details on the city's ethnic make-up are unavailable, as the national census does not document race.{{efn|An introductory publication by the BMA gives a figure of 80 per cent Thai, 10 per cent Chinese and 10 per cent other, although this is likely a rough estimate.<ref>Thavisin et al. (eds) 2006, p. 7.</ref>}} Bangkok's cultural pluralism dates back to the early days of its founding: several ethnic communities were formed by immigrants and forced settlers including the [[Khmer people|Khmer]], [[Northern Thai people|northern Thai]], [[Isan people|Lao]], [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]], [[Mon people|Mon]] and [[Malays in Thailand|Malay]].<ref name="200 years"/> Most prominent were the Chinese,<!--Cited sources don't mention which variety of Chinese, so commented out for now. [[Teochew people|Teochew]] and other [[Varieties of Chinese|non-Mandarin]] [[Han Chinese|Chinese]]--> who played major roles in the city's trade and became the majority of Bangkok's population—estimates include up to three-fourths in 1828 and almost half in the 1950s.<ref>{{cite book|first=John C.|last=Caldwell|chapter=The Demographic Structure|editor-first=T.H.|editor-last=Silcock|title=Thailand, Social and Economic Studies in Development|place=Canberra|publisher=Australian National University Press|year=1967|pages=29–33}} and {{cite book|first=G. William|last=Skinner|title=Chinese Society in Thailand: An Analytical History|place=Ithaca, NY|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1957|pages=17–18}} cited in {{cite book|title=The Demography of Bangkok: A case study of differentials between big city and rural populations|first=Sidney|last=Goldstein|date=August 1972|series=Research reports|publisher=Institute of Population Studies, Chulalongkorn University|place=Bangkok|url=http://www.cps.chula.ac.th/pop_info_2551/Image+Data/Publications/Cps_res/Data/RR-No07_Full.pdf|page=32|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731203525/http://www.cps.chula.ac.th/pop_info_2551/Image+Data/Publications/Cps_res/Data/RR-No07_Full.pdf|archive-date=31 July 2013}}</ref>{{efn|By one recent estimate, at least 60 per cent of the city's residents are of Chinese descent.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/20/realestate/20iht-reshop.4966716.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110729200748/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/20/realestate/20iht-reshop.4966716.html |archive-date=2011-07-29 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Shophouses: Reviving the distinctive face of Bangkok|first=Jennifer|last=Chen|date=20 March 2007|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref>}} Chinese immigration was restricted from the 1930s and effectively ceased after the [[Chinese Communist Revolution]] in 1949.{{cn|date=August 2024}} Their prominence subsequently declined as younger generations of [[Thai Chinese]] integrated and adopted a [[Thai identity]]. Bangkok is still nevertheless home to a large Chinese community, with the greatest concentration in [[Yaowarat]], [[Bangkok's Chinatown]].
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Bangkok
|label1 = [[Buddhism]]
|value1 = 92.54
|color1 = Yellow
|label2 = [[Islam]]
|value2 = 4.6
|color2 = DarkGreen
|label3 = [[Christianity]]
|value3 = 1.89
|color3 = DarkBlue
|label4 = [[Hinduism]]
|value4 = 0.27
|color4 = Orange
|label5 = [[Sikhism]]
|value5 = 0.08
|color5 = DarkKhaki
|label6 = [[Confucianism]]
|value6 = 0.08
|color6 = Red
|label7 = Not Religious and Unknown
|value7 = 0.2
|color7 = Black
|label8 = Other
|value8 = 0.29
|color8 = White
}}
The majority (93 per cent) of the city's population is Buddhist, according to the 2010 census. Other religions include Islam (4.6 per cent), Christianity (1.9 per cent), Hinduism (0.3 per cent), Sikhism (0.1 per cent) and Confucianism (0.1 per cent).<ref name="2010 census 4">{{cite web|title=Table 4 Population by religion, region and area: 2010|url=http://www.nso.go.th/sites/2014/Documents/pop/2553/3/bangkok/Table4.xls|publisher=National Statistics Office|website=National Statistical Office|access-date=1 April 2021|archive-date=29 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729153605/http://www.nso.go.th/sites/2014/Documents/pop/2553/3/bangkok/Table4.xls|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Apart from Yaowarat, Bangkok also has several other distinct ethnic neighbourhoods. The Indian community is centred in [[Phahurat]], where the Gurdwara Siri Guru Singh Sabha, founded in 1933, is located. [[Ban Khrua]] on Saen Saep Canal is home to descendants of the [[Cham people|Cham]] who settled in the late 18th century. Although the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] who settled during the Thonburi period have ceased to exist as a distinct community, their past is reflected in [[Santa Cruz Church (Bangkok)|Santa Cruz Church]], on the west bank of the river. Likewise, [[Assumption Cathedral, Bangkok|Assumption Cathedral]] on Charoen Krung Road is among many European-style buildings in the Old [[Farang]] Quarter, where European diplomats and merchants lived in the late 19th to early 20th centuries. Nearby, the Haroon Mosque is the centre of a Muslim community. Newer expatriate communities exist along Sukhumvit Road, including the Japanese community near Soi Phrom Phong and Soi [[Thong Lo]], and the Arab and North African neighbourhood along Soi Nana. Sukhumvit Plaza, a mall on Soi Sukhumvit 12, is popularly known as Korea Town.
{{clear|left}}
==Economy==
[[File:4Y1A1159 Bangkok (33536795515).jpg|alt=Lots of skyscrapers|thumb|[[MahaNakhon]], the city's tallest building from 2016 to 2018, stands among the skyscrapers of [[Sathon Road]], one of Bangkok's main financial districts.]]
Bangkok is the [[Economy of Thailand|economic centre of Thailand]], and the heart of the country's investment and development. In 2022, the city had an economic output of 5.747&nbsp;trillion [[baht]] (US$164&nbsp;billion). This amounted to a per-capita GDP value of 634,109 [[Thai baht|baht]] ($18,100), more than twice the national average. The Bangkok Metropolitan Region had a combined output of 8.096&nbsp;trillion baht ($232&nbsp;billion).<ref name=GPP/>
Wholesale and retail trade is the largest sector in the city's economy, contributing 24 per cent of Bangkok's gross provincial product. It is followed by manufacturing (14.3 per cent); real estate, renting and business activities (12.4 per cent); transport and communications (11.6 per cent); and financial intermediation (11.1 per cent). Bangkok alone accounts for 48.4 per cent of Thailand's service sector, which in turn constitutes 49 per cent of GDP. When the Bangkok Metropolitan Region is considered, manufacturing is the most significant contributor at 28.2 per cent of the gross regional product, reflecting the density of industry in the Bangkok's neighbouring provinces.<ref>NESDB 2012, pp.48–49, 62–63, 218–219.</ref> [[Automotive industry in Thailand|The automotive industry]] based around Greater Bangkok is the largest production hub in Southeast Asia.<ref>Naudin (ed.) 2010, p.&nbsp;83.</ref> Tourism is also a significant contributor to Bangkok's economy, generating 427.5&nbsp;billion baht ($13.38&nbsp;billion) in revenue in 2010.<ref name="internal tourism"/>
[[File:Bangkok Siam Pathumwan.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Many low-rise buildings in the foreground, with an elevated rail line and several medium box-saped buildings beyond; many tall buildings in the background|The [[Siam area]] is home to multiple shopping centres catering to both the middle and upper classes and tourists.]]
The [[Stock Exchange of Thailand]] (SET) is on Ratchadaphisek Road in inner Bangkok. The SET, together with the Market for Alternative Investment (MAI) has 648 listed companies as of the end of 2011, with a combined market capitalization of 8.485&nbsp;trillion baht ($267.64&nbsp;billion).<ref>Stock Exchange of Thailand 2012, pp.&nbsp;22, 25.</ref> Due to the large amount of foreign representation, Thailand has for several years been a mainstay of the Southeast Asian economy and a centre of Asian business. The [[Globalization and World Cities Research Network]] ranks Bangkok as an "Alpha -" [[world city]], and it is ranked 59th in Z/Yen's ''[[Global Financial Centres Index]] 11''.<ref>{{cite web |title=The World According to GaWC 2020 |url=https://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2020t.html |website=GaWC – Research Network |publisher=Globalization and World Cities |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=24 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824031341/https://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2020t.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Mark|last=Yeandle|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 11|date=March 2012|isbn=978-0-9546207-7-6|publisher=Long Finance|url=http://www.longfinance.net/Publications/GFCI%2011.pdf|access-date=25 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319194027/http://www.longfinance.net/Publications/GFCI%2011.pdf|archive-date=19 March 2012|page=5}}</ref>
Bangkok is home to the headquarters of all of Thailand's major commercial banks and financial institutions, as well as the country's largest companies. Many multinational corporations base their regional headquarters in Bangkok due to the lower cost of labour and operations relative to other major Asian business centres. Seventeen Thai companies are listed on the [[Forbes 2000]], all of which are based in the capital,<ref>{{cite web|title=The World's Biggest Public Companies|url=https://www.forbes.com/global2000/|date=April 2012|access-date=25 September 2012|website=Forbes.com|archive-date=21 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221222151/http://www.forbes.com/global2000/|url-status=live}}</ref> including [[PTT Public Company Limited|PTT]], the only [[Fortune Global 500]] company in Thailand.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fortune's annual ranking of the world's largest corporations|url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2012/full_list/index.html|date=July 2012|access-date=23 July 2012|website=CNN|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124234422/https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2012/full_list/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Income inequality is a major issue in Bangkok, especially between relatively unskilled lower-income immigrants from rural provinces and neighbouring countries, and middle-class professionals and business elites. Although absolute poverty rates are low—only 0.64 per cent of Bangkok's registered residents were living under the poverty line in 2010, compared to a national average of 7.75 per cent—economic disparity is still substantial.<ref>{{cite web |title=ตารางที่ 1.2 สัดส่วนคนจนด้านรายจ่าย จำแนกตามภาคและพื้นที่ ปี พ.ศ. 2531–2553 (Poverty rates by expenses, sorted by region and area, 1988–2010) |url=http://social.nesdb.go.th/SocialStat/StatReport_Final.aspx?reportid=299&template=2R1C&yeartype=M&subcatid=31 |language=th |publisher=Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board |date=26 September 2011 |access-date=25 September 2012 |website=Social and Quality of Life Database System |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904061248/http://social.nesdb.go.th/SocialStat/StatReport_Final.aspx?reportid=299&template=2R1C&yeartype=M&subcatid=31 |archive-date=4 September 2015 }}</ref> The city has a [[Gini coefficient]] of 0.48, indicating a high level of inequality.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Eduardo López |last1=Moreno |first2=Oyebanji |last2=Oyeyinka |first3=Gora |last3=Mboup |title=State of the World's Cities 2010/2011 – Cities for All: Bridging the Urban Divide |publisher=Earthscan |place=London, Sterling, VA |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84971-176-0 |access-date=25 September 2012 |url=http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/getElectronicVersion.aspx?nr=2917&alt=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523102723/http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/getElectronicVersion.aspx?nr=2917&alt=1 |archive-date=23 May 2012 |page=194}}</ref>
{{clear}}
==Tourism==
{{Main|Tourism in Bangkok}}
[[File:Grand Palace Bangkok (173279731).jpeg|thumb|right|alt=A Thai temple complex with several ornate buildings, and a lot of visitors|[[Wat Phra Kaew]] in the [[Grand Palace]] is among Bangkok's major tourist attractions.]]
Bangkok is one of the world's top tourist destinations. Of 162 cities worldwide, [[MasterCard]] ranked Bangkok as the top destination city by international visitor arrivals in its ''Global Destination Cities Index 2018'', ahead of London, with just over 20&nbsp;million overnight visitors in 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=Big Cities, Big Business: Bangkok, London and Paris Lead the Way in Mastercard's 2018 Global Destination Cities Index|url=https://newsroom.mastercard.com/press-releases/big-cities-big-business-bangkok-london-and-paris-lead-the-way-in-mastercards-2018-global-destination-cities-index/|type=Press release|date=25 September 2018|access-date=2018-10-06|archive-date=28 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928121613/https://newsroom.mastercard.com/press-releases/big-cities-big-business-bangkok-london-and-paris-lead-the-way-in-mastercards-2018-global-destination-cities-index/}}</ref> This was a repeat of its 2017 ranking (for 2016).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newsroom.mastercard.com/asia-pacific/press-releases/bangkok-claims-title-as-worlds-most-visited-city-2016-mastercard-global-destination-cities-index/|title=Bangkok Claims Title as World's Most Visited City: 2016 Mastercard Global Destination Cities Index|website=Mastercard|date=2016-09-22|type=Press release|access-date=28 January 2017|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202041830/http://newsroom.mastercard.com/asia-pacific/press-releases/bangkok-claims-title-as-worlds-most-visited-city-2016-mastercard-global-destination-cities-index/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Defining What Makes a City a Destination (2017 Destination Index) |url=https://newsroom.mastercard.com/press-releases/defining-what-makes-a-city-a-destination/ |access-date=6 October 2018 |website=MasterCard |date=2017-09-26 |type=Press release |archive-date=10 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810112352/https://newsroom.mastercard.com/press-releases/defining-what-makes-a-city-a-destination/ }}</ref> Euromonitor International ranked Bangkok fourth in its Top City Destinations Ranking for 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.euromonitor.com/2016/01/top-100-city-destinations-ranking-2016.html|title=Top 100 Cities Destination Ranking|date=21 January 2013|publisher=Euromonitor International|access-date=6 June 2013|archive-date=31 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131000732/http://blog.euromonitor.com/2016/01/top-100-city-destinations-ranking-2016.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Bangkok was also named "World's Best City" by ''[[Travel + Leisure]]'' magazine's survey of its readers for four consecutive years, from 2010 to 2013.<ref name="best cities 2013">{{cite web|title=2013 World's Best Cities|url=http://www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2013/cities|website=Travel + Leisure|publisher=American Express Publishing Corporation|access-date=31 July 2013|archive-date=6 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106025516/http://www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2013/cities|url-status=live}}</ref>
As the main gateway through which visitors arrive in Thailand, Bangkok is visited by the majority of international tourists to the country. Domestic tourism is also prominent. The Department of Tourism recorded 26,861,095 Thai and 11,361,808 foreign visitors to Bangkok in 2010. Lodgings were made by 15,031,244 guests, who occupied 49.9 per cent of the city's 86,687 hotel rooms.<ref name="internal tourism">{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism.go.th/2010/upload/filecenter/file/stat_2554/Sep/Update53%20on%206sep/bangkok.pdf |title=Internal tourism in Bangkok |publisher=Department of Tourism |access-date=22 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207064853/http://www.tourism.go.th/2010/upload/filecenter/file/stat_2554/Sep/Update53%20on%206sep/bangkok.pdf |archive-date=7 December 2013 }}</ref> Bangkok also topped the list as the world's most popular tourist destinations in 2017 rankings.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexandratalty/2017/09/26/bangkok-named-most-popular-city-for-international-tourists-in-2017/#6fc3021725a2|title=Bangkok Named Most Popular City For International Tourists in 2017|date=26 September 2017|access-date=2 October 2017|author=Talty, Alexandra|magazine=Forbes|archive-date=28 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728235541/http://www.forbes.com/sites/alexandratalty/2017/09/26/bangkok-named-most-popular-city-for-international-tourists-in-2017/#6fc3021725a2|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://qz.com/1086848/bangkok-london-and-paris-are-the-most-popular-tourist-destinations-in-the-world/|title=The overwhelming majority of popular tourist destinations are in Asia|author=Hao, Karen|date=26 September 2017|access-date=2 October 2017|work=Quartz|archive-date=27 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327103114/https://qz.com/1086848/bangkok-london-and-paris-are-the-most-popular-tourist-destinations-in-the-world|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/travel/article/most-popular-cities-international-travel-2017-mastercard/index.html|publisher=CNN Travel ([[Cable News Network]])|title=10 most popular cities for international travelers in 2017|author=Hunter, Marnie|date=26 September 2017|access-date=2 October 2017|archive-date=28 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328181917/https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/most-popular-cities-international-travel-2017-mastercard/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cntraveler.com/galleries/2015-06-03/the-10-most-visited-cities-of-2015-london-bangkok-new-york|title=The ten most visited cities of 2017|author=Morton, Caitlin|website=Conde Nast Traveler|date=26 September 2017|access-date=2 October 2017|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228034121/https://www.cntraveler.com/galleries/2015-06-03/the-10-most-visited-cities-of-2015-london-bangkok-new-york|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:2016 Bangkok, Dystrykt Phra Nakhon, Ulica Khaosan (08).jpg|thumb|left|alt=|[[Khao San Road]] is lined by budget accommodation, shops and bars catering to tourists.]]
Among Bangkok's well-known sights are the Grand Palace and major Buddhist temples, including [[Wat Phra Kaew]], [[Wat Pho]], and [[Wat Arun]]. The [[Giant Swing]] and [[Erawan Shrine]] demonstrate Hinduism's deep-rooted influence in Thai culture. [[Vimanmek Mansion]] in Dusit Palace is famous as the world's largest teak building, while the [[Jim Thompson House]] provides an example of traditional [[Thai architecture]]. Other major museums include the [[Bangkok National Museum]] and the [[Royal Barge National Museum]]. Cruises and boat trips on the Chao Phraya and the canals of Thonburi offer views of some of the city's traditional architecture and ways of life on the waterfront.<ref>Thavisin et al. (eds) 2006, pp.&nbsp;63–69.</ref>
Shopping venues, many of which are popular with both tourists and locals, range from the shopping centres and department stores concentrated in Siam and Ratchaprasong to the sprawling [[Chatuchak Weekend Market]]. [[Taling Chan Floating Market]] is among the few such markets in Bangkok. Yaowarat is known for its shops as well as street-side food stalls and restaurants, which are also found throughout the city. [[Khao San Road]] has long been famous as a destination for [[backpacker tourism]], with its budget accommodation, shops and bars attracting visitors from all over the world.
Bangkok has a reputation overseas as a major destination in the [[sex industry]]. Although [[Prostitution in Thailand|prostitution is technically illegal]] and is rarely openly discussed in Thailand, it commonly takes place among massage parlours, saunas and hourly hotels, serving foreign tourists as well as locals. Bangkok has acquired the nickname "Sin City of Asia" for its level of sex tourism.<ref name="EmmonsEveland2011">{{cite book|last1=Emmons|first1=Ron|last2=Eveland|first2=Jennifer|last3=White|first3=Daniel|title=Frommer's Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4OnMMOZhn54C&pg=PA79|access-date=8 April 2012|date=28 June 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-00979-6|page=79}}</ref>
Issues often encountered by foreign tourists include scams, overcharging and dual pricing. In a survey of 616 tourists visiting Thailand, 7.79 per cent reported encountering a scam, the most common of which was the [[gem scam]], in which tourists are tricked into buying overpriced jewellery.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Robert W. |last=Howard|title=Risky business? Asking tourists what hazards they actually encountered in Thailand|journal=Tourism Management|volume=30|issue=3|date=June 2009|pages=359–365|doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2008.08.007}}</ref>
{{Gallery|title=Among Bangkok's well-known sights|width=200|height=200|align=center
| File:(2020)_วัดพระศรีรัตนศาสดาราม_เขตพระนคร_กรุงเทพมหานคร_(8).jpg|[[Grand Palace]]
| File:Giant swing - Sao Chingcha crop 2013-05-20.jpg|The [[Giant Swing]]
| File:Wat_Arun_8.jpg|[[Wat Arun]]
}}
==Culture==
[[File:Bangkok Art Biennale 2018 03.jpg|thumb|Temporary art display at [[Siam Discovery]] during the [[Bangkok Art Biennale]] 2018]]
The culture of Bangkok reflects its position as Thailand's centre of wealth and modernisation. The city has long been the portal of entry of Western concepts and material goods, which have been adopted and blended with Thai values to various degrees by its residents. This is most evident in the lifestyles of the expanding middle class. [[Conspicuous consumption]] serves as a display of economic and social status, and shopping centres are popular weekend hangouts.<ref>Hamilton 2000, p.&nbsp;468.</ref>
[[File:Puy the Roti Lady Benjawan Kaewsaen and her sister Pang in Sala Dang Bangkok Thailand by Don Ramey Logan.jpg|thumb|Street food vendor "Puy the Roti Lady" - "Benjawan Kaewsaen" and her sister Palm in the Silom - Saladang area of Bangkok]]
A distinct feature of Bangkok is the ubiquity of [[street vendor]]s selling goods ranging from food items to clothing and accessories. It has been estimated that the city may have over 100,000 hawkers. While the BMA has authorised the practice in 287 sites, the majority of activity in another 407 sites takes place illegally. Although they take up pavement space and block pedestrian traffic, many of the city's residents depend on these vendors for their meals, and the BMA's efforts to curb their numbers have largely been unsuccessful.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Street Vendors in Asia: A Review|first=Sharit K |last=Bhowmik |journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=28 May – 4 June 2005 |pages=2256–2264}}</ref>
In 2015, however, the BMA, with support from the [[National Council for Peace and Order]] (Thailand's ruling military junta), began cracking down on street vendors in a bid to reclaim public space. Many famous market neighbourhoods were affected, including [[Khlong Thom, Bangkok|Khlong Thom]], [[Saphan Lek]], and the flower market at [[Pak Khlong Talat]]. Nearly 15,000 vendors were evicted from 39 public areas in 2016.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Nualkhair|first1=Chawadee|title=Bangkok's street food under threat from gentrification|url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2017/feb/12/bangkok-street-food-stalls-under-threat|access-date=13 February 2017|work=The Guardian|date=12 February 2017}}</ref> While some applauded the efforts to focus on pedestrian rights, others have expressed concern that [[gentrification]] would lead to the loss of the city's character and adverse changes to people's way of life.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mokkhasen|first1=Sasiwan|title=Vanishing Bangkok: What is the Capital Being Remade Into, And For Whom?|url=http://www.khaosodenglish.com/news/bangkok/2016/07/05/reorganization/|access-date=3 February 2017|work=Khaosod English|date=5 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Sauers|first1=Craig|title=Bangkok's disappearing street food|url=http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20160817-bangkoks-disappearing-street-food|access-date=3 February 2017|work=BBC Travel|date=23 August 2016|archive-date=4 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204020501/http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20160817-bangkoks-disappearing-street-food|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Festivals and events===
[[File:Ratchadamnoen King80 arch.jpg|thumb|right|alt=An elaborate double archway above a road, with pictures of King Bhumibol Adulyadej; trees decorated with lights|[[Ratchadamnoen Avenue]] is annually decorated with lights and displays in celebration of [[King Bhumibol]]'s birthday.]]
The residents of Bangkok celebrate many of Thailand's annual festivals. During [[Songkran (Thailand)|Songkran]] on 13–15 April, traditional rituals as well as water fights take place throughout the city. [[Loi Krathong]], usually in November, is accompanied by the Golden Mount Fair. New Year celebrations take place at many venues, the most prominent being the plaza in front of [[CentralWorld]]. Observances related to the royal family are held primarily in Bangkok. Wreaths are laid at King Chulalongkorn's equestrian statue in the Royal Plaza on 23 October, which is King Chulalongkorn Memorial Day. The previous king's and queen's birthdays, respectively on 5 December and 12 August, are marked as Thailand's national Father's Day and national Mother's Day. These national holidays are celebrated by royal audiences on the day's eve, in which the king or queen gives a speech, and public gatherings on the day of the observance. The king's birthday is also marked by the [[Thai Royal Guards parade|Royal Guards' parade]].
[[Sanam Luang]] is the site of the Thai Kite, Sport and Music Festival, usually held in March, and the [[Royal Ploughing Ceremony]] which takes place in May. The Red Cross Fair at the beginning of April is held at Suan Amporn and the Royal Plaza, and features numerous booths offering goods, games and exhibits. The [[Chinese New Year]] (January–February) and [[Vegetarian Festival]] (September–October) are celebrated widely by the Chinese community, especially in Yaowarat.<ref>Thavisin et al. (eds) 2006, p.&nbsp;72.</ref>
Bangkok was designated as the [[World Book Capital]] for the year 2013 by [[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-06-29 |title=Bangkok declared World Book Capital 2013 at UN conference |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2011/06/380082-bangkok-declared-world-book-capital-2013-un-conference |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=UN News |language=en |archive-date=15 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220915152618/https://news.un.org/en/story/2011/06/380082-bangkok-declared-world-book-capital-2013-un-conference |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Media===
Bangkok is the centre of [[Media of Thailand|Thailand's media industry]]. All national newspapers, broadcast media and major publishers are based in the capital. Its 21 national newspapers had a combined daily circulation of about two million in 2002. These include the mass-oriented ''[[Thai Rath]]'', ''[[Khao Sod]]'' and ''[[Daily News (Thailand)|Daily News]]'', the first of which currently prints a million copies per day,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thairath.co.th/corp/index?subMenu=info |title=ข้อมูลทั่วไป (General information) |website=Thai Rath Online |publisher=Wacharapol |access-date=23 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120911034352/http://www.thairath.co.th/corp/index?subMenu=info |archive-date=11 September 2012 }}</ref> as well as the less sensational ''[[Matichon]]'' and ''[[Krungthep Thurakij]]''. The ''[[Bangkok Post]]'' and ''[[The Nation (Thailand)|The Nation]]'' are the two national English language dailies. Foreign publications including ''[[The Asian Wall Street Journal]]'', ''[[Financial Times]]'', ''[[The Straits Times]]'' and the ''[[Yomiuri Shimbun]]'' also have operations in Bangkok.<ref name="Kavi">{{cite book|first=Kavi |last=Chongkittavorn |chapter=The Media and Access to Information in Thailand|pages=255–266|title= The Right to Tell: The Role of Mass Media in Economic Development|editor-first=Roumeen |editor-last=Islam|series=WBI Development Studies|place=Washington, D.C.|publisher=The World Bank|isbn=978-0-8213-5203-8|year=2002 }}</ref> The large majority of Thailand's more than 200 magazines are published in the capital, and include news magazines as well as lifestyle, entertainment, gossip and fashion-related publications.
Bangkok is also the hub of [[Television in Thailand|Thailand's broadcast television]]. All six national terrestrial channels, Channels [[Channel 3 (Thailand)|3]], [[Channel 5 (Thailand)|5]] and [[Channel 7 (Thailand)|7]], [[Modernine TV|Modernine]], [[National Broadcasting Services of Thailand Television|NBT]] and [[Thai PBS]], have headquarters and main studios in the capital. [[GMM Grammy]] is Thailand's largest mass-media conglomerate is also headquartered in Bangkok as well. With the exception of local news segments broadcast by the NBT, all programming is done in Bangkok and repeated throughout the provinces. However, this centralised model is weakening with the rise of cable television, which has many local providers. There are numerous cable and satellite [[List of television stations in Bangkok|channels based in Bangkok]]. [[TrueVisions]] is the major subscription television provider in Bangkok and Thailand, and it also carries international programming. Bangkok was home to 40 of Thailand's 311 FM radio stations and 38 of its 212 AM stations in 2002.<ref name="Kavi"/> Broadcast media reform stipulated by the [[1997 constitution of Thailand|1997 constitution]] has been progressing slowly, although many community radio stations have emerged in the city.
Likewise, Bangkok has dominated the [[Thai film industry]] since its inception. Although film settings normally feature locations throughout the country, the city is home to all major film studios in Thailand such as [[GDH 559]] (GMM Grammy's film production subsidiary), [[Sahamongkol Film International]] and [[Five Star Production]]. Bangkok has dozens of [[List of cinemas in Thailand|cinemas and multiplexes]], and the city hosts two major film festivals annually, the [[Bangkok International Film Festival]] and the [[World Film Festival of Bangkok]].
===Art===
[[File:BKK Art and Culture Centre (II).jpg|thumb|right|alt=A modern-looking building with a smooth curved exterior on the corner of a road junction with several paintings on the wall|The [[Bangkok Art and Culture Centre]], the city's major public contemporary art venue, was opened in 2008 after many delays.]]
Traditional [[Thai art]], long developed within religious and royal contexts, continues to be sponsored by various government agencies in Bangkok, including the [[Department of Fine Arts (Thailand)|Department of Fine Arts]]' Office of Traditional Arts. The SUPPORT Foundation in Chitralada Palace sponsors traditional and folk handicrafts. Various communities throughout the city still practice their traditional crafts, including the production of ''[[khon]]'' masks, alms bowls, and classical musical instruments. The [[National Gallery of Thailand|National Gallery]] hosts permanent collection of traditional and modern art, with temporary contemporary exhibits. Bangkok's [[contemporary art]] scene has slowly grown from relative obscurity into the public sphere over the past two decades. Private galleries gradually emerged to provide exposure for new artists, including the [[Patravadi Theatre]] and [[H Gallery]]. The centrally located [[Bangkok Art and Culture Centre]], opened in 2008 following a fifteen-year lobbying campaign, is now the largest public exhibition space in the city.<ref>{{cite news|title=Center Stage|first=John|last=Krich |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123623705280938041|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |date=6 March 2009 |access-date=26 September 2012}}</ref> There are also many other [[List of museums and art galleries in Bangkok|art galleries and museums]], including the privately owned [[Museum of Contemporary Art (Bangkok)|Museum of Contemporary Art]].
The city's performing arts scene features traditional theatre and dance as well as Western-style plays. ''Khon'' and other traditional dances are regularly performed at the [[National Theatre (Thailand)|National Theatre]] and [[Salachalermkrung Royal Theatre]], while the [[Thailand Cultural Centre]] is a newer multi-purpose venue which also hosts musicals, orchestras and other events. [[List of theatres in Bangkok|Numerous venues]] regularly feature a variety of performances throughout the city.
<!-- Can't use this since it's pretty much unreferenced and not really the right tone. If someone could rework the paragraph please do so.
The arts in Bangkok have developed almost exclusively and anonymously in the services of Theravada Buddhism since the Ayutthaya period and continuing to the present day by incorporating Western elements which is called the [[Rattanakosin style|Rattanakosin]] or Bangkok style. Nowadays, the modern art scene is centred around Bangkok as the capital of [[contemporary art]] in the region, while traditional art can be found in many commercial areas in the old city as well as temples and palaces throughout the city. There are also a number of artists who prefer to live and work outside the metropolis. The number of artists is constantly on the rise, so an increasing variety of works are available on the art market. Many art galleries in Bangkok tend to sell work restricted to traditional rural motifs. The artists creating this type of art are often influenced by traditional Buddhist beliefs and motifs, and are popular among the general Thai public. Nevertheless, some Thai artists are breaking away from these norms by addressing more controversial issues in their work, for example the loss of traditional values and the obsession with money in today's society.
-->
==Sport==
[[File:RajamangalaStadium.jpg|thumb|left|[[Rajamangala Stadium]] was built for the [[1998 Asian Games]] and [[Thailand national football team]] home stadium.]]
As is the national trend, [[association football]] and [[Muay Thai]] dominate Bangkok's spectator sport scene.<ref>{{cite web |title=ศึกคอนเทนต์ กีฬาฟีเวอร์ สนั่นจอทีวี |url=https://positioningmag.com/60100 |access-date=14 March 2020 |work=Positioning Magazine |date=16 April 2015 |language=th}}</ref> [[Muangthong United F.C.|Muangthong United]], [[Bangkok United F.C.|Bangkok United]], [[BG Pathum United F.C.|BG Pathum United]], [[Port F.C.|Port]] and [[Police Tero F.C.|Police Tero]] are major [[Thai League (football)|Thai League]] clubs based in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/investigation/313608/blemishes-in-the-beautiful-game |title=Blemishes in the beautiful game |newspaper=Bangkok Post|last=Post reporters|date=23 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Hassan |first1=Hanif |title=A year of unfulfilled expectations |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/sports/1557354/a-year-of-unfulfilled-expectations |work=Bangkok Post |date=13 October 2018 |access-date=14 March 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020090611/https://www.bangkokpost.com/sports/1557354/a-year-of-unfulfilled-expectations |url-status=live }}</ref> while the [[Rajadamnern Stadium|Rajadamnern]] and [[Lumpini Stadium|Lumpini]] stadiums are the main kickboxing venues.
While [[sepak takraw]] can be seen played in open spaces throughout the city, football and other modern sports are now the norm. Western sports introduced during the reign of King [[Chulalongkorn]] were originally only available to the privileged, and such status is still associated with certain sports. Golf is popular among the upwardly mobile, and there are several courses in Bangkok. [[Horse racing]], highly popular at the mid-20th century, still takes place at the [[Royal Bangkok Sports Club]].
There are many public [[List of sport venues in Bangkok|sporting facilities located throughout Bangkok]]. The two main centres are the [[National Stadium (Thailand)|National Stadium]] complex, which dates to 1938, and the newer [[Hua Mak Sports Complex]], which was built for the [[1998 Asian Games]]. Bangkok had also hosted the games in [[1966 Asian Games|1966]], [[1970 Asian Games|1970]] and [[1978 Asian Games|1978]]; the most of any city. The city was the host of the inaugural [[1959 Southeast Asian Peninsular Games|Southeast Asian Games in 1959]], the [[2007 Summer Universiade]] and the [[2012 FIFA Futsal World Cup]].
==<span id="Transportation"></span><span id="Transport"></span>Transport==
{{Main|Transport in Bangkok}}
{{more citations needed|section|date=April 2021}}<!-- this first part before the Roads subsection-->
[[File:Highway interchange at night (35517755855) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|alt=Night photograph looking down at a large elevated road interchange; many billboards along the roads|Streetlamps and headlights illuminate the Makkasan Interchange of the [[Thai expressway system|expressway]]. The system sees a traffic of over 1.5&nbsp;million vehicles per day.<ref>{{cite web|title=สรุปรายได้และปริมาณรถ: สิงหาคม 2555 (Revenue and traffic, August 2012) |website=EXAT website |date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Expressway Authority of Thailand |url=http://www.exat.co.th/statistics/10/12/ |access-date=11 September 2012 |language=th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120923083010/http://www.exat.co.th/statistics/10/12/ |archive-date=23 September 2012 }}</ref>]]
Although Bangkok's canals historically served as a major mode of transport, they have long since been surpassed in importance by land traffic. [[Charoen Krung Road]], the first to be built by Western techniques, was completed in 1864. Since then, the road network has vastly expanded to accommodate the sprawling city. A complex elevated [[Thai expressway system|expressway network]] and [[Don Mueang Tollway]] helps bring traffic into and out of the city centre, but Bangkok's rapid growth has put a large strain on infrastructure, and traffic jams have plagued the city since the 1990s. Although rail transport was introduced in 1893 and [[Trams in Bangkok|trams served the city]] from 1888 to 1968, it was only in 1999 that Bangkok's first [[rapid transit]] system began operation. Older [[public transport]] systems include an extensive bus network and [[Water transport in Bangkok|boat services]] which still operate on the Chao Phraya and two canals. Taxis appear in the form of cars, motorcycles, and "''[[tuk-tuk]]''" auto rickshaws.
Bangkok is connected to the rest of the country through the [[Thai highway network|national highway]] and [[Rail transport in Thailand|rail networks]], as well as by domestic flights to and from the city's two international airports ([[Suvarnabhumi Airport|Suvarnabhumi]] and [[Don Mueang International Airport|Don Mueang]]). Its centuries-old maritime transport of goods is still conducted through Khlong Toei Port.
The BMA is largely responsible for overseeing the construction and maintenance of the road network and transport systems through its Public Works Department and Traffic and Transportation Department. However, many separate government agencies are also in charge of the individual systems, and much of transport-related policy planning and funding is contributed to by the national government.
===Roads===
[[File:0008871-สะพานกรุงเทพพาโนราม่า.jpg|thumb|alt=View of the Krung Thep Bridge at night with many skyscrapers in the background|[[Krungthep Bridge|Krung Thep Bridge]] spanning the [[Chao Phraya river]]]]
Road-based transport is the primary mode of travel in Bangkok. Due to the city's organic development, its streets do not follow an organized grid structure. Forty-eight major roads link the different areas of the city, branching into smaller streets and lanes (''[[soi]]'') which serve local neighbourhoods. [[List of bridges in Bangkok|Eleven bridges]] over the Chao Phraya link the two sides of the city, while several [[Controlled-access highways in Thailand|expressway]] and [[Thai motorway network|motorway]] routes bring traffic into and out of the city centre and link with nearby provinces. The first expressway in Bangkok is [[Chaloem Maha Nakhon Expressway]], which opened 1981.
[[File:Phahonyothin Road, north of Ha Yaek Lat Phrao station.jpg|left|thumb|Traffic jams, seen here on [[Phahonyothin Road]], are common in Bangkok.]]
Bangkok's rapid growth in the 1980s resulted in sharp increases in vehicle ownership and traffic demand, which have since continued—in 2006 there were 3,943,211 in-use vehicles in Bangkok, of which 37.6 per cent were private cars and 32.9 per cent were motorcycles.<ref>{{cite web|title=Developing Integrated Emission Strategies for Existing Land-transport |url=http://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/system/files/articles-72628_Ch3.pdf |publisher=Clean Air Initiative |access-date=15 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603110642/http://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/system/files/articles-72628_Ch3.pdf |archive-date=3 June 2013 }}</ref> These increases, in the face of limited carrying capacity, caused severe traffic congestion evident by the early 1990s. The extent of the problem is such that the Thai Traffic Police has a unit of officers trained in basic midwifery in order to assist deliveries which do not reach hospital in time.<ref>{{cite news|title=In Bangkok gridlock, Thai traffic police double as midwives |url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jMfzhH0cMlYhkVxkytUzlBScCrDQ |agency=Agence France-Presse|date=17 April 2008 |access-date=22 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527060147/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jMfzhH0cMlYhkVxkytUzlBScCrDQ |archive-date=27 May 2013 }}</ref> While Bangkok's limited road surface area (8 per cent, compared to 20–30 per cent in most Western cities) is often cited as a major cause of its traffic jams, other factors, including high vehicle ownership rate relative to income level, inadequate public transport systems, and lack of [[transportation demand management]], also play a role.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tanaboriboon|first=Yordphol|title=Bangkok traffic|journal=IATSS Research|year=1993|volume=7|issue=1|url=http://iatss.or.jp/english/research/17-1/pdf/17-1-02.pdf|access-date=15 September 2012|archive-date=16 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616163811/http://iatss.or.jp/english/research/17-1/pdf/17-1-02.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Efforts to alleviate the problem have included the construction of intersection bypasses and an extensive system of elevated highways, as well as the creation of several new rapid transit systems. [[Congestion pricing in Bangkok|Plans to implement congestion pricing]] were announced in 2024.<ref name="BP congestion pricing">{{Cite news |last= |first= |title=B40-50 congestion charge on inner-Bangkok streets |date=17 October 2024 |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/2885441/b40-50-congestion-charge-to-subsidise-b20-rail-fares |access-date=2024-10-20 |work=Bangkok Post |language=en}}</ref> The city's overall traffic conditions, however, remain poor.
{{anchor|Air pollution}}Traffic has been the main source of [[air pollution]] in Bangkok, which reached serious levels in the 1990s. But efforts to improve air quality by improving fuel quality and enforcing emission standards, among others, had visibly ameliorated the problem by the 2000s. [[Atmospheric particulate matter]] levels dropped from 81 micrograms per cubic metre in 1997 to 43 in 2007.<ref>{{cite news|last=Fuller|first=Thomas|title=Bangkok's template for an air-quality turnaround|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/23/world/asia/23iht-bangkok.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327141354/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/23/world/asia/23iht-bangkok.html |archive-date=2010-03-27 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=15 September 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=23 February 2007}}</ref> However, increasing vehicle numbers and a lack of continued pollution-control efforts threatens a reversal of the past success.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Thin Lei Win|title=Choked by traffic, Bangkok revs up to beat air pollution|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bangkok-environment-pollution/choked-by-traffic-bangkok-revs-up-to-beat-air-pollution-idUSKCN18E0KB|access-date=15 February 2018|work=Reuters|date=18 May 2017|archive-date=16 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216030616/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bangkok-environment-pollution/choked-by-traffic-bangkok-revs-up-to-beat-air-pollution-idUSKCN18E0KB|url-status=live}}</ref> In January–February 2018, weather conditions caused bouts of haze to cover the city, with particulate matter under 2.5 micrometres (PM<sub>2.5</sub>) rising to unhealthy levels for several days on end.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-02-15/planning-a-vacation-in-bangkok-don-t-forget-your-pollution-mask|title=There's a New Contender for Title of Asia's Most Polluted City|last1=Chuwiruch|first1=Natnicha|date=15 February 2018|work=Bloomberg|access-date=15 February 2018|last2=Suwannakij|first2=Supunnabul|archive-date=21 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221100221/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-02-15/planning-a-vacation-in-bangkok-don-t-forget-your-pollution-mask|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=City smog worsens to danger level|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/general/1412290/city-smog-worsens-to-danger-level|access-date=15 February 2018|work=Bangkok Post|date=15 February 2018|archive-date=15 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215073734/https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/general/1412290/city-smog-worsens-to-danger-level|url-status=live}}</ref>
Although the BMA has created thirty signed bicycle routes along several roads totalling {{convert|230|km}},<ref>Traffic and Transportation Department, p.&nbsp;154.</ref> cycling is still largely impractical, especially in the city centre. Most of these bicycle lanes share the pavement with pedestrians. Poor surface maintenance, encroachment by hawkers and street vendors, and a hostile environment for cyclists and pedestrians, make cycling and walking unpopular methods of getting around in Bangkok.
===<span id="Bus services"></span><span id="Buses"></span>Buses and taxis===
[[File:Bangkok buses.jpg|alt=A partial view of a road with many vehicles, including buses, cars, taxis and motorcycles|thumb|Many buses, minibuses and taxis share the streets with private vehicles]]
Bangkok has an extensive bus network providing local transit services within the Greater Bangkok area. The [[Bangkok Mass Transit Authority]] (BMTA) operates a monopoly on bus services, with substantial concessions granted to private operators. Buses, minibus vans, and [[song thaeo]] operate on a total of 470 routes throughout the region.<ref>Traffic and Transportation Department, p.&nbsp;112.</ref> A separate [[bus rapid transit]] system owned by the BMA has been in operation since 2010. Known simply as the [[Bangkok BRT|BRT]], the system currently consists of a single line running from the business district at Sathon to Ratchaphruek on the western side of the city. [[The Transport Co., Ltd.]] is the BMTA's long-distance counterpart, with services to all provinces operating out of Bangkok.
Taxis are ubiquitous in Bangkok, and are a popular form of transport. {{As of|2012|August}}, there are 106,050 cars, 58,276 motorcycles and 8,996 [[auto rickshaw|tuk-tuk]] motorized tricycles cumulatively registered for use as taxis.<ref>{{cite web|last=Transport Statistics Sub-division, Planning Division|title=Number of Vehicles Registered in Thailand as of 31 August 2012|url=http://apps.dlt.go.th/statistics_web/st1/bkk_Aug12.xls|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904061249/http://apps.dlt.go.th/statistics_web/st1/bkk_Aug12.xls|archive-date=4 September 2015|website=Department of Land Transport website|publisher=Department of Land Transport|access-date=16 September 2012}}</ref> Meters have been required for car taxis since 1992, while tuk-tuk fares are usually negotiated. [[Motorcycle taxi]]s operate from regulated ranks, with either fixed or negotiable fares, and are usually employed for relatively short journeys.
Despite their popularity, taxis have gained a bad reputation for often refusing passengers when the requested route is not to the driver's convenience.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sereemongkonpol|first=Pornchai|title=Bangkok's best taxi drivers|url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/feature/people/312301/bangkok-s-best-taxi-drivers|access-date=16 September 2012|newspaper=Bangkok Post|date=14 September 2012|archive-date=16 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916052810/http://www.bangkokpost.com/feature/people/312301/bangkok-s-best-taxi-drivers|url-status=live}}</ref> Motorcycle taxis were previously unregulated, and subject to extortion by organized crime gangs. Since 2003, registration has been required for motorcycle taxi ranks, and drivers now wear distinctive numbered vests designating their district of registration and where they are allowed to accept passengers.
Several [[Ridesharing company|ride hailing]] [[super-app]]s operate within the city, including [[Grab (company)|Grab]] (offering car and motorbike options),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-05-02 |title={:th}แกร็บเปิดตัวบริการ 'แกร็บไบค์ (วิน)' ในกรุงเทพฯ เพื่อความสะดวกรวดเร็วในการเดินทางในเมือง{:}{:en}Grab Launches GrabBike (Win) in Bangkok for Faster Rides and Greater Connectivity between Local Districts{:} |url=https://www.grab.com/th/en/press/business/%e0%b9%81%e0%b8%81%e0%b8%a3%e0%b9%87%e0%b8%9a%e0%b9%80%e0%b8%9b%e0%b8%b4%e0%b8%94%e0%b8%95%e0%b8%b1%e0%b8%a7%e0%b8%9a%e0%b8%a3%e0%b8%b4%e0%b8%81%e0%b8%b2%e0%b8%a3-%e0%b9%81%e0%b8%81%e0%b8%a3/ |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=Grab TH |language=en-US}}</ref> and [[AirAsia]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |title=Grab sets out growth plans |work=Bangkok Post |date= 28 April 2022|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/2301510/grab-sets-out-growth-plans |access-date=2022-06-18 |archive-date=29 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429042418/https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/2301510/grab-sets-out-growth-plans |url-status=live |last1= Leesa-Nguansuk|first1= Suchit}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |title=AirAsia pushes into ride-hailing race in Bangkok, rivalling Grab |work=Bangkok Post |date= 31 May 2022|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/2318766/airasia-pushes-into-ride-hailing-race-in-bangkok-rivalling-grab |access-date=2022-06-18 |archive-date=18 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618144058/https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/2318766/airasia-pushes-into-ride-hailing-race-in-bangkok-rivalling-grab |url-status=live }}</ref> The Estonian company Bolt launched airport transfer and ride hailing services in 2020. Ride sharing [[Startup company|startup]] [[MuvMi]] launched in 2018, and operates an [[Electric vehicle|electric]] tuk-tuk service in 9 areas across the city.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MuvMi Offers New Service Areas – Enjoy A Trip around Rattanakosin Island |url=https://www.chula.ac.th/en/news/29782/ |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=Chulalongkorn University |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |title=Post-Covid EV industry surge anticipated |work=Bangkok Post |date= 26 October 2021|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/2204179/post-covid-ev-industry-surge-anticipated |access-date=2022-06-18 |archive-date=18 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418125925/https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/2204179/post-covid-ev-industry-surge-anticipated |url-status=live |last1= Praiwan|first1= Yuthana}}</ref>
===Rail systems===
{{main|Rail transport in Bangkok}}
[[File:BTS Skytrain in Bangkok (7997069605).jpg|thumb|alt=An elevated train, painted in blue, white and a red stripe and with advertisements, running above a road lined with many tall buildings and with many cars|A BTS train departs from [[Ratchadamri BTS station|Ratchadamri station]], towards Siam station.]]
Bangkok is the location of [[Krung Thep Aphiwat Central Terminal]], the new main terminus of the national rail network operated by the [[State Railway of Thailand]] (SRT). The older terminus, [[Bangkok (Hua Lamphong) railway station|Bangkok (Hua Lamphong) Railway Station]], which was the main station for Bangkok for over a century, remains in use. The SRT operates long-distance intercity services from Krung Thep Aphiwat, while commuter trains running to and from the outskirts of the city during the rush hour continue to operate at Bangkok (Hua Lamphong).
Bangkok is served by four rapid transit systems: the [[BTS Skytrain]], the [[MRT (Bangkok)|MRT]], the [[SRT Red Lines]], and the elevated [[Airport Rail Link (Bangkok)|Airport Rail Link]]. Although proposals for the development of rapid transit in Bangkok had been made since 1975,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Bangkok transport system development: what went wrong?|first=Wiroj|last=Rujopakarn|journal=Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies|volume=5|date=October 2003|pages=3302–15}}</ref> it was only in 1999 that the BTS finally began operation.
The BTS consists of two lines, [[Sukhumvit Line|Sukhumvit]] and [[Silom Line|Silom]], with 59 stations along {{convert|68.25|km}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Company's Profile |url=https://www.bts.co.th/eng/info/info-history.html |website=Bangkok Mass Transit System PCL Ltd. |access-date=30 July 2019 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920215549/https://www.bts.co.th/eng/info/info-history.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The MRT opened for use in July 2004, and currently consists of two metro lines, the [[MRT Blue Line|Blue Line]] and [[MRT Purple Line|Purple Line]] with 53 stations along {{convert|70.6|km}}, and two [[monorail]] lines: the [[Yellow Line (Bangkok)|Yellow Line]] which opened in July 2023, and the [[Pink Line (Bangkok)|Pink Line]] that opened in January 2024. The Airport Rail Link, opened in August 2010, connects the city centre to Suvarnabhumi Airport to the east. Its eight stations span a distance of {{convert|28.6|km}}. The [[SRT Red Lines]] commuter rail lines opened in 2021, and consists of two lines, the [[SRT Dark Red Line]] and [[SRT Light Red Line]] with currently 14 stations along {{convert|41|km}}.
Although initial passenger numbers were low and their service area was limited to the inner city until the 2016 opening of the [[MRT Purple Line|Purple Line]], which serves the [[Nonthaburi]] area, these systems have become indispensable to many commuters. The BTS reported an average of 600,000 daily trips in 2012,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/business/BTS-Group-Holding-Plc-30176106.html|title=BTS Group Holdings – The Nation|access-date=24 September 2024|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231831/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/business/BTS-Group-Holding-Plc-30176106.html|url-status=live}}</ref> while the MRT had 240,000 passenger trips per day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/business/New-BMCL-boss-eyes-boosting-commercial-revenue-30172472.html|title=New BMCL boss eyes boosting commercial revenue – The Nation|access-date=24 September 2024|archive-date=18 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118164201/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/business/New-BMCL-boss-eyes-boosting-commercial-revenue-30172472.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Pink Line at Khu Bon Station 02.jpg|thumb|alt=A pink line monorail train about to pull into a station|The [[Pink Line (Bangkok)|MRT Pink Line]], one of the monorail lines in Bangkok]]
{{As of|2024}}, construction work is ongoing to extend the city-wide transit system's reach according to the [[Mass Rapid Transit Master Plan in Bangkok Metropolitan Region]], which consists of eight main lines and four feeder lines totaling {{convert|508|km}} to be completed by 2029.
===Water transport===
[[File:Lunch at Rongros, Bangkok (Jan 2021) - img 05.jpg|thumb|A [[Chao Phraya Express Boat]] on the [[Chao Phraya]] near [[Wat Arun]]|left]]
Although much diminished from its past prominence, water-based transport still plays an important role in Bangkok and the immediate upstream and downstream provinces. Several [[water bus]]es serve commuters daily. The [[Chao Phraya Express Boat]] serves thirty-four stops along the river, carrying an average of 35,586 passengers per day in 2010, while the smaller [[Khlong Saen Saep boat service]] serves twenty-seven stops on [[Saen Saep Canal]] with 57,557 daily passengers. [[Khlong Phasi Charoen boat service]] serves twenty stops on the [[Khlong Phasi Charoen|Phasi Charoen Canal]]. [[Long-tail boat]]s operate on fifteen regular routes on the Chao Phraya, and passenger ferries at thirty-two river crossings served an average of 136,927 daily passengers in 2010.<ref>Traffic and Transportation Department, pp.&nbsp;113–122.</ref>
Bangkok Port, popularly known by its location as [[Khlong Toei Port]], was Thailand's main international port from its opening in 1947 until it was superseded by the deep-sea [[Laem Chabang Port]] in 1991. It is primarily a cargo port, though its inland location limits access to ships of 12,000 deadweight tonnes or less. The port handled {{convert|11936855|tonne}} of cargo in the first eight months of the 2010 fiscal year, about 22 per cent the total of the country's international ports.<ref>{{cite web|title=ท่าเรือกรุงเทพ |first=Sumalee |last=Sukdanont |date=July 2011 |publisher=Transportation Institute, Chulalongkorn University |access-date=19 September 2012 |url=http://www.tri.chula.ac.th/triresearch/bangkokport/bangkokport.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305120205/http://www.tri.chula.ac.th/triresearch/bangkokport/bangkokport.html |archive-date=5 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=สรุปผลการดำเนินงานของกทท. 8 เดือน ปีงบประมาณ 2553 (ต.ค.52-พ.ค.53) |website=PAT website |publisher=Port Authority of Thailand |url=http://www.port.co.th/pat/topic7/stat_012.pdf |access-date=19 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120152600/http://www.port.co.th/pat/topic7/stat_012.pdf |archive-date=20 November 2012}}</ref>
===Airports===
[[File:HS-TGA (15495092647).jpg|thumb|right|Suvarnabhumi Airport is home to flag carrier [[Thai Airways International]].]]
Bangkok is one of Asia's busiest [[Airline hub|air transport hubs]]. Two commercial airports serve the city, the older [[Don Mueang International Airport]] and the newer [[Suvarnabhumi Airport]]. Suvarnabhumi, which replaced Don Mueang as Bangkok's main airport after its opening in 2006, served 52,808,013 passengers in 2015,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aci.aero/Data-Centre/Monthly-Traffic-Data/Passenger-Summary/Year-to-date|title=2015 Year to date Passenger Traffic|website=www.aci.aero|access-date=2016-12-10|archive-date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813170044/http://www.aci.aero/Data-Centre/Monthly-Traffic-Data/Passenger-Summary/Year-to-date}}</ref> making it the world's 20th [[List of busiest airports by passenger traffic|busiest airport by passenger volume]]. This volume exceeded its designed capacity of 45&nbsp;million passengers. Don Mueang reopened for domestic flights in 2007,<ref name="awst_20070101">"In With the Old", ''[[Aviation Week & Space Technology]]'', 1 January 2007.</ref> and resumed international service focusing on low-cost carriers in October 2012.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mahitthirook|first=Amornrat|title=Don Mueang airport reopens|url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/local/314973/don-mueang-airport-reopens|access-date=11 October 2012|newspaper=Bangkok Post|date=1 October 2012|archive-date=3 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003233958/http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/local/314973/don-mueang-airport-reopens|url-status=live}}</ref> Suvarnabhumi is undergoing expansion to increase its capacity to 60&nbsp;million passengers by 2019 and 90&nbsp;million by 2021.<ref>{{cite news|title=Thai airport operator to spend $5.5 bln on expansion|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/thailand-airports-expansion-idUSL4N1983E9|website=Reuters Asia|date=16 June 2016|agency=Reuters|access-date=19 May 2017|archive-date=30 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230085504/http://www.reuters.com/article/thailand-airports-expansion-idUSL4N1983E9|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Health and education==
===Education===
[[File:Chulalongkorn University Auditorium High View.JPG|thumb|right|alt=The campus of Chulalongkorn University, with many red-roofed buildings and trees; many tall buildings in the background|The [[campus of Chulalongkorn University]] was surrounded by rural fields when it was established in 1917. [[Pathum Wan District]] has since become part of the Bangkok city centre.]]
Bangkok has long been the centre of modern education in Thailand. The first schools in the country were established here in the later 19th century, and there are now 1,351 [[List of schools in Bangkok|schools in the city]].<ref>{{cite web |website=Bureau of Information and Communication Technology |title=Educational Statistics in Brief 2011|publisher=Ministry of Education|pages=28–29|url=http://www.mis.moe.go.th/mis-th/images/news-2555/260555/EIS/stat54/html/T001.html|access-date=15 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010035137/http://www.mis.moe.go.th/mis-th/images/news-2555/260555/EIS/stat54/html/T001.html|archive-date=10 October 2014}}</ref> The city is home to the country's five oldest universities, [[Chulalongkorn University|Chulalongkorn]], [[Thammasat University|Thammasat]], [[Kasetsart University|Kasetsart]], [[Mahidol University|Mahidol]] and [[Silpakorn University|Silpakorn]], founded between 1917 and 1943. The city has since continued its dominance, especially in higher education; the majority of the country's universities, both public and private, [[List of universities in Bangkok|are located in Bangkok]] or the Metropolitan Region. Chulalongkorn and Mahidol are the only Thai universities to appear in the top 500 of the ''[[QS World University Rankings]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=QS World University Rankings |url=http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2012 |publisher=QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited |access-date=26 September 2012 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502093254/https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi]], also located in Bangkok, is the only Thai university in the top 400 of the 2012–13 ''[[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=King Mongkut's University of Technology, Thonburi|website=Times Higher Education World University Rankings|url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/2012-13/world-ranking/institution/king-mongkuts-university-of-technology-thonburi|publisher=TSL Education|access-date=20 April 2013|archive-date=13 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113115232/http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/2012-13/world-ranking/institution/king-mongkuts-university-of-technology-thonburi|url-status=live}}</ref>
Over the past few decades the general trend of pursuing a university degree has prompted the founding of new universities to meet the needs of Thai students. Bangkok became not only a place where immigrants and provincial Thais go for job opportunities, but also for a chance to receive a university degree. [[Ramkhamhaeng University]] emerged in 1971 as Thailand's first open university; it now has the highest enrolment in the country. The demand for higher education has led to the founding of many other universities and colleges, both public and private. While many universities have been established in major provinces, the Greater Bangkok region remains home to the greater majority of institutions, and the city's tertiary education scene remains over-populated with non-Bangkokians. The situation is not limited to higher education, either. In the 1960s, 60 to 70 per cent of 10- to 19-year-olds who were in school had migrated to Bangkok for secondary education. This was due to both a lack of secondary schools in the provinces and perceived higher standards of education in the capital.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Sukanya|last=Nitungkorn |title=The problems of secondary education expansion in Thailand |journal=Southeast Asian Studies|volume=26|issue=1|date=June 1988 |url=http://kyoto-seas.org/pdf/26/1/260102.pdf|access-date=22 September 2012}}</ref> Although this discrepancy has since largely abated, tens of thousands of students still compete for places in Bangkok's leading schools. Education has long been a prime factor in the centralization of Bangkok and will play a vital role in the government's efforts to decentralize the country.
===Healthcare===
[[File:Siriraj_Hospital,Bangkok.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A large complex of buildings, most over ten storeys high, on the bank of a river; one bears a sign with the words &quot;SIRIRAJ HOSPITAL&quot;; another says &quot;FACULTY OF NURSING&quot;|[[Siriraj Hospital]], established in 1888, is the oldest hospital in Thailand.]]
Much of Thailand's medical resources are disproportionately concentrated in the capital. In 2000, Bangkok had 39.6 per cent of the country's doctors and a physician-to-population ratio of 1:794, compared to a median of 1:5,667 among all provinces.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Hiroshi |last1=Nishiura |first2=Sujan |last2=Barua |first3=Saranath |last3=Lawpoolsri |first4=Chatporn |last4=Kittitrakul |first5=Martinus Martin |last5=Leman |first6=Masri Sembiring |last6=Maha |first7=Sant |last7=Muangnoicharoen |title=Health inequalities in Thailand: geographic distribution of medical supplies in the provinces |journal=Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health |date=3 September 2004 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=735–40 |pmid=15689097 |url=http://www.tm.mahidol.ac.th/seameo/2004_35_3/42-3238.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175713/http://www.tm.mahidol.ac.th/seameo/2004_35_3/42-3238.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> The city is [[List of hospitals in Bangkok|home to 42 public hospitals]], five of which are university hospitals, as well as 98 private hospitals and 4,063 registered clinics.{{Dead link|date=March 2014}}<ref>{{cite web|title=สถิติสถานพยาบาลเอกชน ปี 2554 (Private healthcare provider statistics, 2011) |url=http://203.157.6.204/Admin/filestat/57.xls |publisher=Medical Registration Division, Department of Health Service Support, Ministry of Public Health |access-date=15 September 2012 |format=Microsoft Excel spreadsheet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501194858/http://203.157.6.204/Admin/filestat/57.xls |archive-date=1 May 2013 }}</ref> The BMA operates nine public hospitals through its Medical Service Department, and its Health Department provides primary care through sixty-eight community health centres. Thailand's universal [[Healthcare in Thailand|healthcare system]] is implemented through public hospitals and health centres as well as participating private providers.
Research-oriented medical school affiliates such as [[Siriraj Hospital|Siriraj]], [[King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital|King Chulalongkorn Memorial]] and [[Ramathibodi Hospital|Ramathibodi]] Hospitals are among the largest in the country, and act as [[Tertiary referral hospital|tertiary care centres]], receiving referrals from distant parts of the country. Lately, especially in the private sector, there has been much growth in [[medical tourism]], with hospitals such as [[Bumrungrad Hospital|Bumrungrad]] and [[Bangkok Hospital]], among others, providing services specifically catering to foreigners. An estimated 200,000 medical tourists visited Thailand in 2011, making Bangkok the most popular global destination for medical tourism.<ref>{{cite web|last=Eden|first=Caroline|title=The rise of medical tourism in Bangkok|url=http://www.bbc.com/travel/feature/20120828-the-rise-of-medical-tourism-in-bangkok|website=BBC|access-date=22 September 2012|date=4 September 2012|archive-date=8 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908032756/http://www.bbc.com/travel/feature/20120828-the-rise-of-medical-tourism-in-bangkok?|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Crime and safety==
[[File:2010 0515 rama 4 and sathorn 24.JPG|alt=A person pushing burning tyres onto a street|thumb|Political violence has at times spilled onto the streets of Bangkok, as seen during the [[2010 Thai military crackdown|military crackdown on protesters in 2010]].]]
Bangkok has a relatively moderate crime rate when compared to urban counterparts around the world.<ref name="OSAC"/> Traffic accidents are a major hazard<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/general/1376875/thailand-tops-road-death-ranking-list|title=Thailand tops road death ranking list|work=Bangkok Post|access-date=2019-05-23|archive-date=17 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417212235/https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/general/1376875/thailand-tops-road-death-ranking-list|url-status=live}}</ref> while natural disasters are rare. Intermittent episodes of political unrest and occasional terrorist attacks have resulted in losses of life.
Although the crime threat in Bangkok is relatively low, non-confrontational crimes of opportunity such as pick-pocketing, purse-snatching, and credit card fraud occur with frequency.<ref name="OSAC">{{Include-USGov |agency=Overseas Security Advisory Council |title=Thailand 2012 Crime and Safety Report: Bangkok|date=14 March 2012 |url=https://www.osac.gov/Pages/ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=12189 |website=Overseas Security Advisory Council website |publisher=Bureau of Diplomatic Security, U.S. Department of State|access-date=24 September 2012}}</ref> Bangkok's growth since the 1960s has been followed by increasing crime rates partly driven by urbanisation, migration, unemployment and poverty.<!--Supported by following reference.--> By the late 1980s, Bangkok's crime rates were about four times that of the rest of the country.<!--Supported by following reference.--> The police have long been preoccupied with street crimes ranging from housebreaking to assault and murder.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Urban Crime in the Changing Thai Society: The Case of Bangkok Metropolis |first=Prathan |last=Watanavanich |pages=193–210 |title=Crime Prevention in the Urban Community |editor1-first=Koichi |editor1-last=Miyazawa |editor2-first=Setsuo |editor2-last=Miyazawa |year=1995 |publisher=Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers |place=Deventer, The Netherlands}}</ref> The 1990s saw the emergence of vehicle theft and organized crime, particularly by foreign gangs.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://edition.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/magazine/2000/1013/nat.thailand.html|first=Antony|last=Davis|title=Bangkok as Crime Central|journal=Asiaweek|date=13 October 2000|volume=26|issue=40|access-date=24 September 2012|archive-date=30 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110130144536/http://edition.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/magazine/2000/1013/nat.thailand.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Drug trafficking, especially that of ''[[ya ba]]'' methamphetamine pills, is also chronic.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/thai-police-seize-45-million-worth-of-meth-from-convoy-in-bangkok|title=Thai police seize $45&nbsp;million worth of meth from convoy in Bangkok|last=AFP|website=Frontier Myanmar|date=11 May 2018 |language=en|access-date=2018-12-25|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226035309/https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/thai-police-seize-45-million-worth-of-meth-from-convoy-in-bangkok|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/thai/drug-raids-07052017163506.html|title=Thai Police Seize $20 Million Worth of 'Yaba' Meth Pills|website=BenarNews|language=en|access-date=2018-12-25}}</ref>
According to police statistics, the most common complaint received by the Metropolitan Police Bureau in 2010 was housebreaking, with 12,347 cases. This was followed by 5,504 cases of motorcycle thefts, 3,694 cases of assault and 2,836 cases of embezzlement. Serious offences included 183 murders, 81 gang robberies, 265 robberies, 1 kidnapping and 9 arson cases. Offences against the state were by far more common, and included 54,068 drug-related cases, 17,239 cases involving prostitution and 8,634 related to gambling.<ref>{{cite web|script-title=th:สถิติคดีอาญา 5 กลุ่ม ปี 2553 |trans-title=5-group criminal case statistics, 2010 |url=http://statistic.police.go.th/stat/40_50/MONTH53.xls |website=สถิติคดีอาญา (Criminal case statistics) |publisher=Office of Information and Communication Technology, Royal Thai Police |format=XLS |language=th |access-date=24 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827062830/http://statistic.police.go.th/stat/40_50/MONTH53.xls |archive-date=27 August 2011 }}</ref> The Thailand Crime Victim Survey conducted by the Office of Justice Affairs of the Ministry of Justice found that 2.7 per cent of surveyed households reported a member being victim of a crime in 2007. Of these, 96.1 per cent were crimes against property, 2.6 per cent were crimes against life and body, and 1.4 per cent were information-related crimes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thaicvs.org/images/51/13Bkk.pdf |title=ข้อมูลสถิติอาชญากรรมภาคประชาชนในกรุงเทพมหานคร (Crime victim statistics, Bangkok) |website=Thailand Crime Victim Survey, 2007 |publisher=Office of Justice Affairs |access-date=24 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904061248/http://www.thaicvs.org/images/51/13Bkk.pdf |archive-date=4 September 2015 }}</ref>
Political demonstrations and protests are common in Bangkok. The historic uprisings of 1973, 1976 and 1992 are infamously known for the deaths from military suppression. Most events since then have been peaceful, but the series of major protests since 2006 have often turned violent. Demonstrations during March–May 2010 ended in a [[2010 Thai military crackdown|crackdown in which 92 were killed]], including armed and unarmed protesters, security forces, civilians and journalists. Terrorist incidents have also occurred in Bangkok, most notably the [[2015 Bangkok bombing|bombing in 2015]] at the [[Erawan shrine]], which killed 20, and also a [[2006 Bangkok bombings|series of bombings]] on the 2006–07 New Year's Eve.
Traffic accidents are a major hazard in Bangkok. There were 37,985 accidents in the city in 2010, resulting in 16,602 injuries and 456 deaths as well as 426.42&nbsp;million baht in damages. However, the rate of fatal accidents is much lower than in the rest of Thailand. While accidents in Bangkok amounted to 50.9 per cent of the entire country, only 6.2 per cent of fatalities occurred in the city.<ref>Traffic and Transportation Department, pp.&nbsp;138–144.</ref> Another serious public health hazard comes from [[Stray dogs in Bangkok|Bangkok's stray dogs]]. Up to 300,000 strays are estimated to roam the city's streets,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/06/090608-thailand-straydogs-video-ap.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610053336/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/06/090608-thailand-straydogs-video-ap.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 June 2009|title=Stray Dogs Overwhelming Bangkok|agency=Associated Press|work=National Geographic|publisher=National Geographic Society|date=8 June 2009|access-date=24 September 2012}}</ref> and dog bites are among the most common injuries treated in the emergency departments of the city's hospitals. Rabies is prevalent among the dog population, and treatment for bites pose a heavy public burden.{{efn|A 1993 study found dog bites to constitute 5.3 per cent of injuries seen at Siriraj Hospital's emergency department.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Kasian |last1=Bhanganada |first2=Henry |last2=Wilde |first3=Piyasakol |last3=Sakolsataydorn |first4= Pairoj |last4=Oonsombat |title=Dog-bite injuries at a Bangkok teaching hospital |journal=Acta Tropica |volume=55|issue=4|pages=249–255|date=December 1993 |doi=10.1016/0001-706X(93)90082-M|pmid=8147281 }}</ref>}}
===Calls to move the capital===
Bangkok is faced with multiple problems—including congestion, and especially subsidence and flooding—which have raised the issue of moving the nation's capital elsewhere. The idea is not new: during World War II Prime Minister [[Plaek Phibunsongkhram]] planned unsuccessfully to relocate the capital to [[Phetchabun]]. In the 2000s, the [[Thaksin Shinawatra]] administration assigned the [[Office of the National Economic and Social Development Council]] (NESDC) to formulate a plan to move the capital to [[Nakhon Nayok province]]. The [[2011 Thailand floods|2011 floods]] revived the idea of moving government functions from Bangkok. In 2017, the military government assigned NESDC to study the possibility of moving government offices from Bangkok to [[Chachoengsao province]] in the east.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rossman |first1=Vadim |title=Capital Cities: Varieties and Patterns of Development and Relocation |date=2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-56285-6 |pages=103–4}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Lamb |first1=Kate |title=Thailand PM considers moving capital as Bangkok congestion takes toll |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/30/thailand-pm-considers-moving-capital-as-bangkok-congestion-takes-toll |access-date=30 September 2019 |work=The Guardian |date=30 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Katharangsiporn |first1=Kanana |last2=Theparat |first2=Chatrudee |title=A capital idea |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/1761309/a-capital-idea |access-date=30 September 2019 |work=Bangkok Post |date=30 September 2019 |archive-date=30 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930151451/https://www.bangkokpost.com/business/1761309/a-capital-idea |url-status=live }}</ref>
==International relations==
[[File:Protesters at 2009 Bangkok Talks on Climate Change.jpg|thumb|alt=Many people holding signs in front of a building with green layered roofs; many national flags on flag poles lined in two rows in front of the building|Protesters in front of the United Nations Building during the 2009 Bangkok Climate Change Conference. Bangkok is home to several UN offices.]]
The city's formal international relations are managed by the International Affairs Division of the BMA. Its missions include partnering with other major cities through [[sister city]] or friendship agreements, participation and membership in international organizations, and pursuing cooperative activities with the many foreign diplomatic missions based in the city.<ref name="IAD mission">{{cite web|url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/en/node/334|title=Project Plan|author=International Affairs Division|website=International Affairs Division website|publisher=International Affairs Division, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date=12 September 2012|archive-date=13 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713011900/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/en/node/334|url-status=dead}}</ref>
===International participation===
Bangkok is a member of several international organizations and regional city government networks, including the [[Asian Network of Major Cities 21]], the Japan-led Asian-Pacific City Summit, the [[C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group]], the ESCAP-sponsored Regional Network of Local Authorities for Management of Human Settlements in Asia and Pacific (CITYNET), Japan's [[Council of Local Authorities for International Relations]], the World Association of the Major Metropolises and [[Local Governments for Sustainability]], among others.<ref name="IAD mission"/>
With its location at the heart of mainland Southeast Asia and as one of Asia's hubs of transportation, Bangkok is home to many international and regional organizations. Among others, Bangkok is the seat of the Secretariat of the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific ([[ESCAP]]), as well as the Asia-Pacific regional offices of the Food and Agricultural Organization ([[FAO]]), the International Civil Aviation Organization ([[ICAO]]), the International Labour Organization ([[ILO]]), the International Organization for Migration ([[International Organization for Migration|IOM]]), the International Telecommunication Union ([[ITU]]), the UN High Commission for Refugees ([[UNHCR]]), and the UN Children's Fund ([[UNICEF]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.or.th/un-agencies/ |title=UN Offices in Thailand |publisher=United Nations Thailand |website=United Nations Thailand website |access-date=9 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416000813/http://www.un.or.th/unagencies/index.html |archive-date=16 April 2012 }}</ref>
===<span class="anchor" id="Sister cities"></span>City partnerships===
Bangkok has made sister city or friendship agreements with:<ref name="BMA sister cities">{{cite web|url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/th/list|title=ความสัมพันธ์กับเมืองพี่เมืองน้อง|language=th|trans-title=Relationship with Sister Cities|department=International Affairs Division|publisher=[[Bangkok Metropolitan Administration]]|location=Bangkok|access-date=5 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226062515/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/th/list|archive-date=26 December 2021}}</ref>
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Aichi Prefecture]], Japan (2012)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Aichi_mou_0.PDF|title=Relationship with Sister Cities: Aichi|author=International Affairs Division|work=International Affairs Division website|publisher=International Affairs Division, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date=12 September 2012|archive-date=31 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331213354/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Aichi_mou_0.PDF|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Ankara]], Turkey (2012)<ref>{{cite web|title= Friendship and cooperation agreement between Bangkok Metropolitan Administration of the Kingdom of Thailand and the Greater Ankara Municipality of the Republic of Turkey|date= 21 March 2012|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Angara.pdf|author1= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|author2= Greater Ankara Municipality|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 11 April 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190411202948/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Angara.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Astana]], Kazakhstan (2004)<ref>{{cite web|title= Agreement on establishment of bilateral relations between the Akimat of Astana City of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the City of Bangkok of Kingdom Thailand|date= 11 June 2004|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Astana.pdf|author1= Akimat of Astana City|author2= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 22 May 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140522233535/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Astana.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Beijing]], China (1993)<ref>{{cite web|title= Agreement on the Establishment of Sister City Relations between Bangkok Metropolitan Administration of the Kingdom of Thailand and the Beijing Municipality of the People's Republic of China|date= 26 May 1993|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Beijing.pdf|author1= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003103709/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Beijing.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[City of Brisbane|Brisbane]], Australia (1997)<ref>{{cite web|title= Memorandum of Understanding between the City of Bangkok, The Kingdom of Thailand and the City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia|date= 7 May 1997|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Brisbane.pdf|author1= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|author2= City of Brisbane|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003103630/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Brisbane.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Budapest]], Hungary (1997)<ref>{{cite web|title= Letter of Intent of Cooperation between Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) and Local Government of Budapest|date= 20 February 1997|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Budapest.pdf|author1= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|author2= Local Government of Budapest|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003103548/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Budapest.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Busan]], South Korea (2011)<ref>{{cite web|title= Busan Metropolitan City – Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Agreement on the Establishment of a Friendship City Relationship|date= 14 March 2011|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Busan.pdf|author1= Busan Metropolitan City|author2= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003112344/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Busan.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Chaozhou]], China (2005)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://office.bangkok.go.th/iad/eng/viewpage.php?page_id=38 |title=Agreement of Sister City Relations |publisher=Office.bangkok.go.th |access-date=27 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501041551/http://office.bangkok.go.th/iad/eng/viewpage.php?page_id=38 |archive-date=1 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Agreement between Chaozhou City, the People's Republic of China and Bangkok, Kingdom of Thailand on the Establishment of Sister City Relations|date= 23 November 2005|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Chaozhou.pdf|author1= Chaozhou City|author2= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003112431/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Chaozhou.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Chengdu]], China (2017)<ref>{{cite web |title=Agreement on The Establishment of Friendly City Relations Between The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, The Kingdom of Thailand and The Chengdu Municipal People's Government, The People's Republic of China |date=10 May 2017 |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/AGREEMENT%20ON%20THE%20ESTABLISHMENT%20OF%20FRIENDSHIP%20CITY%28Eng%29.PDF |author1=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |author2=Chengdu Municipal People's Government |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401054635/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/AGREEMENT%20ON%20THE%20ESTABLISHMENT%20OF%20FRIENDSHIP%20CITY(Eng).PDF |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Chongqing]], China (2011)<ref>{{cite web|title= Agreement between Chonqing Municipality of the People's Republic of China and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration of the Kingdom of Thailand on the establishment of sister-city relationship|date= 26 September 2011|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Chongqing.pdf|author1= Chonqing Municipality|author2= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003112400/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Chongqing.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Daegu]], South Korea (2017)<ref>{{cite web |title=Agreement on The Establishment of Friendship City Relations Between The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, The Kingdom of Thailand and The Daegu Metropolitan Government, The Republic of Korea |date=17 August 2017 |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Agreementon%20The%20Establishment%20Of%20Friendship%20City%20Relations%20Eng.pdf |author1=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |author2=Daegu Metropolitan City |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-date=23 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823171805/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Agreementon%20The%20Establishment%20Of%20Friendship%20City%20Relations%20Eng.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Dalian]], China (2016)<ref>{{cite web |title=Memorandum of Understanding on the Establishment of Friendly Relations between The City of Dalian The People's Republic of China and The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration The Kingdom of Thailand |date=19 July 2016 |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/MoU%20Dalian%20%283%20copies%29.pdf |author1=The City of Dalian |author2=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-date=8 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408191355/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/MoU%20Dalian%20%283%20copies%29.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Fukuoka Prefecture]], Japan (2006)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/en/showsister_cities?id=40|title=Relationship with Sister Cities: Fukuoka|author=International Affairs Division|work=International Affairs Division website|publisher=International Affairs Division, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date=12 September 2012|archive-date=15 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715161416/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/en/showsister_cities?id=40}}</ref>
* [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], Malaysia (2012)<ref>{{cite web|title= Memorandum of understanding between Municipal Council of Penang Island of Malaysia and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration of the Kingdom of Thailand on the establishment of friendly cities|date= 5 April 2012|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/GeorgeTown.pdf|author1= Municipal Council of Penang Island|author2= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003103700/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/GeorgeTown.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Guangzhou]], China (2009)<ref name="Guangzhou">{{cite web|url=http://www.gzwaishi.gov.cn/Item/3970.aspx |title=Sister Cities of Guangzhou |publisher=Guangzhou Foreign Affairs Office |access-date=10 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020140927/http://www.gzwaishi.gov.cn/Item/3970.aspx |archive-date=20 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Agreement on the establishment of sister city relations between Bangkok, Kingdom of Thailand and City of Guangzhou, the People's Republic of China|date= 13 November 2009|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Guangzhou.pdf|author1= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|author2= City of Guangzhou|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003103613/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Guangzhou.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Hanoi]], Vietnam (2004)<ref>{{cite web|title= Agreement on cooperative and friendship relations between Hanoi Capital City and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|date= 25 February 2004|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Hanoi.pdf|author1= Hanoi Capital City|author2= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003103940/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Hanoi.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Ho Chi Minh City]], Vietnam (2015)<ref>{{cite web |title=Agreement on Establishment Friendly Relations between The People's Committee of Ho Chi Minh City The Socialist Republic of Vietnam and The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration The Kingdom of Thailand |date=3 April 2015 |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/HCM_Eng_0.pdf |author1=People's Committee of Ho Chi Minh City |author2=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-date=8 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008055158/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/HCM_Eng_0.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Huế]], Vietnam (2016)<ref>{{cite web |title=Memorandum of understanding between The People's Committee of Hue City The Socialist Republic of Vietnam and The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration The Kingdom of Thailand |date=5 August 2016 |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Mou%20Hue.pdf |author1=People's Committee of Huế City |author2=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-date=19 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219222251/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Mou%20Hue.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Jakarta]], Indonesia (2002)<ref>{{cite web |title=Memorandum of understanding between Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, Kingdom of Thailand and the Jakarta Capital City Administration, Republic of Indonesia concerning sister city cooperation |date=21 January 2002 |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/jakarta%5B1%5D.pdf |author1=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |author2=Jakarta Capital City Administration |access-date=12 September 2012 |archive-date=3 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003112455/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/jakarta%5B1%5D.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Lausanne]], Switzerland (2009)<ref>{{cite web|title= Accord de fraternité entre La Ville de Lausanne Capitale du Canton de Vaud Confédération Helvétique et La Ville de Bangkok Royaume de Thaïlande|date= 29 December 2009|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Lausanne%5B1%5D.pdf|author1= City of Lausanne|author2= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003112414/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Lausanne%5B1%5D.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Lisbon]], Portugal (2016)<ref>{{cite web |title=Friendship And Co-Operation Agreement between The City of Lisbon Portugal Republic and The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Kingdom of Thailand |date=19 July 2016 |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/10021601.PDF |author1=The City of Lisbon |author2=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |access-date=1 February 2018 |archive-date=8 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008074713/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/10021601.PDF |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Manila]], Philippines (1997)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.manila.gov.ph/localgovt.htm#sistercities |title=Existing Sister Cities |publisher=City of Manila |access-date=2 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806191943/http://www.manila.gov.ph/localgovt.htm |archive-date=6 August 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Sister city friendship affiliation|date= 24 June 1997|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Manila.doc|author1= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|author2= City of Manila|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003103816/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Manila.doc|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Moscow]], Russia (1997)<ref>{{cite web|title= Protocol of friendly ties between the cities of Bangkok and Moscow|date= 19 June 1997|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Moscow.pdf|author1= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|author2= City of Moscow|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 5 August 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190805065125/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Moscow.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Porto]], Portugal (2016)<ref>{{cite web |title=Memorandum of understanding between The Municipality of Porto Portugal Republic and The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Kingdom of Thailand |date=5 August 2016 |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Agreement%20Bangkok%20%20Porto%20EN_0.PDF |author1=The Municipality of Porto |author2=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331213343/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Agreement%20Bangkok%20%20Porto%20EN_0.PDF |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Phnom Penh]], Cambodia (2013)<ref>{{cite web|title= Memorandum of understanding between Municipality of Phnom Penh Kingdom of Cambodia and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Kingdom of Thailand|date= 4 January 2013|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Phnom%20Penh.jpg|author1= Municipality of Phnom Penh|author2= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 9 November 2019|archive-date= 8 October 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161008074726/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Phnom%20Penh.jpg|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Saint Petersburg]], Russia (1997)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eng.gov.spb.ru/figures/ities |title=St. Petersburg in figures > International and Interregional Ties |publisher=Eng.gov.spb.ru |access-date=27 June 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20090224073839/http://eng.gov.spb.ru/figures/ities |archive-date=24 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Protocol on Cooperation between the City of Bangkok (the Kingdom of Thailand) and the City of St. Petersburg (the Russian Federation)|date= 20 June 1997|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/St%27%20Petersburg.pdf|author1= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|author2= City of St.Petersburg|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 8 April 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200408191355/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/St%27%20Petersburg.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Seoul]], South Korea (2006)<ref>{{cite web|title= Sister City Agreement between the Seoul Metropolitan Government, Republic of Korea and the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, the Kingdom of Thailand|date= 16 June 2006|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Seoul.pdf|author1= Seoul Metropolitan Government|author2= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003103603/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Seoul.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Shandong]], China (2013)<ref>{{cite web |title=Memorandum of understanding between People's Government of Shandong Province People's Republic of China and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Kingdom of Thailand |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/16011400_0.PDF |author1=People's Government of Shandong Province |author2=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121084133/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/16011400_0.PDF |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Shanghai]], China (2012)<ref>{{cite web|title= Memorandum on Friendly Cooperation and Exchange between Foreign Affairs Office, Shanghai Municipal People's Government People's Republic of China and International Affairs Division, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Kingdom of Thailand|date= 17 December 2012|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/seanghai.pdf|author1= Foreign Affairs Office, Shanghai Municipal|author2= International Affairs Division, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 9 November 2019|archive-date= 9 November 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191109190814/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/seanghai.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Shenzhen]], China (2015)<ref>{{cite web|title=Bangkok|date=10 July 2015|url=http://www.sz.gov.cn/en_szgov/govt/cities/friendship/content/post_1312661.html|author1=The City of Shenzhen|access-date=24 June 2022|archive-date=24 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220624085411/http://www.sz.gov.cn/en_szgov/govt/cities/friendship/content/post_1312661.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Tehran]], Iran (2012)<ref>{{cite web |title=Memorandum of understanding between Tehran Municipality Islamic Republic of Iran and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Kingdom of Thailand |date=6 December 2012 |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/th/showsister_cities?id=102 |author1=Tehran Municipality |author2=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-date=1 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601005056/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/th/showsister_cities?id=102 }}</ref>
* [[Tianjin]], China (2012)<ref>{{cite web|title= Agreement between Tianjin Municipal Government of the People's Republic of China and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration of the Kingdom of Thailand on the establishment of friendship exchanges and cooperative relationship|date= 27 February 2012|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Tianjin.pdf|author1= Tianjin Municipal Government|author2= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003112129/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Tianjin.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
* [[Ulaanbaatar]], Mongolia (2017)<ref>{{cite web |title=Agreement on the Establishment of Sister City Relations Between The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, The Kingdom of Thailand and The City of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia |date=27 July 2017 |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Agreement%20Bangkok-Ulaanbaatar_Eng.pdf |author1=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |author2=Ulaanbaatar |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-date=23 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823171550/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Agreement%20Bangkok-Ulaanbaatar_Eng.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Vientiane]], Laos (2004)<ref>{{cite web|title= บันทึกว่าด้วยความร่วมมือ ระหว่างนครหลวงเวียงจันทน์และกรุงเทพมหานคร|date= 24 May 2004|url= http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Vientiane.pdf|author1= City of Vientiane|author2= Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date= 12 September 2012|archive-date= 3 October 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181003112113/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/sites/default/files/Vientiane.pdf|url-status= live}}</ref>
* [[Washington, D.C.]], United States (1962, 2002)<ref>{{cite web|title=Resolution: Sister City Affiliation of Washington, D.C. and Bangkok, Thailand|date=19 February 1962|url=http://os.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/os/publication/attachments/OS_DC_Bangkok_Agreement_1962.pdf|author1=District of Columbia|author2=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date=12 September 2012|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303190831/http://os.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/os/publication/attachments/OS_DC_Bangkok_Agreement_1962.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Reaffirmation agreement between Washington, D.C. and Bangkok, Thailand|date=15 July 2002|url=http://os.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/os/publication/attachments/OS_DC_Bangkok_Renewal_2002.pdf|author1=District of Columbia|author2=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|access-date=12 September 2012|archive-date=14 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714065515/https://os.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/os/publication/attachments/OS_DC_Bangkok_Renewal_2002.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Wuhan]], China (2013)<ref>{{cite web |title=Memorandum of understanding between People's Government of Wuhan Municipal People's Republic of China and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Kingdom of Thailand |url=http://iad.bangkok.go.th/th/showsister_cities?id=105 |author1=People's Government of Wuhan Municipal |author2=Bangkok Metropolitan Administration |access-date=9 November 2019 |archive-date=18 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418101251/http://iad.bangkok.go.th/th/showsister_cities?id=105 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{Div col end}}
==See also==
* [[Bangkok Metropolitan Region]]
* [[Outline of Bangkok]]
* [[Thai people]]
* [[World's largest cities]]
* [[Football in Bangkok]]
== Explanatory notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="BMA geo">Thavisin et al. (eds) 2006, p.&nbsp;24. Reproduced in {{cite web|url=http://www.bangkok.go.th/th/page/index.php?153-Geography_of_Bangkok&l=en |title=Geography of Bangkok |access-date=8 September 2007 |website=BMA website }}{{dead link|date=August 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
}}
=== General and cited references ===
* {{cite book|first1=Chris|last1=Baker|first2=Pasuk|last2=Phongpaichit|title=A History of Thailand|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-521-01647-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofthailan00bake}}
* {{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Annette|chapter=Wonderful, Terrible: Everyday Life in Bangkok|title=A Companion to the City|editor1-first=Gary|editor1-last=Bridge|editor2-first=Sophie|editor2-last=Vatson|pages=460–471|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2000|isbn=978-0-631-23578-1}}
* {{cite book |editor-first=Thierry |editor-last=Naudin |title=The State of Asian Cities 2010/11 |isbn=978-92-1-132274-3 |publisher=United Nations Human Settlements Programme |year=2010 |url=http://www.unescap.org/esd/apuf-5/documents/sacr.pdf |access-date=25 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119175347/http://www.unescap.org/esd/apuf-5/documents/SACR.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2013}}
* {{cite book |author=Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) |title=Gross Regional and Provincial Product chain volume measures 1995–2010 edition |url=http://www.nesdb.go.th/Portals/0/eco_datas/account/gpp/2010/All%20GPP%20Book%202010p.zip |format=ZIP/PDF |date=August 2012 |publisher=Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board |access-date=25 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204201228/http://www.nesdb.go.th/Portals/0/eco_datas/account/gpp/2010/All%20GPP%20Book%202010p.zip |archive-date=4 February 2013}}
* {{cite book|editor1-first=Nathanon|editor1-last=Thavisin|editor2-first=Pongsak|editor2-last=Semson|editor3-first=Kriengpol|editor3-last=Padhanarath|title=Your Key to Bangkok|year=2006|publisher=International Affairs Division, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration|place=Bangkok|isbn=978-974-9565-72-8|url=http://office.bangkok.go.th/iad/eng/viewpage.php?page_id=17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002125223/http://office.bangkok.go.th/iad/eng/viewpage.php?page_id=17|archive-date=2 October 2013}}
* {{cite book|author=Traffic and Transportation Department|title=สถิติจราจร ปี 2553 (Traffic statistics, 2010)|year=2011|url=http://203.155.220.150/abc/Book%20Jarajon.pdf|publisher=Traffic and Transportation Department, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration}}{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Cornwel-Smith |first1=Philip |title=Very Bangkok; In the City of the Senses |date=2020 |publisher=River Books |location=Bangkok |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/life/arts-and-entertainment/1862459/a-love-letter-to-a-city-in-flux|isbn=978-616-451-043-2 |access-date=21 February 2020 |type=Book review}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ünaldi |first1=Serhat |title=Working Towards the Monarchy; The Politics of Space in Downtown Bangkok|date=May 2016 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-5572-7 |edition=Hardcover |url=https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/working-towards-the-monarchy-the-politics-of-space-in-downtown-bangkok/ |access-date=31 May 2019}}
* {{cite book |last1=Van Beek |first1=Steve |title=News from the 90s; Bangkok 1890–1899 |date=2018 |publisher=ปิยวีร์ รื่นจินดา |location=Bangkok |isbn=978-616-93171-0-4 |url=https://www.asiabooks.com/news-from-the-90s-bangkok-1890-1899-225724.html |access-date=2018-11-24}}
==External links==
<!--Wikipedia is not a web directory-->
{{Sister project links|voy=Bangkok|d=Q1861}}
* {{official website|https://main.bangkok.go.th/}} – Bangkok Metropolitan Administration
* [http://www.bangkoktourist.com/ bangkoktourist.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512184003/http://www.bangkoktourist.com/ |date=12 May 2017 }} – Official travel guide by the BMA Culture, Sports and Tourism Department
* [https://www.tourismthailand.org/About-Thailand/Destination/Bangkok Destination: Bangkok] at Tourism Authority of Thailand
{{Geographic location
|Centre    = Bangkok
|North     = [[Pathum Thani province]]
|Northeast =
|East      = [[Chachoengsao province]]
|Southeast = [[Samut Prakan province]]
|South     = ''[[Bay of Bangkok]]''
|Southwest = [[Samut Sakhon province]]
|West      = [[Nakhon Pathom province]]
|Northwest = [[Nonthaburi province]]
}}
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