View source for Betel

{{Short description|Species of plant}}
{{Distinguish|betel nut|text=[[betel nut]], which is the fruit of the areca palm}}
{{About||the mixture of betel leaf and areca nut|Betel nut chewing|the biblical place|Bethel}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Piper betle plant.jpg
| image2 = Betel Piper betle.jpg
| genus = Piper
| species = betle
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
'''Betel''' ('''''Piper betle''''') is a species of flowering plant in the pepper family [[Piperaceae]], native to Southeast Asia. It is an evergreen, [[dioecious]]<ref name="RimandoHan1986"/> vine, with glossy heart-shaped leaves and white [[catkin]]s. Betel plants are cultivated for their leaves which are most commonly used as flavoring in chewing [[areca nut]].
==Etymology==
The term [[wikt:betel|betel]] was derived from the Tamil/[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] word ''vettila'' via Portuguese.<ref>{{Cite OED | betel }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Portuguese Vocables in Asiatic Languages: From the Portuguese Original of M S R Dalgado |year=1988 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |location=New Delhi |isbn=812060413X}}</ref>
==Distribution==
''Piper betle'' is originally native to Southeast Asia, from [[India]], [[Philippines]], [[Timor-Leste]] and [[Indonesia]] and [[Peninsular Malaysia]] to [[Indochina]], [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], and [[Myanmar]]. Its cultivation has spread along with the [[Austronesian expansion|Austronesian migrations]] and [[Austronesian maritime trade network|trade]] to other parts of [[Island Southeast Asia]], [[Papua New Guinea]] and [[Melanesia]], [[Micronesia]], [[South Asia]], the [[Maldives]], [[Mauritius]], [[Réunion Island]], and [[Madagascar]]. It was introduced during the [[Colonial Era]] to the [[Caribbean]] by [[Indo-Caribbeans|Indian indentured immigrants]].<ref name="powo">{{cite web |title=''Piper betle'' L. |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/680605-1 |website=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=23 April 2022}}</ref><ref name="Zumbroich2007">{{cite journal |last1=Zumbroich |first1=Thomas J. |title=The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond |journal=eJournal of Indian Medicine |date=2007–2008 |volume=1 |pages=87–140 |url=https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162}}</ref>
==Cultivation==
[[File:Arecanutconsum1.PNG|thumb|left|350px|Betel leaf and Areca nut consumption in the world.]]
The betel leaf is cultivated mostly in South and Southeast Asia, from [[India]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Betel-leaf farming in coastal area|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/33381/betel-leaf-farming-in-coastal-area|access-date=30 October 2014|work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]|date=13 May 2002}}</ref> to [[Papua New Guinea]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Cassey|first1=Brian|title=Chewing over a betel ban|url=http://www.smh.com.au/world/chewing-over-a-betel-ban-20131108-2x6ra.html|access-date=30 October 2014|work=Sydney Morning Herald|date=9 November 2013}}</ref> It needs a compatible tree or a long pole for support. Betel requires well-drained fertile soil. Waterlogged, [[Soil salinity|saline]] and [[alkali soil]]s are unsuitable for its cultivation.<ref name=LK/>
In [[Bangladesh]], farmers called ''barui''<ref name="barouj">{{cite book |last=Karim |first=ASM Enayet |year=2012 |chapter=Pan1 |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Pan1 |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> prepare a garden called a ''barouj'' in which to grow betel. The ''barouj'' is fenced with [[bamboo]] sticks and [[coconut]] leaves. The soil is plowed into furrows of 10 to 15&nbsp;m length, 75&nbsp;cm in width and 75&nbsp;cm depth. [[Press cake|Oil cakes]], [[manure]], and leaves are thoroughly incorporated with the [[topsoil]] of the furrows and [[wood ash]]. The cuttings are planted at the beginning of the [[monsoon]] season.
[[File:Betel Plant.JPG|thumb|Betel plant cultivation in Bangladesh]]
[[File:Betel in Kolkata market.jpg|thumb|Betel leaves in Kolkata market, West Bengal, India]]
Proper shade and [[irrigation]] are essential for the successful cultivation of this crop. Betel needs constantly moist soil, but there should not be excessive moisture. Irrigation is frequent and light, and standing water should not remain for more than half an hour.
Dried leaves and wood ash are applied to the furrows at fortnightly intervals and cow dung slurry is sprinkled. Application of different kinds of leaves at monthly intervals is believed advantageous for the growth of the betel. In three to six months, the vines reach 150 to 180&nbsp;cm in height, and they will branch. Harvest begins with the farmer plucking the leaf and its [[Petiole (botany)|petiole]] with his right thumb. The harvest lasts 15 days to one month. The betel plant has made its way to research labs of many Bangladesh chemical and food nutrition companies.
The harvested leaves are consumed locally and exported to other parts of Asia, the Middle East, Europe, and the Americas. Betel is grown and cultivated as an important crop in rural Bangladesh.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}}
==Cultural significance==
{{Main|Betel nut chewing}}
The primary use of betel leaf is as a wrapper for the [[paan|chewing]] of [[areca nut]], or in modern times, [[tobacco]], where it is mainly used to add flavour. The practice originated in the [[Philippines]] around 5,000 years ago, where the oldest remains of areca nuts and [[calcium]] from crushed sea shells have been found in the [[Duyong Cave]] archaeological site. It spread along with the [[Austronesian Expansion|Austronesian migrations]] to the rest of [[Southeast Asia]], [[Taiwan]], [[South China]], and [[South Asia]]. It is unknown when or why betel leaves were first combined with areca nuts, since areca nuts can be chewed alone.<ref name="Zumbroich2007"/>
While the practice of chewing Betel leaf existed even before the [[common era]], with attested references from at least the 3rd century CE, the ingredient mix (paan/ betel quid) it was chewed with changed over time.<ref name="scripta_mode_history">{{cite journal |doi=10.30674/scripta.67450  |title=Modes of betel leaf consumption in early India. |year=2015 |last1=Gutierrez |first1=Andrea |journal=[[Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis]] |url=https://journal.fi/scripta/article/view/67450/27747 |volume=26 |pages=114–34|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Areca nut]], [[Calcium hydroxide]] and [[catechu]] were the historic ingredients, as referenced in texts from 9th century CE. Tobacco started to feature in the 20th century.<ref name="scripta_mode_history"/><ref name="sa_cancer">{{cite journal |doi=10.4103/2278-330X.114120  |title=Betel leaf: Revisiting the benefits of an ancient Indian herb |year=2013 |last1=Toprani |first1=Rajendra |last2=Patel |first2=Daxesh |journal=South Asian Journal of Cancer |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=140–141|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |pmid=24455591 |pmc=3892533 |doi-access=free }}</ref>  The practice of chewing betel leaf is on the decline, and now quid consisting of tobacco, areca nut, and [[limewater]], known as [[gutka]], is more popular.<ref name="sa_cancer"/>
In [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]], a sheaf of betel leaves is traditionally offered as a mark of respect and auspicious beginnings. Occasions include greeting elders at wedding ceremonies, celebrating the New Year, and offering payment to physicians and astrologers, to whom money and/or areca nut, placed on top of the sheaf of leaves, are offered in thanks for blessings. In Bengali weddings, the bride is brought to the groom, seated on a platform and her face covered in betel leaves.
In [[Papua New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands]], the [[inflorescence]] stalk of the betel tree, known as ''daka'' or "mustard stick", is consumed together with the leaves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bicon.agriculture.gov.au/BiconWeb4.0/ImportConditions/Conditions?EvaluatableElementId=505572&Path=UNDEFINED&UserContext=External&EvaluationStateId=c07f9c08-7e77-4e40-922a-69f1723b0f6f&CaseElementPk=1426181&EvaluationPhase=ImportDefinition&HasAlerts=False&HasChangeNotices=False&IsAEP=False|title=BICON - Import Conditions - Conditions|website=bicon.agriculture.gov.au|accessdate=11 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coraltriangle.blogs.panda.org/coral-reefs/making-lime-for-betelnut-chewing-in-mbuke-manus-png|title=Making Lime for Betelnut Chewing in M'Buke, Manus, PNG|date=25 July 2010|website=WWF Coral Triangle Blog|accessdate=11 March 2023}}</ref>
It may also be used in cooking, usually raw, for its peppery taste. Use of ''binlang'', or betel, has over a 300-year history in areas of China, where it was once promoted for medicinal use.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Levin |first1=Dan |title=Despite Risks, an Addictive Treat Fuels a Chinese City |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/20/world/asia/20hunan.html |access-date=16 November 2019 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=19 August 2010}}</ref>
==Health effects==
Epidemiological studies demonstrate a close association between the incidence of cancer in India and the chewing of betel quid containing tobacco, areca nut, limewater and betel leaf.<ref name="tata_eug">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0278-6915(86)90065-7  |title=Hydroxychavicol: A new phenolic antimutagen from betel leaf |year=1986 |last1=Amonkar |first1=A.J. |last2=Nagabhushan |first2=M |last3=D'Souza |first3=A.V. |last4=Bhide |first4=S.V. |journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0278691586900657#! |volume=24 |issue=12 |pages=1321–1324|pmid=3100406 }}</ref> Chewing paan (betel quid) is strongly associated with a higher risk of developing [[head and neck cancer]],<ref name="NCIfact">{{cite web |date=29 March 2017 |title=Head and Neck Cancers |url=https://www.cancer.gov/types/head-and-neck/head-neck-fact-sheet |website=[[National Cancer Institute|NCI]] |access-date=7 February 2021}}</ref> as well as [[Oropharyngeal cancer|oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC)]], a form of cancer that affects the [[Oropharynx|mouth, tonsils, and throat]].<ref name="StatPearls 2020">{{cite book |last1=A |first1=Fatima |last2=Zohaib |first2=J |title=Definitions |chapter=Oropharyngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma |date=4 December 2020 |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563268/ |work=StatPearls |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |edition=Updated |id=Bookshelf ID: NBK563268 |doi=10.32388/G6TG1L |pmid=33085415 |s2cid=229252540 |via=[[NCBI]] |access-date=7 February 2021}}</ref> Attempts have been made to confirm the [[carcinogen]]ic/ [[mutagen]]ic of betel quid or its ingredients. Betel leaf extract alone has not been shown to cause adverse effects. Smokeless tobacco products have been shown to exhibit mutagenic and carcinogenic behavior.<ref name="oup">{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/carcin/8.5.741  |title=Mutagenic activity in smokeless tobacco products sold in the USA |year=1987 |last1=Guttenplan |first1=Joseph B. |journal=Carcinogenesis |url=https://academic.oup.com/carcin/article/8/5/741/2478262?login=true |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=741–743|pmid=3581433 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1001/jama.1941.02820190006002  |title=The etiologic role of chewing tobacco in cancer of the mouth: Report of eight cases treated with radiation |year=1941 |last1=Friedell |first1=H.L. |last2=Rosenthal |first2=L.M. |journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/248673 |volume=116 |issue=19 |pages=2130–2135}}</ref>
A scientific study from Japan found that lab rats that ate a mixture of betel leaf and areca nuts had severe thickening of the upper digestive tract, whereas after a diet of betel leaves alone, only one laboratory rat developed a forestomach [[papilloma]].<ref name="DoiBF">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF01964368 |title=Carcinogenicity examination of betel nuts and piper betel leaves |year=1979 |last1=Mori |first1=H. |last2=Matsubara |first2=N. |last3=Ushimaru |first3=Y. |last4=Hirono |first4=I. |journal=Experientia |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=384–5 |pmid=446629|s2cid=30379485 }}</ref> Multiple studies demonstrate that betel quid without added tobacco also causes esophageal cancer, and in some instances, liver cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(09)70326-2  |title=A review of human carcinogens—Part E: tobacco, areca nut, alcohol, coal smoke, and salted fish |year=2009 |first1=Béatrice |last1=Secretan |first2=Kurt |last2=Straif |first3=Robert |last3=Baan |first4=Yann |last4=Grosse |first5=Fatiha |last5=El Ghissassi |first6=Véronique |last6=Bouvard |first7=Lamia |last7=Benbrahim-Tallaa |first8=Neela |last8=Guha |first9=Crystal |last9=Freeman |first10=Laurent |last10=Galichet |first11=Vincent |last11=Cogliano |journal=The Lancet Oncology |url=https://academic.oup.com/carcin/article/8/5/741/2478262?login=true |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1033–1034|pmid=19891056 }}</ref>
In a cancer diagnosis patterns study with patients that chewed betel quid with different ingredient combinations, the risk was found to be the highest for those using any form of tobacco.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1054/bjoc.2001.1920  |title=Betel nut and tobacco chewing; potential risk factors of cancer of oesophagus in Assam, India |year=2001 |last1=Phukan |first1=R. K. |last2=Ali |first2=M. S. |last3=Chetia |first3=C. K. |last4=Mahanta |first4=J. |journal=British Journal of Cancer |volume=85 |issue=5 |pages=661–667|pmid=11531248 |pmc=2364125 }}</ref>  [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (IARC) and the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) accept the scientific evidence that chewing tobacco and areca nut is [[carcinogenic]] to humans.<ref name=WHOCancer>{{cite book|title=Betel-quid and areca-nut chewing and some areca-nut-derived Nitrosamines|author=IARC Working Group|publisher=The World Health Organization|url=http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol85/mono85.pdf|isbn=9789283215851}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008: the MPOWER package |year=2008 |publisher=World Health Organization |location=Geneva |isbn=978-92-4-159628-2 |url=https://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_full_2008.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308173338/http://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_full_2008.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 8, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1136/bmj.324.7341.799 |title=Areca nut use: An independent risk factor for oral cancer |year=2002 |last1=Warnakulasuriya |first1=S. |journal=BMJ |volume=324 |issue=7341 |pages=799–800 |pmid=11934759 |last2=Trivedy |first2=C |last3=Peters |first3=TJ |pmc=1122751}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Bhavana J. |last1=Dave |first2=Amit H. |last2=Trivedi |first3=Siddharth G. |last3=Adhvatyu |year=1992 |title=Role of areca nut consumption in the cause of oral cancers. A cytogenetic assessment |journal=Cancer |volume=70 |issue=5 |pages=1017–23 |pmid=1515978 |doi=10.1002/1097-0142(19920901)70:5<1017::AID-CNCR2820700502>3.0.CO;2-#|s2cid=196365532 }}</ref> As with [[chewing tobacco]], chewing betel quid with tobacco and areca nut is discouraged by [[preventive healthcare]] efforts.<ref name="StatPearls 2020"/>
Reports suggest that betel leaf by itself has beneficial effects, in part because of its anti-mutagenic effects against mutagens (tobacco and areca nut) in betel quid.<ref name="tata_eug"/> While earlier studies hypothesized a potential mutagenic role for betel leaf in causing oral cancers, subsequent studies invalidated it by isolating compounds ([[eugenol]] and [[hydroxychavicol]]) in betel leaf that have anti-mutagenic roles.<ref name="Doi">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0027-5107(78)90266-X |title=Chromosome-damaging effect of betel leaf |year=1978 |last1=Sadasivan |first1=G. |last2=Rani |first2=Gulab |last3=Kumari |first3=C.Kusuma |journal=Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=183–5 |pmid=661839|bibcode=1978MRFMM..57..183S }}</ref><ref name="tata_eug"/>  These compounds were also found to reduce the carcinogenic burden imposed by tobacco and areca nut.<ref name="tata_clet">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0304-3835(89)90077-3  |title=Anticarcinogenic effect of betel leaf extract against tobacco carcinogens
|year=1989 |last1=Padma |first1=P.R |last2=Lalitha |first2=V.S. |last3=Amonkar |first3=A.J. |last4=Bhide |first4=S.V. |journal=Cancer Letters |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835%2889%2990077-3 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=195–202|pmid=2731162
}}</ref><ref>Morton, J. F. (1992). Widespread tannin intake via stimulants and masticatories, especially guarana, kola nut, betel vine, and accessories (pp. 739–765). Springer USA</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.18632/aging.102565  |title=Stimulation of MMP-9 of oral epithelial cells by areca nut extract is related to TGF-β/Smad2-dependent and –independent pathways and prevented by betel leaf extract, hydroxychavicol and melatonin
|year=2019 |last1=Chang |first1=Mei-Chi |last2=Pan |first2=Yu-Hwa |last3=Wu |first3=Hsyueh-Liang |last4=Lu |first4=Yi-Jie |last5=Liao |first5=Wan-Chuen |last6=Yeh |first6=Chien-Yang |last7=Lee |first7=Jang-Jaer |last8=Jeng |first8=Jiiang-Huei |journal=Aging (Albany NY) |volume=11 |issue=23 |pages=11624–11639 |pmid=31831717|pmc=6932916 }}</ref> Hydroxychavicol is found to demonstrate anti-prostate cancer efficacy in an in vitro (human prostate cancer cells) and in vivo ( BALB/c nude mice) study.<ref name="prost">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.taap.2014.07.012  |title=Hydroxychavicol, a betel leaf component, inhibits prostate cancer through ROS-driven DNA damage and apoptosis
|year=2014 |last1=Reddy Gundalaa |first1=Sushma |last2=Yang |first2=Chunhua |last3=Mukkavilli |first3=Rao |last4=Paranjpe |first4=Rutugandha |last5=Brahmbhatt |first5=Meera |last6=Pannu |first6=Vaishali |last7=Cheng |first7=Alice |last8=Reid |first8=Michelle D. |last9=Aneja |first9=Ritu |journal=Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology
|volume=280 |issue=1 |pages=86–96|pmid=25064160
|pmc=4363134 |bibcode=2014ToxAP.280...86G
}}</ref>
Assessment tools for betel-quid chewing have been developed to address its complex behavioral and cultural aspects. The Reasons for Betel-quid Chewing Scale (RBCS) identifies key motivational factors driving its use, offering insight into users' reasons for chewing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Little |first1=Melissa A |last2=Pokhrel |first2=Pallav |last3=Murphy |first3=Kelle L |last4=Kawamoto |first4=Crissy T |last5=Suguitan |first5=Gil S |last6=Herzog |first6=Thaddeus A |date=2014-06-03 |title=The reasons for betel-quid chewing scale: assessment of factor structure, reliability, and validity |journal=BMC Oral Health |volume=14 |pages=62 |doi=10.1186/1472-6831-14-62 |doi-access=free |issn=1472-6831 |pmc=4059468 |pmid=24889863}}</ref> Although various scales exist to measure betel quid dependency, more comprehensive and validated tools are still needed to assess this dependency effectively across different populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Deshpande |first1=Ashwini |last2=Nagi |first2=Ravleen |last3=Byatnal |first3=Amit |last4=Lingappa |first4=Ashok |last5=Ashok |first5=Sujatha |last6=Sahu |first6=Pitambra |date=2023 |title=Instruments to Measure Betel Quid Dependency among Young and Adult Chewers – A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis |journal=Contemporary Clinical Dentistry |language=en |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=180–190 |doi=10.4103/ccd.ccd_101_23 |doi-access=free |issn=0976-237X |pmc=10699192 |pmid=38075534}}</ref> The Self-Rating Screening Test for Areca Abusers (SSTAA) is designed to detect betel quid abuse by evaluating psychosocial dysfunction and craving.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=M-J |last2=Yang |first2=Y-H |last3=Shieh |first3=T-Y |date=2002-07-01 |title=Evaluation of a self-rating screening test for areca quid abusers in Taiwan |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0033350602900661 |journal=Public Health |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=195–200 |doi=10.1038/sj.ph.1900861 |pmid=12087477 |issn=0033-3506}}</ref> Betel Year is a metric introduced to quantify lifetime exposure to betel quid chewing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rajakumar |first1=Hamrish Kumar |last2=Coimbatore Sathyabal |first2=Varsha |last3=Jabarulla |first3=Kolsamma Nasrin |last4=Balamurugesan |first4=Pushpa |date=2024-08-01 |title=Development and validation of betel-year: a clinical tool for quantifying exposure to betel quid chewing, utilizing nuclear morphometric analysis and validated by cytomorphological analysis |journal=BMC Cancer |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=930 |doi=10.1186/s12885-024-12685-w |doi-access=free |issn=1471-2407 |pmc=11293172 |pmid=39090612}}</ref> This is an initial pilot effort with calls for further research to explore the carcinogenic potential of other additives and to refine the metric for broader application.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rajakumar |first1=Hamrish Kumar |last2=Coimbatore Sathyabal |first2=Varsha |date=2024-02-20 |title=A call for the development of a clinical tool to quantify lifetime betel quid exposure, inspired by the pack-years concept in smoking— Betel-years |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jop.13521 |journal=Journal of Oral Pathology & Medicine |language=en |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=172–173 |doi=10.1111/jop.13521 |pmid=38379255 |issn=0904-2512}}</ref>
==Chemical composition==
Chemistry of betel leaf varies geographically and is mostly [[chavibetol]] dominant.<ref name="RimandoHan1986">{{cite journal|last1=Rimando|first1=Agnes M.|last2=Han|first2=Byung Hoon|last3=Park|first3=Jeong Hill|last4=Cantoria|first4=Magdalena C.|title=Studies on the constituents of Philippine ''Piper betle'' leaves|journal=Archives of Pharmacal Research|volume=9|issue=2|year=1986|pages=93–97|issn=0253-6269|doi=10.1007/BF02857217|s2cid=98263258}}</ref><ref name="NepaliBetelConstituent">{{Cite journal|url=https://aromaticplant.org/pdfs/piper-betle.pdf|title=Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Nepalese Piper betle L.|accessdate=11 March 2023}}</ref> [[Safrole]] is a major component of Sri Lankan ''Piper betle''.<ref name="pmid22279373">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arambewela LS, Arawwawala LD, Kumaratunga KG, Dissanayake DS, Ratnasooriya WD, Kumarasingha SP |title=Investigations on ''Piper betle'' grown in Sri Lanka |journal=[[Pharmacognosy Reviews]] |volume=5 |issue=10 |pages=159–63 |date=July 2011 |pmid=22279373 |pmc=3263050 |doi=10.4103/0973-7847.91111  |issn= |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Eugenol]], [[isoeugenol]], and [[germacrene D]] are other dominant compounds in other chemotypes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dwivedi |first1=Vandana |last2=Tripathi |first2=Shalini |title=Review study on potential activity of Piper betle |journal=Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry |date=2014 |volume=3 |pages=93–98 |url=https://www.phytojournal.com/archives/2014/vol3issue4/PartB/17.1.pdf |access-date=27 September 2021}}</ref>
Leaves also contain [[eugenol]], [[chavicol]], [[hydroxychavicol]],<ref name="pmid19387769">{{cite journal |vauthors=Murata K, Nakao K, Hirata N, Namba K, Nomi T, Kitamura Y, Moriyama K, Shintani T, Iinuma M, Matsuda H |title=Hydroxychavicol: a potent xanthine oxidase inhibitor obtained from the leaves of betel, Piper betle |journal=[[Journal of Natural Medicines]] |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=355–9 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19387769 |doi=10.1007/s11418-009-0331-y |s2cid=19647900 |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid30169967">{{cite journal |vauthors=Atiya A, Sinha BN, Lal UR |title=The new ether derivative of phenylpropanoid and bioactivity was investigated from the leaves of Piper betle L |journal=[[Natural Product Research]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=638–645 |date=March 2020 |pmid=30169967 |doi=10.1080/14786419.2018.1495634 |s2cid=52139286 |issn=|url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/7037525 }}</ref> and [[caryophyllene]].<ref name="NepaliBetelConstituent" />
Stems contain [[phytosterols]] ([[β-sitosterol]], [[daucosterol|β-daucosterol]], [[stigmasterol]] etc.), [[alkaloids]] ([[piperine]], [[pellitorine]], [[piperdardine]], [[guineensine]] etc.), [[lignan]] ([[pinoresinol]]) and other components. Some of them are [[oleanolic acid]], dehydropipernonaline, piperolein-B, bornyl ''cis''-4-hydroxycinnamate and bornyl ''p''-coumarate.<ref name="pmid19764326">{{cite journal |vauthors=Yin Y, Huang XZ, Wang J, Dai JH, Liang H, Dai Y |title=[Studies on the chemical constituents of the stems of Piper betle] |language=Chinese |journal= Zhong Yao Cai = Zhongyaocai = Journal of Chinese Medicinal Materials |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=887–90 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19764326 |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21137339">{{cite journal |vauthors=Huang X, Yin Y, Huang W, Sun K, Cheng C, Bai L, Dai Y |title=[Alkaloids and lignans from stems of Piper betle] |language=Chinese |journal= Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi = Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi = China Journal of Chinese Materia Medica |volume=35 |issue=17 |pages=2285–8 |date=September 2010 |pmid=21137339 |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid32466337">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wu YJ, Su TR, Chang CI, Chen CR, Hung KF, Liu C |title=(+)-Bornyl p-Coumarate Extracted from Stem of Piper betle Induced Apoptosis and Autophagy in Melanoma Cells |journal=[[International Journal of Molecular Sciences]] |volume=21 |issue=10 |date=May 2020 |page=3737 |pmid=32466337 |pmc=7279146 |doi=10.3390/ijms21103737 |issn=|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="pmid29734677">{{cite journal |vauthors=Yang TY, Wu YJ, Chang CI, Chiu CC, Wu ML |title=The Effect of Bornyl cis-4-Hydroxycinnamate on Melanoma Cell Apoptosis Is Associated with Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress |journal=[[International Journal of Molecular Sciences]] |volume=19 |issue=5 |date=May 2018 |page=1370 |pmid=29734677 |pmc=5983650 |doi=10.3390/ijms19051370 |issn=|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Roots contain aristololactam A-II, a [[phenylpropene]], 4-allyl resorcinol and a diketosteroid stigmast-4-en-3,6-dione.<ref name="pmid18007349">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ghosh K, Bhattacharya TK |title=Chemical constituents of ''Piper betle'' Linn. (Piperaceae) roots |journal=[[Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)]] |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=798–802 |date=August 2005 |pmid=18007349 |pmc=6147577 |doi=10.3390/10070798 |url= |issn= |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Its [[essential oil]] consists of 50 different compounds, of which major components are eugenol, caryophyllene, [[terpinolene]], [[terpinene]], [[cadinene]], and [[3-carene]].<ref name="DasParida2016">{{cite journal|last1=Das|first1=Suryasnata|last2=Parida|first2=Reena|last3=Sandeep|first3=I. Sriram|last4=Kar|first4=Basudev|last5=Nayak|first5=Sanghamitra|last6=Mohanty|first6=Sujata|title=Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of some important betel vine landraces|journal=Biologia|volume=71|issue=2|year=2016|pages=128–132|issn=1336-9563|doi=10.1515/biolog-2016-0030|bibcode=2016Biolg..71..128D |s2cid=88132584}}</ref>
==Economics==
[[File:Betel leaves for selling in the market 01.jpg|thumb|Betel leaves for selling in the market]]
[[File:পান পাতা.jpg|thumb|Betel in [[Bangladesh]]]]
[[File:A Bengali woman selling betel leaves at Howrah station.jpg|thumb|A Bengali woman selling betel leaves in Howrah]]
Betel vines are cultivated throughout southeast Asia, in plots typically 20 to 2,000 square metres (0.005 to 0.5 acre) in size.
Malaysian farmers cultivate four types of betel plants: sirih India, sirih Melayu, sirih Cina and sirih Udang. The harvest is then sold in bundles of leaves, each bundle costing in 2011 between MYR 0.30 and 0.50 ($0.07 and $0.12).
In Sri Lanka, betel is grown all over the country. Commercial production of betel, with bigger leaves with dark green colour combined with thickness, known as “kalu bulath”, is confined to a few districts, such as [[Kurunegala District|Kurunagala]], [[Gampaha District|Gampaha]], [[Kegalle District|Kegalle]], [[Kalutara District|Kalutara]] and [[Colombo District|Colombo]].<ref name=LK>{{cite web |title= Betel – Piper Betle L |author= Government of Sri Lanka |url= http://www.exportagridept.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=126&Itemid=159&lang=ta |access-date= 2011-07-31 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160514054345/http://www.exportagridept.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=126&Itemid=159&lang=ta |archive-date= 2016-05-14 |url-status= dead }}</ref> These are sold at a wholesaler in lots of 1,000 leaves. According to a report published by the [[United Nations]] [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO),<ref>{{cite web|title = Success Case Replication – A Manual for Increasing Farmer Household Income, see case study 12 in the report|author=Jan B. Orsini|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/AC159E/ac159e00.HTM}}</ref> a successful betel farm in Sri Lanka can provide a supplemental income to a farmer by providing six days of work every six months and net income when the leaf prices are attractive.<ref>{{cite web|title=Life in the hill country of Sri Lanka|publisher=The Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations|url=http://www.fao.org/getinvolved/telefood/telefood-projects/slideshows/life-in-the-hill-country-of-sri-lanka/en/ }}</ref>
The FAO study found the successful farm's yield to be 18,000 leaves per {{convert|150|sqft|m2}}. The additional salary and income to the Sri Lankan betel grower, assuming he or she provides all needed labor and keeps all net profit, is SL Rs. 1635 per {{convert|150|sqft|m2}} of betel farm every 6 months ($90 per "[[decimal]]" per year, or $9000 per acre per year). If the farmer hires outside labor to tend the betel vines and harvest the crop, the net income to the betel farm owner was SL Rs. 735 per {{convert|150|sqft|m2}} of betel farm every six months ($40 per decimal per year, or $4000 per acre per year). The market prices for betel leaves vary with the wet and dry seasons in Sri Lanka, and in 2010 averaged SL Rs. 200–400 per 1,000 leaves ($1.82 to $3.64 per 1000 leaves).<ref>{{cite web|title=Life in the hill country of Sri Lanka|publisher=The Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations|url=http://www.fao.org/getinvolved/telefood/telefood-projects/slideshows/life-in-the-hill-country-of-sri-lanka/en/ }}</ref> The FAO study assumes no losses from erratic weather and no losses during storage and transportation of perishable betel leaves. These losses are usually between 35% and 70%.<ref name=GUHA/>
In Bangladesh, betel leaf farming yields vary by region and vine variety. In one region where betel leaf cultivation is the main source of income for farmers, a total of 2,825 hectares of land is dedicated to betel vine farming.<ref>{{cite news |title= Betel-leaf farming benefiting farmers |url= http://theindependentbd.com/national/48153-betel-leaf-farming-benefiting-farmers.html |newspaper=The Independent |location=Dhaka |date=6 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315001729/http://theindependentbd.com/national/48153-betel-leaf-farming-benefiting-farmers.html |archive-date=15 March 2012}}</ref> The average production costs for these betel farms in Bangladesh are about Tk 300,000 per hectare ($4,000 per hectare, $16 per decimal). The farm owners can earn a profit of over Tk 100,000 per hectare ($1,334 per hectare, $5.34 per decimal).
In India, a 2006 research reported<ref name=GUHA>{{cite journal |author= P. Guha| year= 2006| title= Betel Leaf – The neglected green gold of India| volume= 19| issue= 2| pages= 87–93| url = http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JHE/JHE-19-0-000-000-2006-Web/JHE-19-2-000-000-2006-Abstract-PDF/JHE-19-2-087-093-2006-1405-Guha-P/JHE-19-2-087-093-2006-1405-Guha-P-Text.pdf#search=%22betel%20leaf%20neglected%20gold%22}}</ref> betel vines being cultivated on about 55,000 hectares of farmland, with an annual production worth of about IN Rs. 9000 million ($200 million total, averaging $1,455 per acre). The betel farming industry, the report claims, supports about 400,000 – 500,000 agricultural families.
A March 2011 report claims that betel farming is on a decline in India.<ref name=CSE1>{{cite web|title= Too costly to grow| publisher= CSE|url = http://www.downtoearth.org.in/content/too-costly-grow }}</ref> While in ideal conditions some farms may gross annual incomes after expenses of over IN Rs. 26,000 per 10 decimal farm ($5,780 per acre), a betel farm's income is highly erratic from year to year, due to varying rainfall patterns, temperature, and spoilage rates of 35% to 70% during transport over poor infrastructure.<ref name= GUHA/> Simultaneously, the demand for betel leaves has been dropping in India due to acceptance of gutkha (chewing tobacco) by consumers over betel leaf-based ‘‘paan’’ preparation.<ref>{{cite web|title= Paan loses flavour|publisher= CSE|url= http://www.downtoearth.org.in/content/paan-loses-flavour }}</ref> The report cites betel leaf trading has dropped by 65% from 2000 to 2010 and created an oversupply. As a result, the report claims Indian farmers do not find betel farming lucrative anymore.<ref name=CSE1/>
==See also==
*[[Kava]]
*[[Khat]]
*[[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia]]
{{Gallery
|title=Objects and Historical Representation
|width=220 | height=220
|align=center
|File:Tamul Paan2.jpg
|Assamese 'Paan-Tamul' tradition.
|File:Trầu cánh phượng.jpg
|A [[Phoenix (mythology)|Phoenix]] wing shaped- betel leaf plate in [[Vietnam]].
|File:Sac à bétel MHNT ETH AC NG 17 Savès.jpg
|Betel bag, New Guinea, nineteenth century [[MHNT]].
|File:William Alexander, A Chinese Peasant Selling Betel, 1793-1794, NGA 143722.jpg
|A Chinese Peasant Selling Betel, 1793-1794, by William Alexander, Department of Prints and Drawings, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.
}}
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=40em}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite web|url=https://oxford.academia.edu/ThomasZumbroich |title=Zumbroich, Thomas J. 2008. The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: A synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond. E-Journal of Indian Medicine 1(3): 87–140}}
* 'The Art of Chewing Betel', in: Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, ''Ancient Chiang Mai'' Volume 3. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012. ASIN: B006IN1RNW
*{{cite journal |first=P. |last=Guha |title=Betel leaf: The neglected green gold of India |journal=J. Hum. Ecol. |volume=19 |issue=2 |year=2006 |url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JHE/JHE-19-0-000-000-2006-Web/JHE-19-2-000-000-2006-Abstract-PDF/JHE-19-2-087-093-2006-1405-Guha-P/JHE-19-2-087-093-2006-1405-Guha-P-Text.pdf#search=%22betel%20leaf%20neglected%20gold%22 }}
*{{cite journal |first1=Urmila J. |last1=Nair |first2=Günter |last2=Obe |first3=Marlin |last3=Friesen |first4=Mark T. |last4=Goldberg |first5=Helmut |last5=Bartsch |title=Role of Lime in the Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species from Betel-Quid Ingredients |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |jstor=3431271 |pmid=1486850 |year=1992 |volume=98 |pages=203–5 |pmc=1519632 |doi=10.1289/ehp.9298203 }}
*The Merck Manual. Tumours of The head and neck. [http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec08/ch093/ch093a.html Introduction to Inner Ear Disorders - Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders]
*[http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol85/index.php Betel-quid and Areca-nut Chewing and Some Areca-nut-derived Nitrosamines], from ''IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans'', Volume 85 (2004)
*[http://oehha.ca.gov/prop65/docs_admin/arecanutbetelist.pdf California adds Betel and Areca nut to the list of substances known to cause cancer under TOXIC ENFORCEMENT ACT OF 1986]
== External links ==
{{wiktionary}}
* {{Commons-inline}}
{{Non-timber forest products}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q159532}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Piper (plant)]]
[[Category:Flora of the Indian subcontinent]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Dioecious plants]]
[[Category:Austronesian agriculture]]