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{{Short description|Second book of the Bible}}
{{About|the second book of the Torah and the Old Testament|the Israelite migration narrative|The Exodus|other uses|Exodus (disambiguation){{!}}Exodus}}
{{redirect|Exodus 4|the single|Exodus '04}}
{{Tanakh OT |Torah |Pentateuch}}
The '''Book of Exodus''' (from {{langx|grc|Ἔξοδος|translit=Éxodos}}; {{langx|hbo|שְׁמוֹת}} ''Šəmōṯ'', 'Names'; {{langx|la|Liber Exodus}}) is the second book of the [[Bible]]. It is a [[narrative]] of [[the Exodus]], the [[origin myth]] of the [[Israelites]] leaving [[slavery]] in [[Biblical Egypt]] through the strength of their [[deity]] named [[Yahweh]], who according to the story [[Chosen people|chose them]] as his people. The Israelites then journey with the [[legend]]ary prophet [[Moses]] to [[biblical Mount Sinai|Mount Sinai]], where Yahweh gives the [[Ten Commandments]] and they enter into a [[Mosaic covenant|covenant]] with Yahweh, who promises to make them a "[[Theocracy|holy nation]], and a kingdom of priests" on condition of their faithfulness. He gives them their laws and instructions to build the [[Tabernacle]], the means by which he will come from [[heaven]] and dwell with them and lead them in a [[holy war]] to conquer [[Canaan]] (the "[[Promised Land]]"), which has earlier, according to the [[myth of Genesis]], been promised to the "seed" of [[Abraham]], the legendary patriarch of the Israelites.
Traditionally [[Mosaic authorship|ascribed to Moses]] himself, modern scholars see its initial composition as a product of the [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian exile]] (6th century BCE), based on earlier written sources and oral traditions, with final revisions in the [[Yehud Medinata|Persian post-exilic period]] (5th century BCE).{{sfn|Johnstone|2003|p=72}}{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=68}} American [[biblical scholar]] [[Carol Meyers]], in her commentary on Exodus, suggests that it is arguably the most important book in the Bible, as it presents the defining features of Israel's identity—memories of a past marked by hardship and escape, a binding covenant with their [[God]], who chooses Israel, and the establishment of the life of the community and the guidelines for sustaining it.<ref>Meyers, p. xv.</ref> The consensus of modern scholars is that the [[Pentateuch]] does not give an accurate account of the origins of the Israelites, who appear instead to have formed as an entity in the central highlands of [[Canaan]] in the late second millennium BCE (around the time of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]]) from the indigenous Canaanite culture.{{sfn|Grabbe|2017|p=36}}{{sfn|Meyers|2005|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Moore|Kelle|2011|p=81}}
==Title==
The English name ''Exodus'' comes from the {{langx|grc|ἔξοδος|translit=éxodos|lit=way out}}, from {{langx|grc|ἐξ-|translit=ex-|links=|label=none|lit=out}} and {{langx|grc|ὁδός|translit=hodós|links=|label=none|lit=path', 'road}}. In Hebrew the book's title is שְׁמוֹת, ''shemōt'', "Names", from the [[Incipit|beginning words of the text]]: "These are the names of the sons of Israel" ({{langx|he|וְאֵלֶּה שְׁמֹות בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל}}).{{sfn|Dozeman|2009|p=1}}
==Historicity ==
{{Main|Sources and parallels of the Exodus}}
[[File:Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1075 - British Library Papyrus 2053 recto - Book of Exodus 40.jpg|thumb|[[Papyrus Oxyrhynchus]] 1075, a 3rd or 4th century CE manuscript showing part of [[Exodus 40]]]]
Most mainstream scholars do not accept the biblical Exodus account as historical for a number of reasons. It is generally agreed that the Exodus stories were written centuries after the apparent setting of the stories.{{sfn|Moore|Kelle|2011|p=81}} Archaeologists [[Israel Finkelstein]] and [[Neil Asher Silberman]] argue that archaeology has not found evidence for even a small band of wandering Israelites living in the Sinai: "The conclusion – that Exodus did not happen at the time and in the manner described in the Bible – seems irrefutable [...] repeated excavations and surveys throughout the entire area have not provided even the slightest evidence".{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=63}} Instead, they argue how modern archaeology suggests continuity between Canaanite and Israelite settlements, indicating a heavily Canaanite origin for Israel, with little suggestion that a group of foreigners from Egypt comprised early Israel.{{sfn|Barmash|2015|p=4}}{{sfn|Shaw|2002|p=313}} They also argue that the exodus narrative perhaps evolved from vague memories of the [[Hyksos]] expulsion, spun to encourage resistance to the 7th century domination of Judah by Egypt.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=69}}
However, a majority of scholars believe that the story has an historical core,{{sfn|Faust|2015|p=476}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=87}} though disagreeing widely about what that historical kernel might have been.{{sfn|Geraty|2015|p=55}} Kenton Sparks refers to it as "charter myth" and "mythologized history".{{sfn|Sparks|2010|p=73}} Biblical scholar [[Graham I. Davies]] notes that several literary texts from Ancient Egypt document the presence of Semitic peoples working for building projects under the [[19th Dynasty of Egypt]], suggesting a possible historical basis for the account of Israelite servitude to the Egyptians.{{sfn|Davies|2020|p=152}} However, there is an increasing trend among scholars to see the biblical exodus traditions as the invention of the [[Babylonian exile|exilic]] and post-exilic Jewish community, with little to no historical basis.{{sfn|Russell|2009|p=11}}
== Structure ==
There is no unanimous agreement among scholars on the structure of Exodus. One strong possibility is that it is a [[diptych]] (i.e., divided into two parts), with the division between parts 1 and 2 at the [[crossing of the Red Sea]] or at the beginning of the [[theophany]] (appearance of God) in chapter 19.<ref>Meyers, p. 17.</ref> On this plan, the first part tells of God's rescue of his people from Egypt and their journey under his care to Sinai (chapters 1–19) and the second tells of the covenant between them (chapters 20–40).<ref>Stuart, p. 19.</ref>
== Summary ==
{{multiple image
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| image2            = Wanderings in the desert map.jpg
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| footer            = Historical representations of the [[Stations of the Exodus]]
}}
The text of the Book of Exodus begins after the events at the end of the [[Book of Genesis]] where [[Jacob]]'s sons and their families joined their brother [[Joseph (Genesis)|Joseph]] in [[Egypt]], which Joseph had saved from famine. It is 400 years later and Egypt's new [[Pharaoh of the Exodus|Pharaoh]], who does not remember Joseph, is fearful that the [[slavery|enslaved]] and now numerous [[Israelites]] could become a [[fifth column]]. He hardens their labor and orders the killing of all newborn boys. A [[Levite]] woman named [[Jochebed]] saves her baby by [[Finding of Moses|setting him adrift]] on the Nile in an [[ark of bulrushes]]. [[Bithiah|Pharaoh's daughter]] finds the child, names him [[Moses]], and brings him up as her own.
[[File:Dura Europos fresco Moses from river.jpg|thumb|''[[Finding of Moses]]'' in the [[Dura-Europos synagogue]], c. 244]]
Later, a grown Moses goes out to see his kinsmen. He witnesses the abuse of a Hebrew slave by an Egyptian overseer. Angered, Moses kills him and flees into [[Midian]] to escape punishment. There, he marries [[Zipporah]], daughter of  [[Jethro (Bible)|Jethro]], a Midianite priest. While tending Jethro's flock, Moses encounters God in a [[burning bush]]. Moses asks God for his name, to which God replies with three words, often translated as "[[I Am that I Am]]." This is the book's explanation for the origin of the name [[Yahweh]], as God is thereafter known. God tells Moses to return to Egypt, free the Hebrews from slavery and lead them into [[Canaan]], the land promised to the seed of [[Abraham]] in Genesis. On the journey back to Egypt, God seeks to kill Moses.  Zipporah [[circumcision|circumcises]] their son and the attack stops. ''(See [[Zipporah at the inn]].)''
Moses reunites with his brother [[Aaron]] and, returning to Egypt, convenes the [[Israelite]] elders, preparing them to go into the wilderness to worship God. Pharaoh refuses to release the Israelites from their work for the festival, and so God curses the Egyptians with [[Plagues of Egypt|ten terrible plagues]], such as a [[Plagues of Egypt#1. Turning water to blood: Ex. 7:14–24|river of blood]], an [[plague of frogs|outbreak of frogs]], and the [[Plagues of Egypt#9. Darkness for three days: Ex. 10:21–29|thick darkness]]. Moses is commanded by God to fix the spring month of [[Aviv]] at the head of the [[Hebrew calendar]]. The Israelites are to take a lamb on the 10th day of the month, [[Korban Pesach|sacrifice the lamb]] on the 14th day, daub its blood on their [[Mezuzah|mezuzot—doorposts]] and lintels, and to observe the [[Passover]] meal that night, during the full moon. The [[10th plague]] comes that night, causing the death of all Egyptian firstborn sons, prompting Pharaoh to expel the Israelites. Regretting his decision, Pharaoh commands his chariot army after the Israelites, who appear trapped at the [[Yam Suph|Red Sea]]. God [[Parting of the Red Sea|parts the sea]], allowing the Israelites to pass through, before drowning Pharaoh's pursuing forces.
[[File: ISS035-E-007148 Nile - Sinai - Dead Sea - Wide Angle View.jpg|thumb|Geography of the Book of Exodus, with the Nile River and its delta, left, the Red Sea and Sinai desert, center, and the land of Israel, upper right]]
As desert life proves arduous, the Israelites complain and long for Egypt, but God miraculously provides [[manna]] for them to eat and [[Meribah|water]] to drink. The Israelites arrive at the mountain of God, where Moses's father-in-law Jethro visits Moses; at his suggestion, Moses appoints [[Biblical judges|judges]] over Israel. God asks whether they will agree to be his people – They accept. The people gather at the foot of the mountain, and with thunder and lightning, fire and clouds of smoke, the sound of trumpets, and the trembling of the mountain, [[theophany|God appears]] on the peak, and the people see the cloud and hear the voice (or possibly sound) of God. God tells Moses to ascend the mountain. God pronounces the [[Ten Commandments]] (the [[Ethical Decalogue]]) in the hearing of all Israel. Moses goes up the mountain into the [[presence of God]], who pronounces the [[Covenant Code]] of ritual and civil law and promises [[Canaan]] to them if they obey. Moses comes down from the mountain and writes down God's words, and the people agree to keep them. God calls Moses up the mountain again, where he remains for forty days and forty nights, after which he returns, bearing the set of stone [[tablet (religious)|tablets]].
God gives Moses instructions for the construction of the [[tabernacle (Judaism)|tabernacle]] so that God may dwell permanently among his [[chosen people]], along with instructions for the [[Priestly robe (Judaism)|priestly vestments]], the altar and its appurtenances, procedures for the [[ordination]] of priests, and the daily [[sacrifice]] offerings. Aaron becomes the first [[High Priest of Israel|hereditary high priest]]. God gives Moses the two tablets of stone containing the words of the ten commandments, written with the [[Finger of God (Commandments)|"finger of God"]].<ref>{{Bibleverse|Exodus|31:18}}; {{bibleverse|Deuteronomy|9:10|9}}</ref>
[[File: Gerrit de Wet - The Adoration of the Golden Calf - WGA25563.jpg|thumb|''The Adoration of the Golden Calf'', [[Gerrit de Wet]], 17th century]]
While Moses is with God, Aaron casts a [[golden calf]], which the people worship. God informs Moses of their [[apostasy]] and threatens to kill them all, but relents when Moses pleads for them. Moses comes down from the mountain, smashes the stone tablets in anger, and commands the [[Levites]] to massacre the unfaithful Israelites. God commands Moses to construct two new tablets. Moses ascends the mountain again, where God dictates the [[Ritual Decalogue|Ten Commandments]] for Moses to write on the tablets.
Moses descends from the mountain with a [[Transfiguration (religion)|transformed face]]; from that time onwards he must hide his face with a [[veil]]. Moses assembles the Hebrews and repeats to them the commandments he has received from God, which are to keep the [[Sabbath]] and to construct the Tabernacle. The Israelites do as they are commanded. From that time God dwells in the Tabernacle and orders the travels of the Hebrews.
== Composition ==
=== Authorship ===
[[File:1867 Edward Poynter - Israel in Egypt.jpg|thumb|400px|''Israel in Egypt'' (1867 painting by [[Edward Poynter]])]]
Jewish and Christian tradition viewed [[Mosaic authorship|Moses as the author of Exodus]] and the entire [[Torah]], but by the end of the 19th century the increasing awareness of discrepancies, inconsistencies, repetitions and other features of the Pentateuch had led scholars to abandon this idea.{{sfn|Meyers|2005|p=16}} In approximate round dates, the process which produced Exodus and the Pentateuch probably began around 600 BCE when existing oral and written traditions were brought together to form books recognizable as those we know, reaching their final form as unchangeable sacred texts around 400 BCE.{{sfn|McEntire|2008|p=8}}
=== Sources ===
{{One source section
| date = August 2022
}}
Although patent mythical elements are not so prominent in Exodus as in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], ancient legends may have an influence on the book's form or content: for example, the story of the infant Moses's salvation from the Nile is argued to be based on an earlier legend of king [[Sargon of Akkad]], while the story of the [[parting of the Red Sea]] may trade on Mesopotamian [[creation myth]]ology.  Similarly, the [[Covenant Code]] (the law code in Exodus 20:22–23:33) has some similarities in both content and structure with the [[Laws of Hammurabi]]. These potential influences serve to reinforce the conclusion that the Book of Exodus originated in the exiled Jewish community of 6th-century BCE [[Babylon]], but not all the potential sources are Mesopotamian: the story of Moses's flight to Midian following the murder of the Egyptian overseer may draw on the Egyptian ''[[Story of Sinuhe]]''.{{sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=74}}
=== Textual witnesses ===
{{Main|Textual variants in the Book of Exodus}}
== Themes ==
[[File:David Roberts-IsraelitesLeavingEgypt 1828.jpg|thumb|300px|''Departure of the Israelites'' by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]] (1829)]]
=== Salvation ===
Biblical scholars describe the Bible's theologically motivated history writing as "[[salvation history]]", meaning a history of God's saving actions that give identity to Israel – the promise of offspring and land to the ancestors, [[the Exodus]] from Egypt (in which God saves Israel from slavery), the wilderness wandering, the revelation at Sinai, and the hope for the future life in the [[Promised Land]].<ref name="Dozeman">Dozeman, p. 9.</ref>
=== Theophany ===
A [[theophany]] is a manifestation (appearance) of a god – in the Bible, an appearance of the God of Israel, accompanied by storms – the earth trembles, the mountains quake, the heavens pour rain, thunder peals and lightning flashes.<ref>Dozeman, p. 4.</ref> The theophany in Exodus begins "the third day" from their arrival at Sinai in chapter 19: Yahweh and the people meet at the mountain, God appears in the storm and converses with Moses, giving him the [[Ten Commandments]] while the people listen. The theophany is therefore a public experience of divine law.<ref>Dozeman, p. 427.</ref>
The second half of Exodus marks the point at which, and describes the process through which, God's theophany becomes a permanent presence for Israel via the [[Tabernacle]]. That so much of the book (chapters 25–31, 35–40) describes the plans of the Tabernacle demonstrates the importance it played in the perception of [[Second Temple Judaism]] at the time of the text's redaction by the Priestly writers: the Tabernacle is the place where God is physically present, where, through the priesthood, Israel could be in direct, literal communion with him.<ref>Dempster, p. 107.</ref>
=== Covenant ===
[[File:The Crossing of The Red Sea.jpg|thumb|300px|''Crossing of the Red Sea'', [[Nicolas Poussin]]]]
The heart of Exodus is the [[Mosaic covenant|Sinaitic covenant]].<ref>Wenham, p. 29.</ref> A covenant is a legal document binding two parties to take on certain obligations towards each other.<ref>Meyers, p. 148.</ref> There are several covenants in the Bible, and in each case they exhibit at least some of the elements in real-life treaties of the ancient Middle East: a preamble, historical prologue, stipulations, deposition and reading, list of witnesses, blessings and curses, and ratification by animal sacrifice.<ref>Meyers, pp. 149–150.</ref> Biblical covenants, in contrast to Eastern covenants in general, are between a god, Yahweh, and a people, Israel, instead of between a strong ruler and a weaker vassal.<ref>Meyers, p. 150.</ref>
=== Election of Israel ===
God elects Israel for salvation because the "sons of Israel" are "the firstborn son" of the God of Israel, descended through Shem and Abraham to the chosen line of [[Jacob]] whose name is changed to Israel. The goal of the divine plan in Exodus is a return to humanity's state in [[Garden of Eden|Eden]], so that God can dwell with the Israelites as he had with [[Adam and Eve]] through the Ark and Tabernacle, which together form a model of the universe; in later [[Abrahamic religion]]s Israel becomes the guardian of God's plan for humanity, to bring "God's creation blessing to mankind" begun in Adam.<ref>Dempster, p. 100.</ref>
== Judaism's weekly Torah portions in the Book of Exodus ==
{{Main|Weekly Torah portion}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 079.jpg|thumb|right|upright|''[[Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law]]'', by [[Rembrandt]] (1659)]]
List of Torah portions in the Book of Exodus:<ref>[https://www.alephbeta.org/weekly-torah-portion Weekly Torah Portions]. Alephbeta</ref>
* [[Shemot (parashah)|Shemot]], on Exodus 1–5: Affliction in Egypt, discovery of baby Moses, Pharaoh
* [[Va'eira]], on Exodus 6–9: Plagues 1 to 7 of Egypt
* [[Bo (parashah)|Bo]], on Exodus 10–13: Last plagues of Egypt, first Passover
* [[Beshalach]], on Exodus 13–17: Parting the Sea, water, manna, Amalek
* [[Yitro]], on Exodus 18–20: Jethro's advice, The Ten Commandments
* [[Mishpatim]], on Exodus 21–24: The Covenant Code
* [[Terumah (parashah)|Terumah]], on Exodus 25–27: God's instructions on the Tabernacle and furnishings
* [[Tetzaveh]], on Exodus 27–30: God's instructions on the first priests
* [[Ki Tissa]], on Exodus 30–34: Census, anointing oil, golden calf, stone tablets, Moses radiant
* [[Vayakhel]], on Exodus 35–38: Israelites collect gifts, make the Tabernacle and furnishings
* [[Pekudei]], on Exodus 38–40: Setting up and filling of The Tabernacle
== See also ==
{{Portal|Bible}}
* [[List of films based on the Bible#Moses (Exodus - Deuteronomy)|Film adaptations of the Book of Exodus]]
* [[History of the Jews in Egypt#Ancient times|History of the Jews in Ancient Egypt]]
* [[Ketef Hinnom]]
* [[Song of the Sea]]
* [[List of individuals from the Book of Exodus]]
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
=== General bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
| last           = Barmash
| first          = Pamela
| chapter        = Out of the Mists of History: The Exaltation of the Exodus in the Bible
| editor1-last   = Barmash
| editor1-first  = Pamela
| editor2-last   = Nelson
| editor2-first  = W. David
| title          = Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations
| year           = 2015
| publisher      = Lexington Books
| chapter-url     = https://books.google.com/books?id=jKYlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1
| isbn           = 9781498502931
| pages          = 1–22
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Childs|first=Brevard S|title=The Book of Exodus|publisher=Eerdmans|year=1979|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7sKWo7FRAgC |isbn=9780664229689}}
* {{cite book
| last           = Collins
| first          = John J.
| title          = The Bible After Babel: Historical Criticism in a Postmodern Age
| year           = 2005
| publisher      = Eerdmans
| isbn           = 9780802828927
| url            = https://books.google.com/books?id=yqClWOhqso0C&q=%22collective+memory%22&pg=PA45
}}
* {{cite book
| last           = Davies
| first          = Graham
| editor1-last   = Day
| editor1-first  = John
| title          = In Search of Pre-exilic Israel: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar
| chapter        = Was There an Exodus?
| year           = 2004
| publisher      = Continuum
| isbn           = 9780567082060
| chapter-url    = https://books.google.com/books?id=yM_X2yzRLx4C&pg=PA23
| pages=23–40}}
* {{Cite book |title=Exodus 1-18: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary: Volume 1: Chapters 1-10 |last=Davies |first=Graham I. |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-567-68869-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mkzODwAAQBAJ |series=[[International Critical Commentary]]}}
* {{Cite book |title=Exodus 1-18: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary: Volume 2: Chapters 11-18 |last=Davies |first=Graham I. |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |year=2020b |isbn=978-0-567-68872-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-zJDwAAQBAJ |series=[[International Critical Commentary]]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Dempster|first=Stephen G|author-link=Stephen Dempster|title=Dominion and Dynasty|publisher=InterVarsity Press|year=2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G329hmhyBa8C |isbn=9780830826155}}
* {{Cite book|last=Dozeman|first=Thomas B|title=Commentary on Exodus|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRXjfa6RWPwC |isbn=9780802826176}}
* {{Cite book
|last         = Dozeman
|first        = Thomas B
|chapter      = Exodus, Book of
|editor1-first= Freedman
|editor1-last = David Noel
|editor2-first= Myers
|editor2-last = Allen C.
|title        = Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible
|publisher    = Eerdmans
|year         = 2000
|chapter-url  = https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC
|isbn         = 9789053565032
}}
* {{Cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CiqF7sVqDQcC&pg=PA73
|title       = Methods for Exodus
|last        = Dozeman
|first       = Thomas B.
|year        = 2010
|publisher   = Cambridge University Press
|isbn        = 9781139487382
|language    = en
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Faust
|first=Avraham
|author-link =Avraham Faust
|chapter=The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus
|title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience
|editor1=Thomas E. Levy
|editor2=Thomas Schneider
|editor3=William H.C. Propp
|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/11906343
|date=2015
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=978-3-319-04768-3
}}
* {{Cite book
|last1        = Finkelstein
|first1       = Israel
|author-link1 =Israel Finkelstein
|last2        = Silberman
|first2       = Neil Asher
|author-link2 = Neil Asher Silberman
|title        = The Bible Unearthed
|publisher    = Simon and Schuster
|year         = 2002
|url          = https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC
|isbn         = 9780743223386
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Fretheim|first=Terence E|title=Exodus|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1991|url=https://archive.org/details/exodus0000fret |url-access=registration|isbn=9780664237349}}
* {{cite book
|last= Geraty
|first= Lawrence T.
| author-link =Larry Geraty
|chapter=  Exodus Dates and Theories
|title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience
|editor1=Thomas E. Levy
|editor2=Thomas Schneider
|editor3=William H.C. Propp
|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xpe1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55
| pages = 55–64
|date=2015
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=978-3-319-04768-3
}}
*  {{cite book
|last1     = Grabbe
|first1    = Lester
|title     = Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?
|year      = 2017
|publisher = Bloomsbury
|url       = https://books.google.com/books?id=4lzyDQAAQBAJ
|isbn      = 978-0-567-67043-4
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Houston|first=Walter J|chapter=Exodus|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA67|editor=John Barton|title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780198755005|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordbiblecomme0000unse}}
* {{Cite book|last=Johnstone|first=William D.|chapter=Exodus|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA72 |editor=James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson|title=Eerdmans Bible Commentary|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn=9780802837110}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Kugler|first1=Robert|last2=Hartin|first2=Patrick|title=An Introduction to the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L8WbXbPjxpoC |isbn=9780802846365}}
* Levy, Thomas E., Thomas Schneider, William H.C. Propp. (2015). [https://books.google.com/books?id=xpe1BwAAQBAJ "Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience"]. Springer International Publishing.
* {{Cite book|last=McEntire|first=Mark|title=Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch|publisher=Mercer University Press|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwOs9f1FpmsC&pg=PA87 |isbn=9780881461015}}
* {{Cite book|last=Meyers|first=Carol|author-link=Carol Meyers|title=Exodus|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0QHHITXsyskC |isbn=9780521002912}}
* {{cite book
|last1         = Moore
|first1        = Megan Bishop
|last2         = Kelle
|first2        = Brad E.
|title         = Biblical History and Israel's Past
|year          = 2011
|publisher     = Eerdmans
|url           = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&pg=PA81
|isbn        = 9780802862600
}}
* {{Cite book |title="Did I Not Bring Israel Out of Egypt?": Biblical, Archaeological, and Egyptological Perspectives on the Exodus Narratives |last=Noonan |first=Benjamin J. |publisher=Penn State Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-57506-430-7 |pages=49–67 |editor-last=Hoffmeier |editor-first=James K. |chapter=Egyptian Loanwords as Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus and Wilderness Traditions |editor-last2=Millard |editor-first2=Alan R. |editor-last3=Rendsburg |editor-first3=Gary A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1DULEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49}}
* [[Gunther Plaut|Plaut, Gunther]]. ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary'' (1981), {{ISBN|0-8074-0055-6}}
* {{cite book |last= Redmount| first= Carol A.| title= The Oxford History of the Biblical World| chapter= Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt| editor-last  = Coogan | editor-first = Michael D. | year         = 2001 | orig-year    = 1998 | publisher    = OUP| isbn= 9780199881482 | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA59 |pages=58–89
}}
* {{cite book
| last           = Russell
| first          = Stephen C.
| title          = Images of Egypt in Early Biblical Literature
| year           = 2009
| publisher      = Walter de Gruyter
| url            = https://books.google.com/books?id=OMISLh2ZC08C
| isbn           = 9783110221718
}}
* {{cite book| last1 = Shaw | first1 = Ian| editor1-last = Shaw |editor1-first = Ian| editor2-last = Jameson | editor2-first = Robert| title = A Dictionary of Archaeology| chapter = Israel, Israelites| year = 2002| publisher = Wiley Blackwell| isbn =9780631235835| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&pg=PA313}}
* {{cite book
| last           = Sparks
| first          = Kenton L.
| editor1-last   = Dozeman
| editor1-first  = Thomas B.
| title          = Methods for Exodus
| chapter        = Genre Criticism
| year           = 2010
| publisher      = Cambridge University Press
| chapter-url    = https://books.google.com/books?id=CiqF7sVqDQcC&pg=PA73
| isbn           = 9781139487382
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Stuart|first=Douglas K|title=Exodus|publisher=B&H Publishing Group|year=2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8H9E00e5PSwC |isbn=9780805401028}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wenham|first=Gordon|title=The Book of Leviticus|publisher=Eerdmans|year=1979|url=https://archive.org/details/newinternational0000unse_y8f6 |url-access=registration|isbn=9780802825223}}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource|Exodus (Bible)}}
{{Commons category|Book of Exodus}}
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%201&version=ESV Exodus] at [[BibleGateway.com]]
* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0201.htm Exodus at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
* [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=2&CHAPTER=1 Exodus (The Living Torah)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610052209/http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=2&CHAPTER=1 |date=2011-06-10 }}—Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org
* [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=8161 Shemot—Exodus (Judaica Press)] translation (with [[Rashi]]'s commentary) at Chabad.org
* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0201.htm ''Shmot''] (Original [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]—English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
* {{librivox book | title=Exodus}}—Various versions
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou | [[Torah|Pentateuch]]|||}}
{{S-bef | before = [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] | rows = 2 }}
{{S-ttl | title = [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] }}
{{s-aft | after = [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]] | rows= 2 }}
{{S-ttl | title = [[Christianity|Christian]]<br>[[Old Testament]] }}
{{s-end}}
{{Books of the Bible}}
{{Ten Commandments}}
{{Book of Exodus}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Book Of Exodus}}
[[Category:Book of Exodus| ]]
[[Category:6th-century BC books]]
[[Category:5th-century BC books]]
[[Category:Books about Egypt]]
[[Category:Mythology books]]
[[Category:Torah books|2]]
[[Category:The Exodus]]