View source for Cacique

{{Short description|Hispanic term for indigenous American chief}}
{{Other uses}}
{{See also|Sachem|Weroance}}
[[File:Acuarela de Túpac Amaru II crop.jpg|thumb|right|[[Túpac Amaru II]], an Andean ''cacique''{{clarification needed|reason=intro does not include Andes within cacique region|date=March 2024}} who led [[Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II|a 1781 rebellion against Spanish rule in Peru]]]]
[[File:Cacique Cangapol.JPG|thumb|Cangapol, chief of the Tehuelches, 18th century.]]
{{Italic title}}
A '''''cacique''''', sometimes spelled as '''''cazique''''' ({{IPA|es-419|kaˈsike|lang}}; {{IPA|pt|kɐˈsikɨ, kaˈsiki|lang}}; feminine form: '''{{lang|pt|cacica}}'''), was a tribal chieftain of the [[Taíno]] people, who were the Indigenous inhabitants of the [[Bahamas]], the [[Greater Antilles]], and the northern [[Lesser Antilles]] at the time of [[European colonization of the Americas|European contact]]  with those places. The term is a [[Spanish language|Spanish]] [[transliteration]] of the [[Taíno language|Taíno]] word '''{{lang|tnq|kasike}}'''.
Cacique was initially translated as "king"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Loven|first=Sven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrIGjaQBrqwC&q=cacique+hereditary&pg=PA503|title=Origins of the Tainan Culture, West Indies|date=2010-06-27|publisher=University of Alabama Press|isbn=978-0-8173-5637-8|pages=503|language=en}}</ref> or "prince"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bailey|first=Richard W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ionfYPEkTRIC&q=cacique+prince&pg=PT32|title=Speaking American: A History of English in the United States|date=2012-01-04|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-991340-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Boissière|first=Prudence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaU_AAAAcAAJ&q=cacique+princes&pg=PA1170|title=Dictionnaire analogique de la langue française: répertoire complet des mots par les idées et des idées par les mots|date=1862|publisher=Larousse|language=fr}}</ref> for the Spanish. In the colonial era, the conquistadors and the  administrators who followed them used the word generically to refer to any leader of practically any indigenous group they encountered in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. In [[Hispanic]] and [[Lusophone]] countries, the term has also come to mean a [[political boss]], similar to a ''[[caudillo]],'' exercising power in a system of [[caciquism]].<ref>Robert Kern, ''The caciques: oligarchical politics and the system of caciquismo in the Luso-Hispanic world''. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press [1973]</ref>
==Spanish colonial-era caciques==
The [[Taíno language|Taíno]] word {{lang|tnq|kasike}} descends from the Taíno word '''{{lang|tnq|kassiquan}}''', which means "to keep house".<ref>{{cite book|title=The Catastrophe of Modernity: Tragedy and the Nation in Latin American Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=13ogR22rwocC&pg=PA136|access-date=25 June 2013|year=2004|publisher=Bucknell University Press|isbn=978-0-8387-5561-7|pages=136–}}</ref> In 1555 the word first entered the English language, defined as "prince".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bailey|first=Richard W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ionfYPEkTRIC&q=cacique+prince&pg=PT32|title=Speaking American: A History of English in the United States|date=2012-01-04|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-991340-4|language=en}}</ref>  In Taíno culture, the {{lang|tnq|kasike}} rank was hereditary<ref>{{Cite book|last=Loven|first=Sven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrIGjaQBrqwC&q=cacique+hereditary&pg=PA503|title=Origins of the Tainan Culture, West Indies|date=2010-06-27|publisher=University of Alabama Press|isbn=978-0-8173-5637-8|pages=503|language=en}}</ref> and sometimes established through democratic means. As the Taínos were mostly a peaceable culture the ''kasike''<nowiki/>'s importance in the tribe was determined by the size of his clan rather than his skills in warfare. The Taíno ''kasikes'' also enjoyed several privileges that marked them as the elite class of Taíno society: they lived in a larger rectangular hut in the center of the village, rather than the peripheral circular huts of other villagers, and they had reserved places from which to view the ''[[Areíto|areítos]]'' (ceremonial dances) and [[Batey (game)|ceremonial ball game]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuertorico.org/reference/taino.shtml |title=Taíno Indians Culture |publisher=Topuertorico.org |access-date=2012-06-19}}</ref> Most importantly, the ''kasike''<nowiki/>'s word was law and they exercised this power to oversee a sophisticated government, finely involved with all aspects of social existence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Loven|first=Sven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrIGjaQBrqwC&q=cacique+hereditary&pg=PA503|title=Origins of the Tainan Culture, West Indies|date=2010-06-27|publisher=University of Alabama Press|isbn=978-0-8173-5637-8|pages=503|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Tarja en la base de la estatua de Hatuey.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Hatuey]] monument plaque]]
The Spanish transliterated ''kasike'' and used the term (cacique) to refer to the local leader of essentially any indigenous group in [[Spanish America]].<ref>Murdo J. MacLeod, "Cacique, Caciquismo" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture''. Vol. 1, p. 505. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref> Caribbean caciques who did not initially oppose the Spanish became middlemen, serving as the interface between their communities and the Spanish. Their cooperation was frequently provisional. Most of the early caciques eventually revolted, resulting in their deaths in battle or by execution.<ref>MacLeod, "Caciques, Caciquismo", p. 505.</ref> Two of the most famous of these early colonial-era caciques are [[Hatuey]] from what is now [[Cuba]] and [[Enriquillo]] on the island of Hispaniola.<ref>[[Ida Altman]], "The Revolt of Enriquillo and the Historiography of Early Spanish America," ''The Americas'' vol. 63(4)2007, 587-614.</ref> Both are now respective national heroes in Cuba and the Dominican Republic.
The Spanish had more success when they drafted the leaders of the far more hierarchically organized indigenous civilizations of Central Mexico. These Central Mexican caciques served as more effective, and loyal, intermediaries in the new system of colonial rule. The hierarchy and nomenclature of indigenous leadership usually survived within a given community and the Spaniards' designation of caciques did not usually correspond to the hereditary or likely candidate from a given system of indigenous leadership.
As a consequence, elite indigenous men willing to cooperate with the colonial rulers replaced their rivals who had better hereditary or traditional claims on leadership.<ref>[[Charles Gibson (historian)|Charles Gibson]], ''The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519-1810'', Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964, p. 36.</ref> The Spanish recognized indigenous nobles as a European-style nobility, within the newly established colonial system and a cacique's status among the colonizers (along with that of his family) was buttressed by their being permitted the Spanish noble honorifics ''[[don (honorific)|don]]'' and ''doña''.
As colonial middlemen, caciques were often the first to introduce European material culture to their communities. This is seen in the Spanish-style houses they built, the Spanish furnishings that filled them and the European fashions they wore everywhere.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Indian women of early Mexico |date=1997 |publisher=Univ. of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-2970-9 |editor-last=Schroeder |editor-first=Susan |location=Norman, Okla.}}</ref> They engaged in Spanish commercial enterprises such as sheep and cattle ranchers and [[sericulture]]. Many even owned [[Slavery in New Spain|enslaved]] Africans to operate these concerns. The caciques also acquired new privileges, unknown before contact. These included the right to carry swords or firearms and to ride horses or mules.<ref>Horn, Rebecca. "Caciques." In [[David Carrasco|Davíd Carrasco]] (ed). ''[https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195108156.001.0001/acref-9780195108156 The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures].'' Vol 1. New York : Oxford University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|9780195108156|9780195188431}}</ref> Some caciques had entailed estates called '''''[[cacicazgo]]s'''''. The records of many of these Mexican estates are held in the Mexican national archives in a section ''Vínculos'' ("entails").<ref>Guillermo S. Fernández de Recas, ''Cacicazgos y Nobiliario Indígena de la Nueva España'', Mexico: Biblioteca Nacional de México, 1961.</ref><ref>S.L. Cline, "A ''Cacicazgo'' in the seventeenth century: The case of Xochimilco" in ''Land and Politics in the Valley of Mexico: A two-thousand-year perspective''. Ed. H.R. Harvey. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1991.</ref><ref>Guido Münch, ''El cacicazgo de San Juan Teotihuacan durante la colonia, 1521-1821''. Mexico City: SEP, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Centro de Investigaciones Superiores 1976.</ref> The establishment of Spanish-style town government (''cabildos)'' served as a mechanism to supplant traditional rule. Spanish manipulation of ''cabildo'' elections<ref>Robert Haskett, ''Indigenous Rulers: An Ethnohistory of Town Government in Colonial Cuernavaca''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1991.</ref> placed compliant members of the traditional, hereditary lineages on such ''cabildos'' town councils.<ref>MacLeod, "Cacique, Caciquismo", p. 505.</ref>
By the late colonial era in central Mexico, the term cacique had lost any dynastic meaning, with one scholar noting that "cacique status could in some degree buttress a family's prestige, but it could no longer in itself be regarded as a rank of major authority."<ref>Gibson, ''The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule'', p. 163.</ref> In a 1769 petition by a cacique family to the [[Viceroy of New Spain]], appealing for the restoration of its privileges, the following expectations were listed: "that, the cacique should be seated separately from commoners at public functions; he was excused from serving in town government; he was exempted from tribute and other exactions; he was excused from Sunday worship and payments of the half ''real;'' his servants were not liable for community labor; he was exempt from incarceration for debt and his property from sequestration; he could be imprisoned for serious crime but not in the public jail; the caciques' names were to be listed among the nobles in official registers; and "all these privileges are to apply equally to the caciques' wives and widows." With [[Mexican War of Independence|Mexican independence]] in 1821, the last of the special privileges of colonial-era caciques were finally abolished.<ref>Gibson, "The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule," pp. 164-65.</ref>
In contrast to the rest of the Spanish Colonial Americas, in the [[Andes|Andean region]] the local term ''[[kuraka]]'' was preferred to cacique. After conquering the [[Inca Empire]] the Spaniards administering the new Peruvian viceroyalty had allowed the ''kurakas'' or caciques to maintain their titles of nobility and perquisites of local rule so long as they swore fealty to the Spanish monarch.<ref name="Andagoya">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Narrative_of_the_Proceedings_of_Pedrarias_Davila/Narrative_of_Pascual_de_Andagoya|title=Narrative of the Proceedings of Pedrarias Davila|first=Pascual de|last=Andagoya|chapter=Narrative of Pascual de Andagoya |publisher=The Hakluyt Society |access-date=21 June 2019|via=Wikisource}}</ref>
In 1781, the [[Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II|Tīpac Amaru rebellion]] was led by a ''kuraka'' who claimed to be a descendant of the Inca royal line, that of the final Inca, [[Túpac Amaru]].  At independence in 1825, [[Simón Bolívar]] abolished noble titles, but the power and prestige of the ''kurakas'' were already in decline following the Great Rebellion.<ref>Cecilia Méndez, ''The Plebeian Republic: The Huanta Rebellion and the Making of the Peruvian State''. Durham: Duke University Press 2005, pp. 102-05.</ref> ''Kuraka'' rebellions had been waged since the beginning of the Spanish colonial rule, and decades after [[Túpac Amaru II]]'s 1781 uprising other insurrections such as the [[Túpac Katari]] or the [[Mateo Pumacahua|Mateo Pumakawa]] uprisings were often the first major engagements of the South American Wars of Independence.
== Cacicas in colonial Mexico ==
Cacicas played significant roles as female leaders and entrepreneurs within [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|indigenous Mexican communities.]] These women held titles independently, distinct from their husbands, and did not lose their status if they married outside their rank.<ref name=":0" /> Cacicas possessed financial insight, engaging in business transactions like property dealings and managing financial networks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Melton-Villanueva |first=Miriam |date=April 2018 |title=Cacicas, Escribanos, and Landholders: Indigenous Women’s Late Colonial Mexican Texts, 1703–1832 |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=65 |pages=297-322}}</ref> They owned valuable assets including land, homes, and livestock, often securing the best and most fertile territories.
Despite their entrepreneurial focus, cacicas also wielded considerable authority, acknowledged by native communities, the [[Monarchy of Spain|Spanish Crown]], and the [[Catholic Church]]. Their status rivaled high-ranking Spanish men, with privileges like special treatment at religious ceremonies and even distinguished burial sites. This recognition extended beyond their ancestors, surpassing the rank of notable figures such as [[Isabel Moctezuma]] and her lineage.
The multifaceted roles of cacicas highlight their integral contributions to Mexican society under Spanish rule, demonstrating their adeptness in economic enterprise, societal leadership, and cultural influence across indigenous communities.[[File:Cacique Lloncon aprox. 1890.jpg|thumb|[[Mapuche]] cacique ([[lonko]]) Lloncon, southern Chile, around 1890]]
==''Caciquismo'' and ''caudillismo''==
An extension of the term cacique, ''caciquismo'' ("boss rule") can refer to a political system dominated by the power of local [[political bosses]], the caciques. In the post-independence period in Mexico, the term retained its meaning of "indigenous" leaders, but also took on a more general usage of a "local" or "regional" leader as well.<ref>[[John Lynch (historian)|John Lynch]], ''Caudillos in Spanish America: 1800-1850''. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1992, p.6.</ref><ref>Mark Wasserman, ''Capitalists, caciques, and revolution: the native elite and foreign enterprise in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1854-1911''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.</ref>  Some scholars make a distinction between ''[[caudillos]]'' ([[strongman (political)|political strongmen]]) and their rule, ''caudillismo'', and caciques and ''caciquismo''.<ref>Fernando Díaz Díaz, ''Caudillos y caciques: Antonio López de Santa Anna y Juan Álvarez''. Mexico, 1972, 3-5.</ref> One Argentine intellectual, Carlos Octavio Bunge viewed ''caciquismo'' as emerging from anarchy and political disruption and then evolving into a "pacific" form of "civilized caciquismo", such as Mexico's [[Porfirio Díaz]] (r. 1876–1911).<ref>Carlos Octavio Bunge, "Caciquismo in Our America" (1918), in Hugh M. Hamill, ed. ''Caudillos: Dictators in Spanish America''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1992, p. 172.</ref> Argentine writer Fernando N.A. Cuevillas views ''caciquismo'' as being "nothing more than a special brand of tyrant".<ref>Fernando N.A. Cuevillas, "A Case for Caudillaje and Juan Perón" in Hugh M. Hamill, ed. ''Caudillos'', p. 287.</ref>
In Spain, ''caciquismo'' appeared in the [[Spain under the Restoration|late 19th-century and early 20th-century Spain]].<ref>{{cite book|first= José|last= Varela Ortega|title= El poder de la influencia: Geografía del caciquismo en España: (1875–1923)|publisher= Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales|year= 2001|isbn= 978-84-259-1152-1|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QY99T3Mg5ykC}}</ref>
Writer Ramón Akal González views [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] in northwest of Spain, as having remained in a continual state of strangulated growth over centuries as a result of ''caciquismo'' and nepotism. "Galicia still suffers from this anachronistic caste of caciques."<ref>Ramón Akal González, ''Obra Completa II'', 1977, p. 111.</ref> Spanish strongman [[Caudillo|El Caudillo]] [[Francisco Franco]] (1892-1975) was born in [[Ferrol, Galicia|Ferrol]] in Galicia.
In the Philippines, the term ''[[cacique democracy]]'' was coined by [[Benedict Anderson]].<ref>Benedict Anderson, '[https://newleftreview.org/I/169/benedict-anderson-cacique-democracy-and-the-philippines-origins-and-dreams Cacique Democracy in the Philippines: Origins and Dreams]', ''New Left Review'', I (169), May–June 1988</ref> It has been used to describe the political system where in many parts of the country local leaders remain very strong, with almost warlord-type powers.<ref>Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20121230062711/http://whynationsfail.com/blog/2012/12/26/cacique-democracy.html Cacique Democracy']}}</ref> The Philippines was a colony of [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] from the late sixteenth century until the [[Spanish–American War]] of 1898, when the United States assumed control. The U.S. administration subsequently introduced many commercial, political and administrative reforms. They were sometimes quite progressive and directed towards the modernization of government and commerce in the Philippines. However, the local traditional Filipino elites, being better educated and better connected than much of the local population, were often able to take advantage of the changes to bolster their positions.
There is no consensus in the scholarly literature about the origins of ''caciquismo''. [[Murdo J. MacLeod]] suggests that the terms cacique and ''caudillo'' "either require further scrutiny or, perhaps, they have become so stretched by the diversity of explanations and processes packed into them that they have become somewhat empty generalizations".<ref>MacLeod, "Cacique, Caciquismo", p. 506</ref>
==Taínos==
{{main|List of Taínos}}
[[File:Smithsonian 1901 map of Puerto Rico caciques.png|thumb|A map by ''[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]'' of territories historically governed by different caciques in [[Puerto Rico]]]]
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Agüeybaná (The Great Sun)|Agüeybaná]] (The Great Sun)
* [[Agüeybaná II]] (The Brave)
* [[Anacaona]]
* [[Arasibo]]
* [[Brizuela]]
* [[Caguax]]
* [[Comerío]]
* [[Enriquillo]]
* [[Guacanagarix]]
* [[Guamá]]
* [[Guarionex]]
* [[Habaguanex]]
* [[Hatuey]]
* [[Hayuya]]
* [[Huarea]]
* [[Jumacao]]
* [[Loquillo (chief)|Loquillo]]
* [[Orocobix]]
* [[Urayoán]]
{{div col end}}
==Notable native caciques of the Americas==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Agüeybaná I]] of the Taino of Puerto Rico
* [[Agüeybaná II]] of the Taino of Puerto Rico
* [[Aquiminzaque]] of the Muisca of Chunsa
* [[Arariboia]] of the Temininós of Espírito Santo
* [[Arasibo]] of the Taino of Puerto Rico
* [[Atlácatl]] of the Pipil of El Salvador
* [[Carlos (Calusa)|Carlos]] of the [[Calusa]]
* [[Catacora]] of Acora and Puno
* [[Caguax]] of the Taino of Puerto Rico
* [[Chacao (cacique)|Chacao]] of Venezuela
* [[Correque]] of the Huetar of Costa Rica
* [[Cunhambebe]] of the Tupinambás of São Paulo
* [[Diriangén]] of the Chorotega of Nicaragua
* [[El Guarco]] of the Huetar of Costa Rica
* [[El Quibían]] of the Ngäbe of Panama
* [[Felipe Camarão]] of the Potiguara
* [[Garabito]] of the Huetar of Costa Rica
* [[Don Gonzalo Mazatzin Moctezuma|Gonzalo Mazatzin Moctezuma]] of Mexico
* [[Guaicaipuro]] of the Teques and Caracas
* [[Guamá]] of the Taino of Cuba
* [[Guaicaipuro]] of Venezuela
* [[Guarionex]] of the Taino of Hispaniola
* [[Hatuey]] of the Taino of Hispaniola
* [[Idacansás]] of the Muisca of Colombia
* [[Inacayal]] of the Tehuelche
* [[Jumacao]] of the Taino of Puerto Rico
* [[Juan de Lebu]] of the Moluche of Chile
* [[Lempira (Lenca ruler)|Lempira]] of the Lenca of Honduras
* [[Nicarao (cacique)|Macuilmiquiztli]] of the Nicarao of Nicaragua
* [[María la Grande|María]] of the Tehuelche of Patagonia
* [[Orocobix]] of the Taino of Puerto Rico
* [[Saguamanchica]] of the Muisca of Muyquytá
* [[Saturiwa]] of the Timucua
* [[Sepé Tiaraju]] of the Guarani Missions
* [[Tamanaco]] of the Mariches and Quiriquires
* [[Tibiriçá]] of the Tupiniquims of São Paulo
* [[Urracá]] of the Ngäbe of Panama
* [[Urriparacoxi]] of central Florida
{{div col end}}
==See also==
*[[Caciques in Puerto Rico]]
*''[[Caudillo]]''
*[[Gregorio de San Juan]]
*''[[Kalku]]''
*''[[Lonko]]''
*[[Machi (shaman)|''Machi'']]
*[[Gregor MacGregor]], he claimed to be cacique of Poyais, a fictional Central American country
*[[European colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Guaicaipuro]]
==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}
==Further reading==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*Abercrombie, Thomas A. "Tributes to Bad Conscience: Charity, Restitution, and Inheritance in Cacique and Encomendero Testaments of Sixteenth-Century Charcas" in ''Dead Giveaways: Indigenous Testaments of Colonial Mesoamerica and the Andes'', Susan Kellogg and [[Matthew Restall]], eds. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press 1998, pp.&nbsp;249–289.
*Anderson, Benedict. "Cacique Democracy in the Philippines: Origins and Dreams", ''New Left Review'', I (169), May–June 1988
*Bartra, Roger et al.,''Caciquismo y poder político en el México rural''. 8th ed. Mexico: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1986.
*''Caciquismo in twen[t]ieth-century Mexico''. London: Institute for the Study of the Americas, 2005.
*Chance, John K. (1996) "The Caciques of Tecali: Class and Ethnic Identity in Late Colonial Mexico." ''[[Hispanic American Historical Review]]'' 76(3):475-502.
*Chance, John K.(1998) "La hacienda de los Santiago en Tecali, Puebla: Un cacicazgo naua colonial, 1520-1750." ''Historia Mexicana'' 47(4):689-734.
* Cline, S.L. “A Cacicazgo in the Seventeenth Century: The Case of Xochimilco” In ''Land and Politics in Mexico'', H.R. Harvey, University of New Mexico Press 1991, pp.&nbsp;265–274
*Costa y Martínez, Joaquín, ''Oligarquía y caciquismo: como la forma actual de gobierno en España, urgencia y modo de cambiarla''. Zaragoza: Guara Editorial, 1982.
*Costa y Martínez, Joaquín, ''Oligarquía y caciquismo: colectivismo agrario y otros escritos'' (antología). Madrid : Alianza Editorial, c1967.
*de la Peña, Guillermo. "Poder local, poder regional: perspectivas socio-antropológica." In ''Poder local: poder region'', Eds. Jorge Padua and Alain Vanneph. Mexico City: Colegio de México-CEMCA 1986..
*Díaz Rementería, Carlos J. ''El cacique en el virreinato del Perú: estudio histórico-jurídico''. Sevilla: Universidad de Sevilla, 1977.
*Dutt, Rajehwari. ''Maya Caciques in Early National Yucatán''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2017.
*Falcón, Romana. ''Revolución y caciquismo: San Luis Potosí, 1910-1938''.  México, D.F.: Centro de Estudios Históricos, Colegio de México, 1984.
*Fernández de Recas, Guillermo S., ''Cacicazgos y nobiliario indígena de la Nueva España''. México : 351 pp. Serie:   Instituto Bibliográfico Mexicano. Publicación 1961.
*''Forced marches soldiers and military caciques in modern Mexico''. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2012
*Friedrich, Paul. "The Legitimacy of a Cacique". In ''Local-Level Politics: Social and Cultural Perspectives'', ed. by Marc J. Swartz. Chicago: Aldine 1968.
*[[Charles Gibson (historian)|Gibson, Charles]]. "The Aztec aristocracy in colonial Mexico." [[Comparative Studies in Society and History]] 2, no. 2 (1960): 169–196.
*Girón, Nicole. ''Heraclio Bernal, bandolero, cacique o precursor de la Revolución?''. México : Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, SEP, Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, 1976.
*Heine, Jorge. ''The last cacique: leadership and politics in a Puerto Rican city''. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993.
*Hoekstra, Rik. 2010. "A Colonial Cacicazgo: The Mendozas of Seventeenth-Century Tepexi de la Seda." ''European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies'' 89:87-106.
*Joseph, Gilbert M. "Caciquismo and the Revolution: Carrillo Puerto in Yucatán" in ''Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution'', 1980
*Kern, Robert, ''The caciques: oligarchical politics and the system of caciquismo in the Luso-Hispanic world''. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press [1973]
*[[Murdo J. MacLeod|MacLeod, Murdo J.]], "Cacique, Caciquismo" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 1, pp.&nbsp;505–06. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
*Martínez Assad, Carlos, ed. ''Estadistas, caciques, y caudillos''. Mexico City: UNAM-IIS 1998.
*Menengus Borneman, Margarita and Rodolfo Aguierre Salvador eds. ''El Cacicazgo en Nueva España. Mexico: UNAM - Plaza y Valdés 2005.
*Ouweneel, Arij. 1995. "From ''Tlahtocayotl'' to ''Governadoryotl'': A Critical Examination of Indigenous Rule in 18th-century Central Mexico." ''[[American Ethnologist]]'' 22(4):756-85.
*Ramírez, Susan, "The 'Dueños de Indios': Thoughts on the Consequences of the Shifting Bases of Power of the 'Curaca de los Viejos' Under the Spanish in Sixteenth-Century Peru," ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 67, no. 4 (1987):575-610.
* Roniger, Luis, "Caciquismo and Coronelismo: Contextual Dimensions of Patron Brokerage in Mexico and Brazil." ''Latin American Research Review'' Vol. 22, No. 2 (1987), pp. 71-99
* Saignes, Thierry. ''Caciques, tribute, and migration in the southern Andes: Indian society and the seventeenth-century colonial order''. Trans. Paul Garner. London: University of London 1985.
*Salmerón Castro, Fernando. "Caciquismo" in ''Encyclopedia of Mexico'', vol. 1, pp. 177-179. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
* Spores, Ronald. "Mixteca cacicas: Status, wealth, and the political accommodations of the native elite women in early colonial Oaxaca" in ''Indian Women of Early Mexico'', ed. Susan Schroeder et al. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1997.
*Tusell, Javier, ''Oligarquía y caciquismo en Andalucía (1890-1923)''. Barcelona : Editorial Planeta, 1976.
*Villella, Peter B. "“Pure and Noble Indians, Untainted by Inferior Idolatrous Races”: Native Elites and the Discourse of Blood Purity in Late Colonial Mexico." ''[[Hispanic American Historical Review]]'' 91, no. 4 (2011): 633-663.
*Wasserman, Mark, ''Capitalists, caciques, and revolution: the native elite and foreign enterprise in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1854-1911''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.
*Wilson, Samuel M. ''Hispaniola: Caribbean Chiefdoms in the Age of Columbus''. 1990.
*Wood, Stephanie. "Testaments and Títulos: Conflict and Coincidence of Cacique and Community Interests in Central Mexico" in ''Dead Giveaways: Indigenous Testaments of Colonial Mesoamerica and the Andes'', Susan Kellogg and [[Matthew Restall]], eds. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press 1998, pp.&nbsp;85–111.
*Zeitlin, Judith Francis, and Lillian Thomas. "Spanish justice and the Indian cacique: disjunctive political systems in sixteenth-century Tehuantepec." Ethnohistory (1992): 285–315.
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[[Category:Titles and offices of Native American leaders]]
[[Category:Titles of nobility in South America]]
[[Category:Titles of nobility in North America]]
[[Category:Taíno leaders|.]]
[[Category:Tribal chiefs|*]]
[[Category:Latin American history]]
[[Category:Spanish colonization of the Americas]]
[[Category:Spanish words and phrases]]
[[Category:Authoritarianism]]
[[Category:Tribal chiefs of the Caribbean]]