View source for Canada–United States relations

{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox bilateral relations
| Canada–United States
| Canada|USA|filetype=svg
| mission1 = [[Embassy of Canada, Washington, D.C.]]
| mission2 = [[Embassy of the United States, Ottawa]]
| envoytitle1 = [[List of ambassadors of Canada to the United States|Canadian Ambassador to the United States]]
| envoy1 = [[Kirsten Hillman]]|envoytitle2 =[[List of ambassadors of the United States to Canada|American Ambassador to Canada]]
| envoy2 = [[David L. Cohen]]
}}
Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on [[History of Canada|its history]], [[Economy of Canada|economy]], and [[Culture of Canada|culture]].<ref>
*{{cite journal | last=Mckenna | first=Peter | title=Canada, the United States, and the Organization of American States | journal=American Review of Canadian Studies | volume=29 | issue=3 | date=1999 | issn=0272-2011 | doi=10.1080/02722019909481638 | pages=473–493|quote=this important and complex relationship,}}
*{{cite web | title=Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada-US Relations | website=Oxford University Press | url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/reconcilable-differences-a-history-of-canada-us-relations-9780195447071?cc=us&lang=en& |quote=Reconcilable Differences provides students with a contemporary look at the often complex relationship between Canada and the United States from 1763 to today, using the most recent scholarship available.}}
*{{cite web | title=Canada and the United States | website=The Canadian Encyclopedia | date=June 11, 2020 | url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canada-and-the-united-states | quote="The Americans are our best friends whether we like it or not." This statement, uttered in the House of Commons by  Robert Thompson, the leader of the Social Credit Party early in the 1960s, perhaps best captures the essence of Canada's complex relationship with its nearest neighbor.}}
*{{cite web | last1=Shull | first1=Aaron | last2=Tandt | first2=Michael Den | title=Is US President Joe Biden Good or Bad for Canada? | website=Centre for International Governance Innovation | date=December 13, 2021 | url=https://www.cigionline.org/articles/is-us-president-joe-biden-good-or-bad-for-canada/ | quote=Canadians have a complex relationship with the United States. }}
*{{cite web | title=Dispute Resolution in the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement: One Element of a Complex Relationship | website=McGill Law Journal | date=September 18, 2018 | url=https://lawjournal.mcgill.ca/article/dispute-resolution-in-the-canada-united-states-free-trade-agreement-one-element-of-a-complex-relationship/}}
*{{cite web | last=Hale | first=Geoffrey | title=So Near Yet So Far | publisher=UBC Press | date=November 1, 2012 | url=https://www.ubcpress.ca/so-near-yet-so-far | quote=How do politicians, diplomats, and interest groups negotiate the tangled web of Canada–US relations? So Near Yet So Far provides an in-depth look at the multiple dimensions of this complex relationship..}}
*{{cite web | title=A Canadian Agenda for the USA: Obama and Beyond | website=Canadian Global Affairs Institute | date=August 1, 2018 | url=https://www.cgai.ca/a_canadian_agenda_for_the_usa | quote=Complex and Complicated but Mutually-Beneficial Relationship Ours is a very complex relationship building, as John F. Kennedy remarked, on ties of history, geography, economics, security, and deep people-to-people relationships.}}
*{{cite web | title="The U.S. Studies Program at The University of British Columbia will significantly increase our understanding of the United States and its institutions and policies through critical research, teaching, and public outreach, making a tremendous contribution to Canada's complex relationship with the U.S."| website=usstudies | date=January 16, 2013 | url=https://usstudies.arts.ubc.ca/}}</ref> The two countries consider themselves among the "closest [of] allies".<ref>
*{{Cite web |last=Canada |first=Global Affairs |date=2022-11-24 |title=Canada's Indo-Pacific Strategy |url=https://www.international.gc.ca/transparency-transparence/indo-pacific-indo-pacifique/index.aspx?lang=eng |access-date=2023-10-21 |website=GAC}}
*{{Cite web |last=House |first=The White |date=2021-02-24 |title=Remarks by President Biden and Prime Minister Trudeau of Canada in Joint Press Statements |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2021/02/23/remarks-by-president-biden-and-prime-minister-trudeau-of-canada-in-joint-press-statements/ |access-date=2023-10-21 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref> They share the longest [[Canada–United States border|border]] ({{convert|8,891|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}) between any two nations in the world,<ref>{{cite news|title=The Canada–U.S. border: by the numbers|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/the-canada-u-s-border-by-the-numbers-1.999207|website=cbc.ca|publisher=CBC/Radio-Canada|access-date=March 23, 2016|date=December 7, 2011}}
*{{cite web|url=http://thelongestlistofthelongeststuffatthelongestdomainnameatlonglast.com/long263.html|title=The world's longest border|access-date=April 1, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704012434/http://thelongestlistofthelongeststuffatthelongestdomainnameatlonglast.com/long263.html|archive-date=July 4, 2015|url-status=usurped}}</ref> and also have significant military interoperability.<ref name="cbc.ca">{{cite web|last=Cudmore|first=James|title=Canadian military explored plan to fully integrate forces with U.S. – Politics – CBC News|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-election-2015-military-integration-canada-us-1.3248594|access-date=January 4, 2017|publisher=Cbc.ca}}</ref> Both Americans and Canadians have generally ranked each other as one of their respective "favorite nations".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Poushter |first=Jacob |date=2015-10-06 |title=Canadians Satisfied with U.S. Relationship |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2015/10/06/canadians-satisfied-with-u-s-relationship/ |access-date=2023-10-21 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Brenan |first=Megan |date=2023-03-21 |title=Canada, Britain Favored Most in U.S.; Russia, N. Korea Least |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/472421/canada-britain-favored-russia-korea-least.aspx |access-date=2023-10-21 |website=[[Gallup, Inc.]] |language=en}}</ref>   Nonetheless, [[Canadian peacekeeping]] is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and is a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from the United States.<ref name="Gutiérrez-Haces 2018 s015">{{cite book | last=Gutiérrez-Haces | first=Maria Teresa | title=Identity and Otherness in Canadian Foreign Policy | series=Collection internationale d'Études canadiennes &#124; International Canadian Studies Series | date=Nov 6, 2018 | pages=231–250 | publisher=University of Ottawa Press | isbn=978-0-7766-2722-9 | url=https://books.openedition.org/uop/1488?lang=en}}</ref><ref name="Carroll 2016 pp. 167–176">{{cite journal | last=Carroll | first=Michael K | title=Peacekeeping: Canada's past, but not its present and future? | journal=International Journal | publisher=[Sage Publications, Ltd., Canadian International Council] | volume=71 | issue=1 | year=2016 | issn=0020-7020 | jstor=44631172 | pages=167–176 | doi=10.1177/0020702015619857 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44631172 | access-date=February 28, 2024}}</ref><ref name="Anon. u211">{{cite web | title= Canada's Current Role in World| url=https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/project-documents/canada-s-world-survey/canada's-current-role-in-world.pdf?sfvrsn=d5590018_4 |publisher=Environics Institute for Survey Research
}}</ref> [[Anti-Americanism#Canada|Canadian anti-Americanism]] has also manifested itself in a variety of ways, ranging from political,<ref name="Doran Sewell 1988 pp. 105–119">{{cite journal | last1=Doran | first1=Charles F. | last2=Sewell | first2=James Patrick | title=Anti-Americanism in Canada? | journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science | publisher=[Sage Publications, Inc., American Academy of Political and Social Science] | volume=497 | year=1988 | issn=0002-7162 | jstor=1045764 | pages=105–119 | doi=10.1177/0002716288497001009 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1045764}}</ref> to cultural.<ref name="Anon. x583">{{cite web | title=Anti-Americanism in Canada," in Brendon O'Connor, ed., Anti-Americanism: History, Causes, and Themes| volume=3  | url=https://nossalk.files.wordpress.com/2021/10/nossal_2007_anti-americanism-oconnor.pdf | publisher =Oxford/Westport: Greenwood World Publishing}|pages=59, 76|year=2007|author=[[Kim Richard Nossal]]}}</ref>
Starting with the [[American Revolution]], when [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] were resettled in Canada, a vocal element in Canada has warned against American dominance or annexation. The [[War of 1812]] saw invasions across the border in both directions, but the war ended with unchanged borders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=War of 1812 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/war-of-1812 |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |language=en}}</ref> The British ceased aiding Native American attacks on the United States, and the United States never again attempted to invade Canada. Apart from minor unsuccessful raids, it has remained peaceful.<ref>John Herd Thompson, ''Canada and the United States: ambivalent allies'' (2008).</ref> As Britain decided to disengage, fears of an American takeover played a role in the [[Canadian Confederation]] (1867), and Canada's [[Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement#Background|rejection of free trade]] (1911). [[Ogdensburg Agreement|Military collaboration was close]] during [[World War II]] and [[Permanent Joint Board on Defense|continued]] throughout the [[Cold War]], bilaterally through [[North American Aerospace Defense Command|NORAD]] and multilaterally through [[NATO]]. A high volume of trade and migration continues between the two nations, as well as a heavy overlapping of popular and elite culture; a dynamic that has generated closer ties, especially after the signing of the [[Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement]] in 1988 and the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] in 1994.
Recent difficulties have included repeated trade disputes, environmental concerns, Canadian concern for the future of oil exports, the issue of [[illegal immigration]], and the threat of terrorism. Trade has continued to expand, especially following the 1988 FTA, the 1994 [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA), and the 2020 [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement]] (USMCA), which has progressively merged the two economies.<ref>Hills, Carla A. "NAFTA's Economic Upsides: The View from the United States." ''Foreign Affairs'' 93 (2014): 122.</ref><ref>Michael Wilson, "NAFTA's Unfinished Business: The View from Canada". ''Foreign Affairs'' (2014) 93#1 pp. 128+.</ref> Co-operation on many fronts, such as the ease of the flow of goods, services, and people across borders to be even more extended, as well as the establishment of joint border inspection agencies, relocation of U.S. food inspectors agents to Canadian plants and vice versa, greater sharing of intelligence, and harmonizing regulations on everything from food to manufactured goods, thus further increasing the American-Canadian assemblage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/harper-obama-to-push-for-major-border-deal-1.603708 |title=Harper, Obama to begin security talks &#124; CTV News |website=Ctvnews.ca |date=February 3, 2011 |access-date=August 27, 2016}}</ref>
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== Country comparison ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!{{Flag|Canada}}
!{{Flag|United States}}
|-
|Coat of arms
|[[File:Royal Coat of arms of Canada.svg|center|179x179px]]
|[[File:Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg|center|137x137px]]
|-
|Population
|41,012,563
|334,914,895
|-
|Capital
|[[Ottawa]]
|[[Washington, D.C.]]
|-
|Largest city
|[[Toronto]]
|[[New York City]]
|-
|Government
|[[Constitutional monarchy]]
|[[Federal government of the United States|Federal]] presidential republic
|-
|First leader
|[[John A. Macdonald]]
|[[George Washington]]
|-
|Current leader
|[[Justin Trudeau]]
|[[Joe Biden]]
|-
|National languages
|[[Canadian English|English]] and [[Canadian French|French]]
|[[American English|English]] (''[[de facto]]'')
|}
== History ==
=== Colonial wars ===
{{Main|French and Indian Wars}}
[[File:Nouvelle-France map-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Map of European colonies in North America, c. 1750. Territorial claims by European powers were fought over during the [[French and Indian Wars]].]]
Before the [[Conquest of New France (1758–1760)|British conquest of French Canada]] in 1760, there had been a series of wars between the British and the French that were fought out in the colonies as well as in Europe and the high seas. In general, the British heavily relied on [[Militia (United States)|American colonial militia]] units, while the French heavily relied on their [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]] allies. The [[Iroquois|Iroquois Nation]] were important British allies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas Morgan |first1=William |year=1926 |title=The Five Nations and Queen Anne |journal=Mississippi Valley Historical Review |volume=13 |issue=2|pages=169–189 |doi=10.2307/1891955 |jstor=1891955}}</ref> Much of the fighting involved ambushes and small-scale warfare in the villages along the border between New England and Quebec. The New England colonies had a much larger population than Quebec, so major invasions came from south to north. The First Nation allies, only loosely controlled by the French, repeatedly raided New England villages to kidnap women and children, and torture and kill the men.<ref>June Namias, ''White Captives: Gender and Ethnicity on the American Frontier'' (1993)</ref> Those who survived were brought up as Francophone Catholics. The tension along the border was exacerbated by religion, the French Catholics and English Protestants had a deep mutual distrust.<ref>Howard H. Peckham, ''The Colonial Wars'' (1965)</ref> There was a naval dimension as well, involving [[privateer]]s attacking enemy merchant ships.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chard |first1=Donald F. |year=1975 |title=The Impact of French Privateering on New England, 1689–1713 |journal=American Neptune |volume=35 |issue=3|pages=153–165}}</ref>
England seized Quebec from 1629 to 1632, and Acadia in 1613 and again from 1654 to 1670; These territories were returned to France by the peace treaties. The major wars were (to use American names), [[King William's War]] (1689–1697); [[Queen Anne's War]] (1702–1713); [[King George's War]] (1744–1748), and from 1755 to 1763 the [[French and Indian War]] (known in Europe as the [[Seven Years’ War]]).
New England soldiers and sailors were critical to the successful British campaign to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shortt |first1=S. E. D. |year=1972 |title=Conflict and Identity in Massachusetts: The Louisbourg Expedition of 1745 |journal=Social History/Histoire Sociale |volume=5 |issue=10|pages=165–185}}</ref> and (after it had been returned by treaty) to capture it again in 1758.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnston |first1=A. J. B. |year=2008 |title=D-Day at Louisbourg |journal=Beaver |volume=88 |issue=3|pages=16–23 }}</ref>
=== American Revolutionary War ===
{{Main|American Revolutionary War}}
[[File:The Death of General Montgomery in the Attack on Quebec December 31 1775.jpeg|thumb|right|''[[The Death of General Montgomery in the Attack on Quebec, December 31, 1775]]'', by [[John Trumbull]], depicting the failed American [[Invasion of Quebec (1775)|invasion of northeastern Quebec]].]]
At the outset of the [[American Revolutionary War]], the [[Patriot (American Revolution)|American revolutionaries]] hoped the [[French Canadians]] in Quebec and the Colonists in [[Nova Scotia]] would join their rebellion. They were pre-approved for joining the United States in the [[Articles of Confederation]].
When [[Invasion of Quebec (1775)|northeastern Quebec was invaded]], thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that fought during the war; however, most remained neutral and some joined the British effort. Britain advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined their rights in the [[Quebec Act]], which the American colonies had viewed as one of the [[Intolerable Acts]]. The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in 1777, a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire British army at Saratoga and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S. The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity.<ref>Mason Wade, ''The French Canadians, 1760–1945'' (1955) p. 74.</ref>
The American forces had much better success in [[Western theater of the American Revolutionary War|southwestern Quebec]], owing to the leadership of [[Virginia militia]] leader [[George Rogers Clark]]. In 1778, 200 men under Clark, supplied and supported mainly by Virginia, came down the [[Ohio River]] near [[Louisville, Kentucky]], marched across southern Illinois, and then captured [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]] without loss of life. From there, part of his men took [[Vincennes]], but was soon lost to British Lieutenant Colonel [[Henry Hamilton (colonial administrator)|Henry Hamilton]], the commander at [[Fort Detroit]]. Clark later retook it in the [[Siege of Fort Vincennes]] in February 1779. Roughly half of Clark's militia in the theater were Canadian volunteers sympathetic to the American cause.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1797&context=facsch_papers#page=4|title="The Old Northwest Under British Control, 1763–1783" and "Indiana A Part of the Old Northwest, 1783–1800"|author=George W. Geib|date=1987 |pages=42–44|publisher=[[Butler University]]}}</ref>
In the end, America won its independence and the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] compelled Britain to cede [[Northwest Territory|parts of southwestern Canada]] to them. Following America's independence, Canada became a refuge for about an estimated 70,000 or 15% of [[United Empire Loyalist|Loyalists]] who either wanted to leave the U.S. or were compelled by Patriot reprisals to do so. Among the original Loyalists, there were 3,500 free [[African Americans]]. Most went to Nova Scotia and in 1792, 1,200 migrated to [[Sierra Leone]]. About 2,000 black slaves were brought in by Loyalist owners; they remained slaves in Canada until the Empire abolished slavery in 1833. Around 85% of the loyalists remained in the new United States and became American citizens.<ref>Thomas B. Allen, ''Tories: Fighting for the King in America's First Civil War'' (2011) p. xviii</ref>
=== War of 1812 ===
{{main|War of 1812}}
The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]], which ended the war, called for British forces to vacate all their forts south of the [[Great Lakes]] border. Britain refused to do so, citing the failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war. The [[Jay Treaty]] in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts. [[Thomas Jefferson]] saw the nearby British presence as a threat to the [[United States]], and so he opposed the [[Jay Treaty]], and it became one of the major political issues in the United States at the time.<ref>Bradford Perkins, ''The First Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1795–1805'' (1955)</ref> Thousands of Americans immigrated to Upper Canada (Ontario) from 1785 to 1812 to obtain cheaper land and better tax rates prevalent in that province; despite expectations that they would be loyal to the U.S. if a war broke out, in the event they were largely non-political.<ref>{{cite book|first=George A.|last=Rawlyk|title=The Canada Fire: Radical Evangelicalism in British North America, 1775–1812|url=https://archive.org/details/canadafire0000unse|url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/canadafire0000unse/page/122 122]|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780773512214}}</ref>
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = horizontal
| image1 = 1812 War Declaration.jpg
| width1 = 159
| footer = The United States Declaration of War against the British (left) and [[Issac Brock]]'s proclamation issued in response to it in Upper Canada (right)
| image2 = Proclamation Province of Upper Canada by Isaac Brock.jpg
| width2 = 140
}}
Tensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the [[War of 1812]] when the United States declared war on Britain. The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and [[Impressment|seizure of 6,000 sailors from American ships]], severe restrictions against neutral American trade with [[First French Empire|France]], and British support for hostile [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes in [[Ohio]] and territories the U.S. had gained in 1783. American "honor" was an implicit issue. While the Americans could not hope to defeat the [[Royal Navy]] and control the seas, they could call on an army much larger than the British garrison in Canada, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the most advantageous means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to British support of [[American Indians in the United States|Native American]] resistance to [[Westward expansion of the United States|American expansion]], typified by [[Tecumseh]]'s coalition of tribes.<ref>Alan Taylor, ''The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies'' (2010).</ref> Americans may also have wanted to acquire Canada.{{sfn|Stagg|2012|pp=5–6}}<ref>George F. G. Stanley, 1983, p. 32 {{full citation needed|date=July 2013}}</ref><ref>David Heidler, Jeanne T. Heidler, The War of 1812, pg4 {{full citation needed|date=June 2013}} <!--needs a date--></ref>{{sfn|Tucker|2011|p=236}}{{sfn|Nugent|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_zDQlAp4T4wC&pg=PA73 73], 75}}
Once war broke out, the American strategy was to seize Canada. There was some hope that settlers in western Canada—most of them recent immigrants from the U.S.—would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers. However, the American invasions were defeated primarily by British regulars with support from Native Americans and [[Upper Canada]] militia. Aided by the large Royal Navy, a series of British raids on the American coast were highly successful, culminating with an [[Burning of Washington|attack on Washington]] that resulted in the British burning of the [[White House]], [[United States Capitol|the Capitol]], and other public buildings. At the end of the war, Britain's American Indian allies had largely been defeated, and the Americans controlled a strip of Western Ontario centered on [[Amherstburg|Fort Malden]]. However, Britain held much of [[Maine]], and, with the support of their remaining American Indian allies, huge areas of the Old Northwest, including [[Wisconsin]] and much of [[Michigan]] and [[Illinois]]. With the surrender of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended naval policies that angered Americans; with the defeat of the Indian tribes, the threat to American expansion was ended. The upshot was both the United States and Canada asserted their sovereignty, Canada remained under British rule, and London and Washington had nothing more to fight over. The war was ended by the [[Treaty of Ghent]], which took effect in February 1815.<ref>Mark Zuehlke, ''For Honour's Sake: The War of 1812 and the Brokering of an Uneasy Peace'' (2007) is a [[Canadians|Canadian]] perspective.</ref> A series of postwar agreements further stabilized peaceful relations along the Canada–US border. Canada reduced American immigration for fear of undue American influence and built up the [[Anglican Church of Canada]] as a counterweight to the largely American [[Baptists|Baptist]] and [[Methodism|Methodist]] churches.<ref>W.L. Morton, ''The Kingdom of Canada'' (1969) ch 12</ref>
In later years, Anglophone Canadians, especially in Ontario, viewed the War of 1812 as a heroic and successful resistance against invasion and as a victory that defined them as a people. The myth that the Canadian militia had defeated the invasion almost single-handed, known logically as the "militia myth", became highly prevalent after the war,<ref name="Cleves Eustace Gilje Hale 2012 pp. 520–555">{{cite journal | last1=Cleves | first1=Rachel Hope | last2=Eustace | first2=Nicole | last3=Gilje | first3=Paul | last4=Hale | first4=Matthew Rainbow | last5=Morgan | first5=Cecilia | last6=Opal | first6=Jason M. | last7=Peskin | first7=Lawrence A. | last8=Taylor | first8=Alan | title=Interchange: The War of 1812 | journal=The Journal of American History | publisher=[Oxford University Press, Organization of American Historians] | volume=99 | issue=2 | year=2012 | issn=0021-8723| jstor=44306807 | pages=520–555 | doi=10.1093/jahist/jas236 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44306807 | access-date=Apr 4, 2024}}</ref> having been propounded by [[John Strachan]], [[Toronto|Anglican Bishop of York]].<ref name="Wood 2010 p. ">{{cite book | last=Wood | first=James A. | title=Militia Myths | publisher=UBC Press | publication-place=Vancouver | date=2010 | isbn=978-0-7748-1765-3 | oclc=473375581 |url=https://www.ubcpress.ca/asset/9466/1/9780774817653.pdf| page=12}}</ref>
=== Post War of 1812 and mid-19th century ===
In the aftermath of the War of 1812, pro-British conservatives led by Anglican Bishop [[John Strachan]] took control in Ontario ("Upper Canada") and promoted the Anglican religion as opposed to the more republican Methodist and Baptist churches. A small interlocking elite, known as the [[Family Compact]] took full political control. Democracy, as practiced in the United States, was ridiculed. The policies had the desired effect of deterring immigration from the United States. [[Rebellions of 1837|Revolts in favor of democracy]] in Ontario and Quebec ("Lower Canada") in 1837 were suppressed; many of the leaders fled to the US.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dunning | first1 = Tom | year = 2009 | title = The Canadian Rebellions of 1837 and 1838 as a Borderland War: A Retrospective | journal = Ontario History | volume = 101 | issue = 2| pages = 129–141 | doi = 10.7202/1065615ar | doi-access = free }}</ref> The American policy was to largely ignore the rebellions,<ref>Orrin Edward Tiffany, ''The Relations of the United States to the Canadian Rebellion of 1837–1838'' (1905). [https://www.amazon.com/Relations-United-Canadian-Rebellion-1837-1838/dp/1236388712/ excerpt and text search]</ref> and indeed ignore Canada generally in favor of the westward expansion of the [[American Frontier]].
The [[Webster–Ashburton Treaty]] formalized the U.S.–Canada border in Maine, averting the [[Aroostook War]].  During the [[Manifest Destiny]] era, the "[[Fifty-Four Forty or Fight]]" agenda called for U.S. annexation of what became Western Canada; the U.S. and Britain instead agreed to a boundary of the 49th parallel. As harsher fugitive slave laws were passed, Canada became a destination for slaves escaping on the [[Underground Railroad]].<ref name="Cross 2010 p. ">{{cite book | last=Cross | first=L.D. | title=The Underground Railroad: The long journey to freedom in Canada | publisher=James Lorimer Limited, Publishers | series=Amazing Stories | year=2010 | isbn=978-1-55277-581-3 |page=intro}}</ref><ref name="CBC g717">{{cite web | title=Underground Railroad | website=CBC | url=https://www.cbc.ca/history/EPCONTENTSE1EP8CH1PA3LE.html#:~:text=In%20all%2030%2C000%20slaves%20fled,white%20sympathizers%20who%20helped%20runaways.&text=Canada%20was%20viewed%20as%20a,black%20person%20could%20be%20free. | access-date=Apr 4, 2024}}</ref>
=== American Civil War ===
{{Main|Canada in the American Civil War}}
[[File:Stalbansraid.JPG|thumb|Confederate soldiers force a bank teller to pledge allegiance to the Confederate States of America while conducting the [[St. Albans Raid|raid at St. Albans, Vermont]]. The Confederate soldiers launched their raid from the [[Province of Canada]].]]
The British Empire was neutral during the [[American Civil War]]. About 40,000 Canadians volunteered for the [[Union Army]]—many already lived in the U.S., and a few for the [[Confederate States Army|Confederate Army]].<ref>Robin W. Winks, "The Creation of a Myth: 'Canadian' Enlistments in the Northern Armies during the American Civil War", ''Canadian Historical Review'', 1958 39(1): 24–40.</ref>  However, hundreds of Americans who were called up in the draft fled to Canada.<ref>Adam Mayers, '' Dixie & the Dominion: Canada, the Confederacy, and the War for the Union'' (2003)</ref>
Several events caused strained relations between the British Empire and the United States, over the former's unofficial role in supporting the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. [[Blockade runners of the American Civil War|Blockade runners loaded with arms]] came from Great Britain and made use of Canadian ports in [[the Maritimes]] to break through the [[Union blockade]] to deliver the weaponry to the Confederacy in exchange for cotton. Attacks were made on American merchant shipping by British-built Confederate warships such as [[CSS Alabama|CSS ''Alabama'']].<ref name="DWAD">{{cite web|url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/alabama-claims.htm|title=Alabama Claims, 1862–1872|website=[[GlobalSecurity.org]]}}</ref> On December 7, 1863, pro-Confederate Canadian sympathizers [[Chesapeake Affair|hijacked an American steamer and killed a crew member]] off the coast of [[Cape Cod]], [[Massachusetts]] then used the steamer, originally intended as a [[blockade runner]], to flee back to the Maritimes where they were later able to escape justice for [[murder]] and [[piracy]]. [[Confederate Secret Service]] agents also used Canada as a base to attack American border towns, such as [[St. Albans Raid|St. Albans, Vermont on October 19, 1864]], where they killed an American citizen, robbed three banks of over US$200,000, then escaped to Canada where they were arrested but then released by a Canadian court to widespread American anger. Many Americans falsely suspected that the Canadian government knew of the raid ahead of time.<ref>Mayers, ''Dixie & the Dominion'' pp 105–116.</ref> American Secretary of State [[William H. Seward]] let the British government know that "it is impossible to consider those proceedings as either legal, just or friendly towards the United States."<ref>{{cite book|title=Congressional series of United States public documents|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oEtHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA71|year=1870|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|page=71}}</ref>
==== Alabama claims ====
{{Main|Alabama Claims}}
Americans were angry at Britain's perceived support for the Confederacy during the American Civil War. Some leaders demanded a huge payment, on the premise that British involvement had lengthened the war by two years,<ref name="DWAD"/> a claim confirmed by post-Civil War historians and scholars.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/archaeology/historians-reveal-secrets-of-uk-gunrunning-which-lengthened-the-american-civil-war-by-two-years-9557937.html|title=Historians reveal secrets of UK gun-running which lengthened the American civil war by two years|author=David Keys|date=24 June 2014|work=[[The Independent]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Confederate Blockade Runners|url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1933/april/confederate-blockade-runners|author=Paul Hendren|date=April 1933|publisher=[[United States Naval Institute]]}}</ref> Senator [[Charles Sumner]], the chairman of the [[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|Senate Foreign Relations Committee]], originally wanted to ask for $2 billion in [[war reparations]], or alternatively the ceding of all of Canada to the United States.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jay|last=Sexton|title=Debtor Diplomacy: Finance and American Foreign Relations in the Civil War Era, 1837–1873|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TuepT3C0TCsC&pg=PA206|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=206|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780199281039}}</ref><ref>Theodore C. Blegen, "A Plan for the Union of British North America and the United States, 1866". ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' 4.4 (1918): 470–483 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1896039.pdf online].</ref>
When American Secretary of State [[William H. Seward]] negotiated the [[Alaska Purchase]] with Russia in 1867, he intended it as the first step in a comprehensive plan to gain control of the entire [[Pacific Northwest|northwest Pacific]] Coast. Seward was a firm believer in [[Manifest Destiny]], primarily for its commercial advantages to the U.S. Seward expected [[British Columbia]] to seek annexation to the U.S. and thought Britain might accept this in exchange for the ''Alabama'' claims. Soon other elements endorsed annexation, they planned to annex [[British Columbia]], [[Red River Colony]] (Manitoba), and [[Nova Scotia]], in exchange for dropping the damage claims. The idea peaked in the spring and summer of 1870, with American expansionists, Canadian separatists, and pro-American Englishmen seemingly combining forces. The plan was dropped for multiple reasons. London continued to stall, American commercial and financial groups pressed Washington for a quick settlement of the dispute on a cash basis, growing Canadian nationalist sentiment in British Columbia called for staying inside the British Empire, Congress became preoccupied with [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]], and most Americans showed little interest in territorial expansion.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}
The "[[Alabama Claims]]" dispute went to international arbitration. In one of the first major cases of arbitration, the tribunal in 1872 rejected the American claims for damages relating to the British blockade running but ordered Britain to pay $15.5 million only for damages caused by British-built Confederate ships.<ref name="DWAD"/> Britain paid and the episode ended in peaceful relations.<ref>Doris W. Dashew, "The Story of An Illusion: The Plan To Trade 'Alabama' Claims For Canada", ''Civil War History'', December 1969, Vol. 15 Issue 4, pp 332–348</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Shi | first1 = David E. | year = 1978 | title = Seward's Attempt to Annex British Columbia, 1865–1869 | journal = Pacific Historical Review | volume = 47 | issue = 2| pages = 217–238 | doi=10.2307/3637972 | jstor=3637972}}</ref>
=== Late 19th century ===
{{Main|Canadian Confederation}}
Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain retained control of diplomacy and defence policy. Before Confederation, there was an [[Oregon boundary dispute]] in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude. The [[Oregon Treaty]] of 1846 largely resolved the issue, splitting the disputed territory – the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half eventually formed the states of [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and [[Oregon]].
[[File:Battle of Eccles Hill.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Eccles Hill]] in 1870. The American-based [[Fenian Brotherhood]] launched several raids into Canada in 1866 and 1870–71.]]
Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions called the "[[Fenian raids]]" conducted by [[Irish American|Irish-American]] Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence.<ref>{{cite book |first= Yossi|last= Shain|title= Marketing the American Creed Abroad: Diasporas in the U.S. and Their Homelands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pqj8GFCg7MC&pg=PA53|year= 1999|publisher= Cambridge U.P.|page=53|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780521642255}}</ref> The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the [[American Civil War]] of 1861 to 1865, moved very slowly to disarm the [[Fenians]].<ref>David Sim, "Filibusters, Fenians, and a Contested Neutrality: The Irish Question and US Diplomacy, 1848–1871". ''American Nineteenth Century History'' 12.3 (2011): 265–287.</ref> The [[Fenian raids]] were small-scale attacks carried out by the [[Fenian Brotherhood]], an [[Irish Republican]] organization based among Irish Catholics in the United States. Targets included British Army forts, customs posts, and other locations near the border. The raids were small, unsuccessful episodes in  1866, and again from 1870 to 1871. They aimed to bring pressure on Great Britain to withdraw from Ireland. None of these raids achieved their aims and all were quickly defeated by local Canadian forces.<ref>Robert M. Groceman, "Patriot War and the Fenian Raids: Case Studies in Border Security on the US Canada Border in the Nineteenth Century" (US Army Command and General Staff College Fort Leavenworth United States, 2017) [https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1038696.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113133904/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1038696.pdf |date=November 13, 2020 }}.</ref>
The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense. Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the [[Alabama Claims]], when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy.
Disputes over ocean boundaries on [[Georges Bank]] and fishing, whaling, and sealing rights in the Pacific were settled by international arbitration, setting an important precedent.<ref>
{{cite book
|first=Mark|last=Kurlansky|title=Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World|url= https://archive.org/details/cod00mark|url-access= registration|year=1998|publisher=Penguin|page=[https://archive.org/details/cod00mark/page/117 117]|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9781440672873}}
</ref>
=== Early 20th century ===
==== Alaska boundary ====
{{Main|Alaska boundary dispute}}
[[File:Alaska boundary dispute.jpg|thumb|Border claims made during the [[Alaska boundary dispute]]. The border dispute was settled by arbitration in 1903, with the modern boundary marked by a yellow line.]]
A short-lived controversy was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor of the United States in 1903. The issue was unimportant until the [[Klondike Gold Rush]] brought tens of thousands of men to Canada's Yukon, and they had to arrive through American ports. Canada needed its port and claimed that it had a legal right to a port near the present American town of [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]], Alaska. It would provide an all-Canadian route to the rich goldfields. The dispute was settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted with the Americans—to the astonishment and disgust of Canadians who suddenly realized that Britain considered its relations with the United States paramount compared to those with Canada. The arbitration validated the status quo, but made Canada angry at London.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Munro | first1 = John A. | year = 1965 | title = English-Canadianism and the Demand for Canadian Autonomy: Ontario's Response to the Alaska Boundary Decision, 1903 | journal = Ontario History | volume = 57 | issue = 4| pages = 189–203 }}</ref><ref>David G. Haglund, and Tudor Onea. "Victory without Triumph: Theodore Roosevelt, Honour, and the Alaska Panhandle Boundary Dispute". ''Diplomacy and Statecraft'' 19.1 (2008): 20-41.</ref>
1907 saw a minor controversy over [[USS Nashville (PG-7)|USS ''Nashville'']] sailing into the Great Lakes via Canada without Canadian permission. To head off future embarrassments, in 1909 the two sides signed the [[International Boundary Waters Treaty]], and the [[International Joint Commission]] was established to manage the Great Lakes and keep them disarmed. It was amended in World War II to allow the building and training of warships.<ref>{{cite book|first=Spencer|last=Tucker|title=World War II at Sea: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0nrSWUHx6sC&pg=PA142|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=142|isbn=9781598844573}}</ref>
==== Free trade rejected ====
{{Main|Reciprocity (Canadian politics)}}
[[File:Reciprocity pigs.jpg|thumb|A 1911 Conservative campaign poster warns that the big American companies ("trusts") will hog all the benefits of reciprocity as proposed by Liberals, leaving little left over for Canadian interests]]
Anti-Americanism reached a shrill peak in 1911 in Canada.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baker | first1 = W. M. | year = 1970 | title = A Case Study of Anti-Americanism in English-Speaking Canada: The Election Campaign of 1911 | journal = Canadian Historical Review | volume = 51 | issue = 4| pages = 426–449 | doi=10.3138/chr-051-04-04| s2cid = 161614104 }}</ref> The [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] government in 1911 negotiated a [[Reciprocity (Canadian politics)|Reciprocity]] treaty with the U.S. that would lower trade barriers. Canadian manufacturing interests were alarmed that free trade would allow the bigger and more efficient American factories to take their markets. The [[Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942)|Conservatives]] made it a central campaign issue in the [[1911 Canadian federal election|1911 election]], warning that it would be a "sell-out" to the United States with economic annexation a special danger.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Clements | first1 = Kendrick A. | year = 1973 | title = Manifest Destiny and Canadian Reciprocity in 1911 | journal = Pacific Historical Review | volume = 42 | issue = 1| pages = 32–52 | doi=10.2307/3637741 | jstor=3637741}}</ref> The Conservative slogan was "No truck or trade with the Yankees", as they appealed to [[Canadian nationalism]] and nostalgia for the British Empire to win a major victory.<ref>{{cite book|first=Lewis E.|last=Ellis|title=Reciprocity, 1911: a study in Canadian–American relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fz8fAAAAMAAJ|year=1968|publisher=Greenwood}}</ref><ref>Paolo E. Coletta, ''The Presidency of William Howard Taft'' (1973) pp. 141–152.</ref>
==== World War I ====
British Canadians were annoyed during a brief period from 1914 to 1916, when the United States insisted on neutrality and seemed to profit heavily, while Canada was sacrificing its wealth and its youth. However, when the US finally declared war on Germany in April 1917, there was swift cooperation and friendly coordination, as one historian reports:<blockquote> Official co-operation between Canada and the United States—the pooling of grain, fuel, power, and transportation resources, the underwriting of a Canadian loan by bankers of New York—produced a good effect on the public mind. Canadian recruiting detachments were welcomed in the United States, while a reciprocal agreement was ratified to facilitate the return of draft evaders. A Canadian War Mission was established at Washington, and in many other ways, the activities of the two countries were coordinated for efficiency. Immigration regulations were relaxed and thousands of American farmhands crossed the border to assist in harvesting Canadian crops. Officially and publicly, at least, the two nations were on better terms than ever before in their history, and on the American side, this attitude extended through almost all classes of society.<ref>Hugh Ll. Keenleyside, ''Canada and the United States'' (1929) p 373. [https://archive.org/details/canadaunitedstat0000unse_t5a2/page/372/mode/2up online]</ref></blockquote>
==== Post-World War I ====
Canada demanded and received permission from London to send its delegation to the Versailles Peace Talks in 1919, with the proviso that it sign the treaty under the British Empire. Throughout the 1920s, Canada began assuming greater responsibility for its own foreign and military affairs. In 1927, the U.S. and Canada exchanged ambassadors for the first time with Canada appointing [[Vincent Massey]] and America [[William Phillips (diplomat)|William Phillips]] respectively. The postwar era saw the United States pursue isolationism while Canada became an active member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]], the [[League of Nations]], and the [[Permanent Court of International Justice|World Court]].
In July 1923, as part of his Pacific Northwest tour and a week before his death, U.S. President [[Warren Harding]] visited [[Vancouver]], making him the first American head of state to visit confederated Canada. The then Premier of British Columbia, [[John Oliver (British Columbia politician)|John Oliver]], and then mayor of Vancouver, [[Charles Tisdall]], hosted a lunch in his honor at the [[Hotel Vancouver]]. Over 50,000 people heard Harding speak in [[Stanley Park]]. A monument to Harding designed by [[Charles Marega]] was unveiled in Stanley Park in 1925.<ref>Warren G. Harding & Stanley Park. The History of Metropolitan Vancouver. ''Vancouver.ca'' [http://www.vancouverhistory.ca/archives_harding.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916212018/http://www.vancouverhistory.ca/archives_harding.htm|date=September 16, 2015}}. Retrieved June 11, 2017</ref>
Relations with the United States remained cordial until 1930 when Canada vehemently protested the new [[Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act]] by which the U.S. raised tariffs on products imported from Canada. Canada retaliated with higher tariffs of its own against American products and moved toward more trade within the British Commonwealth. U.S.–Canadian trade fell 75% as the [[Great Depression]] dragged both countries down.<ref>Richard N. Kottman, "Herbert Hoover and the Smoot-Hawley Tariff: Canada, A Case Study", ''Journal of American History'', Vol. 62, No. 3 (December 1975), pp. 609–635 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2936217 in JSTOR]
</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=Judith |display-authors=etal |year=1997|title=Trade Wars: Canada's Reaction to the Smoot–Hawley Tariff", (1997) |journal=Journal of Economic History |volume=57 |issue=4|pages=802–826 |jstor=2951161 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700019549 |s2cid=154380335 }}</ref>
During the 1920s, the war and naval departments of both nations designed war game scenarios with the other as an enemy as part of routine training exercises. In 1921, Canada developed [[Defence Scheme No. 1]] for an attack on American cities and for forestalling an invasion by the United States until British reinforcements could arrive. Throughout the later 1920s and 1930s, the [[United States Army War College]] developed a plan for a war with the [[British Empire]] waged largely on North American territory: [[War Plan Red]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/29/AR2005122901412_2.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Peter |last=Carlson |title=Raiding the Icebox |date=December 30, 2005}}</ref>
[[Herbert Hoover]]'s meeting in 1927 with British Ambassador Sir Esme Howard agreed on the "absurdity of contemplating the possibility of war between the United States and the British Empire".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Christopher M. |year=1997 |title=Thinking the Unthinkable: British and American Naval Strategies for an Anglo-American War, 1918–1931 |journal=International History Review |volume=19 |issue=4|pages=789–808 |doi=10.1080/07075332.1997.9640804}}</ref>
[[File:FDRatQueens.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] speaking at [[Queen's University at Kingston]]. Roosevelt spoke on the U.S. relations with Canada while there.]]
In 1938, as the roots of [[World War II]] were set in motion, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt gave a public speech at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, declaring that the United States would not sit idly by if another power tried to dominate Canada. Diplomats saw it as a clear warning to Germany not to attack Canada.<ref>Arnold A. Offner, ''American Appeasement: United States Foreign Policy and Germany, 1933–1938'' (1969) p. 256</ref>
=== World War II ===
The two nations cooperated closely in World War II,<ref>Galen Roger Perras, ''Franklin Roosevelt and the Origins of the Canadian-American Security Alliance, 1933–1945'' (1998)</ref> as both nations saw new levels of prosperity and a determination to defeat the [[Axis powers]]. Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] and President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] were determined not to repeat the mistakes of their predecessors.<ref>Richard Jensen, "Nationalism and Civic Duty in Wartime: Comparing World Wars in Canada and America", ''Canadian Issues / Thèmes Canadiens'', December 2004, pp 6–10</ref> They met in August 1940 at Ogdensburg, issuing a declaration calling for close cooperation, and formed the [[Permanent Joint Board on Defense]] (PJBD).
King sought to raise Canada's international visibility by hosting the August 1943 [[Quebec Conference, 1943|Quadrant conference]] in Quebec on military and political strategy; he was a gracious host but was kept out of the important meetings by [[Winston Churchill]] and Roosevelt.
Canada allowed the construction of the [[Alaska Highway]] and participated in the building of the atomic bomb. 49,000 Americans joined the [[Royal Canadian Air Force|RCAF]] (Canadian) or [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] (British) air forces through the [[Clayton Knight Committee]], which had Roosevelt's permission to recruit in the U.S. in 1940–42.<ref>Rachel Lea Heide, "Allies in Complicity: The United States, Canada, and the Clayton Knight Committee's Clandestine Recruiting of Americans for the Royal Canadian Air Force, 1940–1942", ''Journal of the Canadian Historical Association, 2004'', Vol. 15, pp 207–230</ref>
American attempts in the mid-1930s to integrate British Columbia into a united West Coast military command had aroused Canadian opposition. Fearing a Japanese invasion of Canada's vulnerable [[British Columbia Coast]], American officials urged the creation of a united military command for an eastern Pacific Ocean [[Theater (warfare)|theater of war]]. Canadian leaders feared [[American imperialism]] and the loss of autonomy more than a Japanese invasion. In 1941, Canadians successfully argued within the PJBD for cooperation rather than the unified command for the West Coast.<ref>Galen Roger Perras, "Who Will Defend British Columbia? Unity of Command on the West Coast, 1934–1942", ''Pacific Northwest Quarterly'', Spring 1997, Vol. 88 Issue 2, pp 59–69</ref>
==== Newfoundland ====
The United States built large military bases in [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] during World War II. At the time it was a [[Crown colony|British crown colony]], having lost dominion status. The American spending ended the depression and brought new prosperity; Newfoundland's business community sought closer ties with the United States as expressed by the [[Economic Union Party]]. Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after hotly contested referendums. There was little demand in the United States for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the United States did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the [[1948 Newfoundland referendums|Newfoundland referendum]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McNeil Earle |first1=Karl |year=1998 |title=Cousins of a Kind: The Newfoundland and Labrador Relationship with the United States |journal=American Review of Canadian Studies |volume=28 |issue=4|pages=387–411 |doi=10.1080/02722019809481611}}</ref>
=== Cold War ===
[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-098967, Aufnahme der Bundesrepublik in die NATO.jpg|thumb|A NATO summit in Paris, May 1955. Both Canada and the United States are founding members of the military alliance.]]
Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], working closely with his Foreign Minister [[Louis St. Laurent]], handled foreign relations 1945–48 cautiously. Canada donated money to the United Kingdom to help it rebuild; was elected to the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]]; and helped design [[NATO]]. However, Mackenzie King rejected free trade with the United States,<ref>C. P. Stacey, ''Canada and the Age of Conflict: A History of Canadian External Policies. Volume 2, 1921–1948: The Mackenzie King Era'' (1982) pp 420–424.</ref> and decided not to play a role in the [[Berlin Blockade|Berlin airlift]].<ref>Hector Mackenzie,  "Golden Decade (s)? Reappraising Canada's International Relations in the 1940s and 1950s". ''British Journal of Canadian Studies'' 23.2 (2010): 179–206.</ref>  Canada had been actively involved in the League of Nations, primarily because it could act separately from Britain. It played a [[Canada and the United Nations|modest role in the postwar formation of the United Nations]], as well as the [[International Monetary Fund]]. It played a somewhat larger role in 1947 in designing the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]].<ref>Don Munton and John Kirton, eds. ''Cases and Readings in Canadian Foreign Policy Since World War II'' (1992) pp 2–18.</ref>
After the mid-20th century onwards, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners. Canada was a close ally of the United States during the [[Cold War]].
==== Vietnam War resisters ====
{{Further|Vietnam War resisters in Canada}}
While Canada openly accepted draft evaders and later deserters from the United States, there was never a serious international dispute due to Canada's actions, while Sweden's acceptance was heavily criticized by the United States. The issue of accepting American exiles became a local political debate in Canada that focused on Canada's sovereignty in its immigration law. The United States did not become involved because American politicians viewed Canada as a geographically close ally not worth disturbing.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://journals.openedition.org/eccs/1479?lang=en#ftn1|title='Hell, they're your problem, not ours': Draft Dodgers, Military Deserters and Canada–United States Relations in the Vietnam War Era |first= Luke|last= Stewart|journal=Études Canadiennes / Canadian Studies |year=2018 |issue=85 |pages=67–96 |publisher= Open Edition |doi=10.4000/eccs.1479 |s2cid=181777562 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==== Nixon Shock 1971 ====
{{Main|Nixon shock|Third Option}}
[[File:President Nixon Addresses a joint session of the Canadian Parliament, in Ottawa, Canada - NARA - 194761.tif|thumb|Richard Nixon [[joint address (Canada)|addresses a joint session]] of the Parliament of Canada, 1972]]
The United States had become Canada's largest market, and after the war, the Canadian economy became dependent on smooth trade flows with the United States so much that in 1971 when the United States enacted the "[[Nixon Shock]]" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all imports) it put the Canadian government into a panic. Washington refused to exempt Canada from its 1971 New Economic Policy, so Trudeau saw a solution in closer economic ties with Europe.  Trudeau proposed a "[[Third Option]]" policy of diversifying Canada's trade and downgrading the importance of the American market. In a 1972 speech in [[Ottawa]], Nixon declared the "special relationship" between Canada and the United States dead.<ref>Bruce Muirhead, "From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the U.S., and the Nixon Shock", ''American Review of Canadian Studies'', Vol. 34, 2004 [https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5008438189 online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323010245/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5008438189 |date=March 23, 2009 }}</ref>
Relations deteriorated on many points in the Nixon years (1969–74), including trade disputes, defense agreements, energy, fishing, the environment, cultural imperialism, and foreign policy. They changed for the better when Trudeau and [[Presidency of Jimmy Carter|Carter]] found a better rapport. The late 1970s saw a more sympathetic American attitude toward Canadian political and economic needs, the pardoning of draft evaders who had moved to Canada, and the passing of old such as the Watergate scandal and the Vietnam War. Canada more than ever welcomed American investments during "the [[stagflation]]" that hurt both nations.<ref>Lily Gardner Feldman, "Canada and the United States in the 1970s: Rift and Reconciliation". ''The World Today'' 34.12 (1978): 484–492. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40395029 online]</ref>
=== 1990s ===
[[File:President Bush, Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and Mexican President Carlos Salinas participate in the... - NARA - 186460.jpg|thumb|American, Canadian, and Mexican dignitaries initialing the draft [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] in October 1992]]
The main issues in Canada–US relations in the 1990s focused on the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], which was signed in 1994. It created a common market that by 2014 was worth $19 trillion, encompassed 470 million people, and had created millions of jobs.<ref>Hills, Carla A. "NAFTA's Economic Upsides: The View from the United States". ''Foreign Affairs'' 93 (2014): 122. [http://heinonlinebackup.com/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/fora93&section=19 online]</ref> Wilson says, "Few dispute that NAFTA has produced large and measurable gains for Canadian consumers, workers, and businesses". However, he adds, "NAFTA has fallen well short of expectations."<ref>Wilson, Michael. "NAFTA's Unfinished Business: The View from Canada". ''Foreign Affairs'' 93 (2014): 128. [http://www.relooney.com/NS3040/000_New_424.pdf online]</ref>
=== Migration history ===
{{Main|American immigration to Canada}}
From the 1750s to the 21st century, there has been an extensive mingling of the Canadian and American populations, with large movements in both directions.<ref>Marcus Lee Hansen, ''The Mingling of the Canadian and American Peoples. Vol. 1: Historical'' (1940)</ref>
New England [[Yankee]] settled large parts of [[Nova Scotia]] before 1775 and were neutral during the [[American Revolution]].<ref>John Brebner, ''The Neutral Yankees of Nova Scotia: A Marginal Colony During the Revolutionary Years'' (1937)</ref> At the end of the American Revolution, about 75,000 [[United Empire Loyalist]]s moved out of the new United States to the eastern Atlantic provinces and south of Quebec. From 1790 to 1812 many farmers moved from New York and New England into [[Upper Canada]] (mostly to Niagara, and the north shore of [[Lake Ontario]]). In the mid and late 19th century gold rushes attracted American prospectors, mostly to [[British Columbia]] after the [[Cariboo Gold Rush]], [[Fraser Canyon Gold Rush]], and later to the [[Yukon|Yukon Territory]]. In the early 20th century, the opening of land blocks in the [[Canadian Prairies|Prairie Provinces]] attracted many farmers from the [[Midwestern United States|American Midwest]]. Many [[Mennonites]] immigrated from [[Pennsylvania]] and formed their colonies. In the 1890s some [[Mormons]] went north to form communities in [[Alberta]] after [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] rejected [[Mormonism and polygamy|plural marriage]].<ref>Marcus Lee Hansen, ''The Mingling of the Canadian and American Peoples. Vol. 1: Historical'' (1940); David D. Harvey, ''Americans in Canada: Migration and Settlement since 1840'' (1991)</ref> The 1960s saw the arrival of about 50,000 draft-dodgers who opposed the [[Vietnam War]].<ref>Renee Kasinsky, "Refugees from Militarism: Draft Age Americans in Canada'' (1976)</ref>
[[File:Henry Sandham - The Coming of the Loyalists.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[United Empire Loyalists|Loyalists]] landing in present-day [[New Brunswick]]. Large movements of population occurred in both directions from the late-18th to 20th century.]]
Canada was a way station through which immigrants from other lands stopped for a while, ultimately heading to the U.S. Between 1851 and 1951, 7.1 million people arrived in Canada (mostly from [[Continental Europe]]), and 6.6 million left Canada, most of them to the U.S.<ref name="HEAEG1980"/> After 1850, the pace of industrialization and urbanization was much faster in the United States, drawing a wide range of immigrants from the North. By 1870, 1/6 of all the people born in Canada had moved to the United States, with the highest concentrations in New England, which was the destination of Francophone emigrants from Quebec and Anglophone emigrants from the Maritimes. It was common for people to move back and forth across the border, such as seasonal lumberjacks, entrepreneurs looking for larger markets, and families looking for jobs in the textile mills that paid much higher wages than in Canada.<ref>John J. Bukowczyk et al. ''Permeable Border: The Great Lakes Region as Transnational Region, 1650–1990'' (University of Pittsburgh Press. 2005)</ref>
The southward migration slacked off after 1890, as Canadian industry began a growth spurt. By then, the American frontier was closing, and thousands of farmers looking for fresh land moved from the United States north into the Prairie Provinces. The net result of the flows was that in 1901 there were 128,000 American-born residents in Canada (3.5% of the Canadian population) and 1.18 million Canadian-born residents in the United States (1.6% of the U.S. population).<ref>J. Castell Hopkins, ''The Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs: 1902'' (1903), p. 327.</ref>
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, about 900,000 [[French Canadians]] moved to the U.S., with 395,000 residents there in 1900. Two-thirds went to mill towns in New England, where they formed distinctive ethnic communities. By the late 20th century, most had abandoned the French language (see [[New England French]]), but most kept the Catholic religion.<ref>Yves Roby, ''The Franco-Americans of New England'' (2004)</ref><ref name="HEAEG1980">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Barkan|first=Elliott Robert|editor-last=Thernstrom|editor-first=Stephan|editor-link=Stephan Thernstrom|editor-last2=Orlov|editor-first2=Ann|editor-last3=Handlin|editor-first3=Oscar|editor-link3=Oscar Handlin|title=French Canadians|page=392|encyclopedia=Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups|url=https://archive.org/details/harvardencyclope00ther|year=1980|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=0674375122|oclc=1038430174}}</ref> About twice as many [[English Canadians]] came to the U.S., but they did not form distinctive ethnic settlements.<ref name="HEAEG1980_2">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Brookes|first=Alan A.|editor-last=Thernstrom|editor-first=Stephan|editor-link=Stephan Thernstrom|editor-last2=Orlov|editor-first2=Ann|editor-last3=Handlin|editor-first3=Oscar|editor-link3=Oscar Handlin|title=Canadians, British|page=191|encyclopedia=Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups|url=https://archive.org/details/harvardencyclope00ther|year=1980|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=0674375122|oclc=1038430174}}</ref>
== Relations between political executives ==
The executive of each country is represented differently. The [[President of the United States]] serves as both the head of state and head of government, and his "administration" is the executive, while the [[Prime Minister of Canada]] is head of government only, and his or her "government" or "ministry" directs the executive.
<!-- leaders should go in the alphabetic order of their surnames in the titles, for neutrality's sake -->
=== W. L. Mackenzie King and Franklin D. Roosevelt (October 1935 – April 1945) ===
[[File:Quebec conference 1943.png|thumb|[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and [[Winston Churchill]] at the [[First Quebec Conference]] in 1943.]]
In 1940, [[W. L. Mackenzie King|W.{{nbsp}}L. Mackenzie King]] and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] signed a defense pact, known as the [[Ogdensburg Agreement]].  King hosted conferences for Churchill and Roosevelt, but did not participate in the talks.
=== Louis St. Laurent and Harry S. Truman (November 1948 – January 1953) ===
Prime Minister Laurent and President Truman were both anti-communist during the early years of the [[Cold War]].
=== John G. Diefenbaker and Dwight Eisenhower (June 1957 – January 1961) ===
President [[Foreign policy of the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration|Dwight Eisenhower]] (1952–1961) took pains to foster good relations with Progressive Conservative [[John Diefenbaker]] (1957–1963). That led to the approval of plans to join in [[NORAD]], an integrated air defense system, in mid-1957. Relations with President John Kennedy were much less cordial.  Diefenbaker opposed [[apartheid]] in the [[Union of South Africa|South Africa]] and helped force it out of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. His [[Bomarc Missile Crisis|indecision on whether to accept Bomarc nuclear missiles]] from the United States led to his government's downfall.<ref>Soloman Gabriel, ''Foreign Policy of Canada: A Study in Diefenbaker's Years'' (1987).</ref>
=== John G. Diefenbaker and John F. Kennedy (January 1961 – April 1963) ===
Diefenbaker and [[Foreign policy of the John F. Kennedy administration|President John F. Kennedy]] did not get along well personally. This was evident in Diefenbaker's response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, where he was slow to support the United States. However, Diefenbaker's Minister of Defence went behind Diefenbaker's back and sent Canada's military to high alert given Canada's legal treaty obligations, to try and appease Kennedy.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Potter |first1=Mitch |title=JFK's war with Diefenbaker |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2013/11/18/jfks_war_with_diefenbaker.html |newspaper=The Toronto Star |date=November 18, 2013 |access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref>
=== Lester B. Pearson and Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 – April 1968) ===
In 1965, Prime Minister [[Lester B. Pearson]] gave a speech in Philadelphia criticizing American involvement in the [[Vietnam War]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Preston |first1=Andrew |title=Balancing War and Peace: Canadian Foreign Policy and the Vietnam War, 1961–1965 |journal=Diplomatic History |volume=27 |pages=73–111 |doi=10.1111/1467-7709.00340 |year=2003 }}</ref> This infuriated [[Foreign policy of the Lyndon B. Johnson administration|Lyndon B. Johnson]], who gave him a harsh talk, saying "You don't come here and piss on my rug".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brean |first1=Joseph |title='I've been called worse things by better people: A history of Canadian PMs' not-so-diplomatic one-liners |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/ive-been-called-worse-things-by-better-people-a-history-of-canadian-pms-not-so-diplomatic-one-liners |website=National Post |publisher=National Post |access-date=June 13, 2018|date=November 17, 2014 }}</ref>
=== Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan (September 1984 – January 1989) ===
[[File:President Ronald Reagan and Brian Mulroney in Venice, Italy.jpg|thumb|right|Ronald Reagan (left) and Brian Mulroney in Venice, Italy, June 11, 1987]]
Relations between [[Brian Mulroney]] and [[Ronald Reagan]] were famously close.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The president will see you now: my stories and lessons from Ronald Reagan's final years|last=Grande|first=Peggy|year=2017|isbn=9780316396455|edition= First|location=New York|chapter=8: Rawhide's Ranch|oclc=951764632}}</ref> This relationship resulted in negotiations for the [[Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement]], and the [[U.S.–Canada Air Quality Agreement]] to reduce acid-rain-causing emissions, both major policy goals of Mulroney, that would be finalized under the presidency of [[George H. W. Bush]]. Mulroney delivered eulogies at the funerals of both [[Ronald Reagan]] and [[George H. W. Bush]].
=== Jean Chrétien and Bill Clinton (November 1993 – January 2001) ===
[[File:APEC Summit 1993 - Jean Chrétien and Bill Clinton shaking hands.jpg|thumb|Jean Chrétien shakes hands with Bill Clinton during the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]] summit meeting in November 1993]]
Although [[Jean Chrétien]] was wary of appearing too close to President [[Bill Clinton]],{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} both men had a passion for golf. During a news conference with Prime Minister Chrétien in April 1997, President Clinton quipped "I don't know if any two world leaders have played golf together more than we have, but we meant to break a record".<ref name="The President's News Conference With Prime Minister Jean Chretien of Canada">
{{cite web
|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=53964
|title=The President's News Conference With Prime Minister Jean Chretien of Canada
|date=April 8, 1997
|publisher=The American Presidency Project
|access-date=May 16, 2018
}}</ref> Their governments had many small trade quarrels over the Canadian content of American magazines, softwood lumber, and so on, but on the whole were quite friendly. Both leaders had run on reforming or abolishing [[NAFTA]], but the agreement went ahead with the addition of environmental and labor side agreements. Crucially, the Clinton administration lent rhetorical support to Canadian unity during the [[1995 Quebec referendum|1995 referendum in Quebec]] on separation from Canada.<ref>{{cite web|title=Clinton, in Talk to Canadians, Opposes Quebec Separation|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/24/world/clinton-in-talk-to-canadians-opposes-quebec-separation.html|last=Jehl|first=Douglas|work=The New York Times|date=February 24, 1995}}</ref>
=== Jean Chrétien and George W. Bush (January 2001 – December 2003) ===
[[File:Chrétien and Bush shaking hands Sept 9 2002.jpg|thumb|Jean Chrétien shakes hands with George W. Bush during a meeting in September 2002]]
Relations between Chrétien and [[George W. Bush]] were strained throughout their overlapping times in office. Canada offered its full assistance to the U.S. as the [[September 11 attacks]] were unfolding. One tangible show of support was [[Operation Yellow Ribbon]], in which more than 200 U.S.-bound flights were diverted to Canada after the U.S. shut down their airspace. Later, however, Chrétien publicly mused that U.S. foreign policy might be part of the "root causes" of terrorism. Some Americans criticized his "smug moralism", and Chrétien's public refusal to support the 2003 Iraq war was met with negative responses in the United States, especially among conservatives.<ref>{{cite book|first=Daniel|last=Drache|title=Big Picture Realities: Canada and Mexico at the Crossroads|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hKfvb5zf8oUC&pg=PA115|year=2008|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier U.P.|page=115|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9781554582334}}</ref>
=== Stephen Harper and George W. Bush (February 2006 – January 2009) ===
[[File:Stephen Harper and George W. Bush July 6 2006.jpg|thumb|Stephen Harper holds a joint press conference with George W. Bush during a meeting in Washington, D.C., July 2006]]
[[Stephen Harper]] and George W. Bush were thought to share warm personal relations and also close ties between their administrations. Because Bush was so unpopular among liberals in Canada (particularly in the media), this was underplayed by the Harper government.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prime-ministers-and-presidents-1.848083 | work=CBC News | title=Prime ministers and presidents | date=February 18, 2009}}</ref>
Shortly after being congratulated by Bush for his victory in February 2006, Harper rebuked the U.S. ambassador to Canada [[David H. Wilkins|David Wilkins]] for criticizing the [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservatives']] plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the [[Arctic Ocean]] waters with military force.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/guest-column-time-canada-to-negotiate-the-northwest-passage-1.1047758|title=Guest column: Time, Canada, to negotiate the Northwest Passage|work=CBC News|access-date=July 18, 2017|language=en}}</ref>
=== Stephen Harper and Barack Obama (January 2009 – November 2015) ===
[[File:Barack Obama meets Stephen Harper.jpg|thumb|Barack Obama meeting with Stephen Harper in Ottawa, February 2009]]
President [[Barack Obama]]'s first international trip was to Canada on February 19, 2009, thereby sending a strong message of peace and cooperation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/obama-to-visit-canada-feb-19-pmo-confirms-1.364714 |title=Obama to visit Canada Feb. 19, PMO confirms – CTV News |publisher=Ctv.ca |date=January 28, 2009 |access-date=February 26, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606040521/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20090128/canada_obama_090128/20090128?hub=Politics |archive-date=June 6, 2009  }}</ref> Except Canadian lobbying against "Buy American" provisions in the U.S. [[2009 stimulus bill|stimulus package]], relations between the two administrations were smooth.
They also held friendly bets on hockey games during the Winter Olympic season. In the [[2010 Winter Olympics]] hosted by Canada in [[Vancouver]], Canada defeated the U.S. in both gold medal matches, entitling Stephen Harper to receive a case of [[Molson Canadian]] beer from Barack Obama; in reverse, if Canada had lost, Harper would have provided a case of [[Yuengling]] beer to Obama.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/ottawa-notebook/obama-loses-boozy-bet-with-harper/article4188210/|title=Obama loses boozy bet with Harper|work=The Globe and Mail|access-date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> During the 2014 Winter Olympics, alongside [[United States Secretary of State|U.S. Secretary of State]] [[John Kerry]] & [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Canada)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]] [[John Baird (Canadian politician)|John Baird]], Stephen Harper was given a case of [[Samuel Adams (beer)|Samuel Adams beer]] by Obama for the Canadian gold medal victory over the U.S. in women's hockey, and the semi-final victory over the U.S. in men's hockey.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/2014/02/23/21489991.html|title=Barack Obama follows through on Olympic beer bet|work=canoe.ca|access-date=April 27, 2016|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140225215255/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/2014/02/23/21489991.html|archive-date=25 February 2014}}</ref>
==== Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) (2011) ====
On February 4, 2011, Harper and Obama issued a "Declaration on a Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/02/04/joint-statement-president-obama-and-prime-minister-harper-canada-regul-0 |title=Joint Statement by President Obama and Prime Minister Harper of Canada on Regulatory Cooperation |date=February 4, 2011 |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |access-date=February 26, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pm.gc.ca/eng/media.asp?id=3931|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910181827/http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/media.asp?id=3931 |archive-date=September 10, 2013 |title=PM and U.S. President Obama announce shared vision for perimeter security and economic competitiveness between Canada and the United States |publisher=Office of the Prime Minister of Canada |date=February 4, 2011 |access-date=February 26, 2011}}</ref> and announced the creation of the [[Regulatory Cooperation Council|Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC)]] "to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between the two countries."<ref name=OPM1>{{cite web |date=December 7, 2011 |location=Washington, D.C. |url=http://pm.gc.ca/eng/media.asp?id=4511 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729152814/http://pm.gc.ca/eng/media.asp?id=4511 |archive-date=July 29, 2013 |publisher=Office of the Prime Minister of Canada |title=United States–Canada Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) Joint Action Plan: Developing and implementing the Joint Action Plan}}</ref>
[[Health Canada]] and the United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) under the RCC mandate, undertook the "first of its kind" initiative by selecting "as its first area of alignment common cold indications for certain over-the-counter antihistamine ingredients (GC January 10, 2013)".<ref name=GC20130110>{{cite web |publisher=Government of Canada |series=Canada's Action Plan |title=Notice: Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) Over-the-Counter (OTC) Products: Common Monograph Working Group: Selection of a Monograph for Alignment |url=http://actionplan.gc.ca/en/page/rcc-ccr/notice-regulatory-cooperation-council-rcc-over |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108070216/http://actionplan.gc.ca/en/page/rcc-ccr/notice-regulatory-cooperation-council-rcc-over |archive-date=November 8, 2014 |date=January 10, 2013 |access-date=February 15, 2013 }}</ref>
On December 7, 2011, Harper flew to Washington, met with Obama, and signed an agreement to implement the joint action plans that had been developed since the initial meeting in February. The plans called on both countries to spend more on border infrastructure, share more information on people who cross the border, and acknowledge more of each other's safety and security inspection on third-country traffic. An editorial in ''The Globe and Mail'' praised the agreement for giving Canada the ability to track whether failed refugee claimants have left Canada via the U.S. and for eliminating "duplicated baggage screenings on connecting flights".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/opinions/editorials/canada-us-border-agreement-a-good-thing/article2263711/ |location=Toronto |work=The Globe and Mail |title=Canada–U.S. border agreement a good thing |date=September 6, 2012}}</ref> The agreement is not a legally binding treaty and relies on the political will and ability of the executives of both governments to implement the terms of the agreement. These types of executive agreements are routine—on both sides of the Canada–U.S. border.
=== Justin Trudeau and Barack Obama (November 2015 – January 2017) ===
[[File:State Visit of Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau 18.jpg|thumb|right|President [[Barack Obama]] and Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]], March 2016]]
President Barack Obama and Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]] first met formally at the [[APEC Philippines 2015|APEC summit meeting]] in [[Manila]], [[Philippines]] in November 2015, nearly a week after the latter was sworn into the office. Both leaders expressed eagerness for increased cooperation and coordination between the two countries during Trudeau's government with Trudeau promising an "enhanced Canada–U.S. partnership".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jordan|first1=Roger|title=Trudeau promises Obama an enhanced Canada–US partnership|url=https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2015/11/20/cana-n20.html|access-date=January 2, 2016|work=[[World Socialist Web Site]]|publisher=[[International Committee of the Fourth International]]|date=November 20, 2015}}</ref>
On November 6, 2015, Obama announced the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]]'s rejection of the proposed [[Keystone Pipeline#Phase 4 (canceled)|Keystone XL pipeline]], the fourth phase of the [[Keystone Pipeline|Keystone]] [[oil pipeline]] system running between Canada and the United States, to which Trudeau expressed disappointment but said that the rejection would not damage Canada–U.S. relations and would instead provide a "fresh start" to strengthening ties through cooperation and coordination, saying that "Canada–U.S. relationship is much bigger than any one project."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Harris|first1=Kathleen|title=Justin Trudeau 'disappointed' with U.S. rejection of Keystone XL|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-keystone-pipeline-trudeau-obama-1.3307458|access-date=January 2, 2016|work=[[CBC News]]|publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=November 6, 2015}}</ref> Obama has since praised Trudeau's efforts to prioritize the reduction of climate change, calling it "extraordinarily helpful" to establish a [[Paris Agreement|worldwide consensus]] on addressing the issue.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hall|first1=Chris|title=Trudeau warmly embraced by Obama, but don't expect concessions from U.S.|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/justin-trudeau-barack-obama-apec-chris-hall-1.3326179|access-date=January 2, 2016|work=[[CBC News]]|publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=November 20, 2015}}</ref>
Although Trudeau has told Obama his plans to withdraw Canada's [[McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet]] jets [[Operation Impact|assisting]] in the [[International military intervention against the Islamic State#US-led coalitions|American-led intervention]] against [[Islamic State|ISIL]], Trudeau said that Canada will still "do more than its part" in combating the terrorist group by increasing the number of [[Canadian Special Operations Forces Command|Canadian special forces]] members training and fighting on the ground in [[Iraq]] and [[Syria]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Cullen|first1=Catherine|title=Justin Trudeau says Canada to increase the number of training troops in Iraq|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/trudeau-iraq-trainers-military-1.3322288|access-date=January 2, 2016|work=[[CBC News]]|publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=November 17, 2015}}</ref>
Trudeau visited the [[White House]] for an official visit and state dinner on March 10, 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Barack Obama and Justin Trudeau set a date for the first meeting in Washington|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2015/12/28/barack-obama-and-justin-trudeau-set-a-date-for-first-meeting-in-washington.html|access-date=January 2, 2016|work=[[Toronto Star]]|agency=[[The Canadian Press]]|date=December 28, 2015}}</ref> Trudeau and Obama were reported to have shared warm personal relations during the visit, making humorous remarks about which country was better at hockey and which country had better beer.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2016/03/10/justin-trudeau-meeting-barack-obama-in-washington.html|title=Obama welcomes Trudeau to White House, 'About time, eh?'|date=March 10, 2016|work=thestar.com|access-date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> Obama complimented Trudeau's [[2015 Canadian federal election|2015 election campaign]] for its "message of hope and change" and "positive and optimistic vision". Obama and Trudeau also held "productive" discussions on climate change and relations between the two countries, and Trudeau invited Obama to speak in the Canadian parliament in Ottawa later in the year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/obama-on-growing-friendship-with-trudeau----what-s-not-to-like--/42014494|title=Obama on growing friendship with Trudeau – 'What's not to like?'|work=SWI swissinfo.ch|access-date=April 27, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318171615/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/obama-on-growing-friendship-with-trudeau----what-s-not-to-like--/42014494|archive-date=March 18, 2016}}</ref>
=== Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump (January 2017 – January 2021) ===
[[File:Trudeau visit White House for USMCA.jpg|thumb|right|President [[Donald Trump]] and Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]], June 2019]]
Following the victory of [[Donald Trump]] in the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 U.S. presidential election]], Trudeau congratulated him and invited him to visit Canada at the "earliest opportunity".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Harris|first1=Kathleen|title=Justin Trudeau invites Donald Trump to visit Canada during the call that marks 'strong beginning'|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/trudeau-trump-visit-canada-1.3845013|access-date=November 11, 2016|work=[[CBC News]]|date=November 10, 2016}}</ref> Prime Minister Trudeau and President Trump formally met for the first time at the White House on February 13, 2017, nearly a month after Trump was sworn into the office. Trump has ruffled relations with Canada with tariffs on softwood lumber.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/trump-trudeau-softwood-lumber-response-1.4085315|title=It's Trudeau's move after Trump goes from tough talk to action with lumber duties: Chris Hall|work=CBC News|access-date=April 26, 2017|language=en}}</ref> [[Ultrafiltered milk|Diafiltered Milk]] was brought up by Trump as an area that needed negotiating.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://pm.gc.ca/eng/news/2017/04/25/prime-minister-justin-trudeau-speaks-united-states-president-donald-trump|title=Prime Minister Justin Trudeau speaks with United States President Donald Trump|date=April 25, 2017|work=Prime Minister of Canada|access-date=April 26, 2017|language=en}}</ref>
In 2018, Trump and Trudeau negotiated the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA), a free trade agreement concluded between Canada, [[Mexico]], and the United States that succeeded the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/business/economy/trump-signs-usmca-new-nafta-into-law.html?action=click&module=Top%20Stories&pgtype=Homepage|title=Trump Signs Trade Deal With Canada and Mexico|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=January 29, 2020}}</ref> The agreement has been characterized as "NAFTA 2.0",<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/12/10/usmca-is-finally-done-deal-after-democrats-sign-off-heres-what-is-it/|title=The USMCA is finally done. Here's what is in it.|first=Heather|last=Long |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foxbusiness.com/economy/nafta-2-0-what-to-know|title=NAFTA 2.0: What to know|first=Brittany De|last=Lea|date=November 30, 2018|website=FOXBusiness}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/strikes-at-low-wage-plants-signal-revival-of-labor-demands-in-mexico-11550087620|title=Strikes at Low-Wage Plants Signal Revival of Labor Demands in Mexico|first=Juan|last=Montes|newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=February 13, 2019|via=www.wsj.com}}</ref> or "New NAFTA",<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Swanson|first1=Ana|last2=Tankersley|first2=Jim|date=January 29, 2020|title=Trump Just Signed the U.S.M.C.A. Here's What's in the New NAFTA.|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/business/economy/usmca-deal.html|access-date=July 2, 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=July 1, 2020|title=Under USMCA, Canada rolls with 'new NAFTA'|url=https://www.freightwaves.com/news/under-usmca-canada-rolls-with-new-nafta|access-date=July 2, 2020|website=FreightWaves|language=en-US}}</ref> since many provisions from NAFTA were incorporated and its changes were seen as largely incremental. On July 1, 2020, the USMCA entered into force in all member states.
In June 2018, after Trudeau explained that Canadians would not be "pushed around" by the [[Trump tariffs]] on Canada's aluminum and steel, Trump labeled Trudeau as "dishonest" and "meek", and accused Trudeau of making "false statements", although it is unclear which statements Trump was referring to. Trump's adviser on trade, [[Peter Navarro]], said that there was a "special place in hell" for Trudeau as he employed "bad faith diplomacy with President Donald J. Trump and then tried to stab him in the back on the way out the door ... that comes right from [[Air Force One]]."<ref>{{cite web |title='Very dishonest & weak': Trump lashes out at Trudeau following G7 summit |url=http://www.thejournal.ie/g7-trump-4062794-Jun2018/ |website=[[thejournal.ie]] |date=June 10, 2018 |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |access-date=June 10, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Watkins |first1=Eli |title=Trump's top economic aide on Trudeau: 'It was a betrayal' |date=June 10, 2018 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/06/10/politics/larry-kudlow-donald-trump-justin-trudeau/index.html |publisher=[[CNN]] |access-date=June 13, 2018}}</ref> Days later, Trump said that Trudeau's comments are "going to cost a lot of money for the people of Canada".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dangerfield |first1=Katie |title=Donald Trump slams Trudeau (again), says PM will cost Canadians a lot of money |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/4268418/donald-trump-justin-trudeau-cost-canada-money/ |publisher=[[Global News]] |access-date=June 13, 2018}}</ref>
In June 2019, the U.S. State Department spokesperson [[Morgan Ortagus]] said the U.S. "view Canada's claim that the waters of the Northwest Passage are internal waters of Canada as inconsistent with international law".<ref>{{cite news |title=The US is picking a fight with Canada over a thawing Arctic shipping route |url=https://qz.com/1653831/the-us-is-picking-a-fight-with-canada-over-an-arctic-shipping-route/ |work=Quartz |date=June 27, 2019}}</ref>
=== Justin Trudeau and Joe Biden (January 2021 – present) ===
[[File:P20230324AS-0994 (52829489332).jpg|thumb|President [[Joe Biden]] and Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]], March 2023]]
Following the victory of [[Joe Biden]] in the [[2020 United States presidential election|2020 U.S. presidential election]], Trudeau congratulated him on his victory; indicating a significant improvement in Canada–U.S. relationships, which had been strained in the years prior during the [[First presidency of Donald Trump|Presidency of Donald Trump]].
On January 22, 2021, Biden and Trudeau held their first phone call. Trudeau was the first foreign leader to receive a phone call from Biden as President.<ref>{{cite web |title=Readout of President Joe Biden Call with Prime Minister Justin Trudeau of Canada |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/01/22/readout-of-president-joe-biden-call-with-prime-minister-justin-trudeau-of-canada// |website=The White House |date=January 22, 2021}}</ref>
On February 23, 2021, Biden and Trudeau held their first bilateral meeting. Although virtual, the bilateral meeting was Biden's first as President. The two leaders discussed "COVID-19, economic recovery, climate change, and refugees and migration" among other subjects.<ref>{{cite web |title=Remarks by President Biden and Prime Minister Trudeau of Canada Before Virtual Bilateral Meeting |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2021/02/23/remarks-by-president-biden-and-prime-minister-trudeau-of-canada-before-virtual-bilateral-meeting/ |website=The White House |date=February 23, 2021}}</ref>
=== Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump ''(Starting January 2025)'' ===
Following the victory of [[Donald Trump]] in the [[2024 United States presidential election|2024 U.S. presidential election]], Trudeau congratulated him on his victory.
On November 29, 2024, Trudeau met with President-elect Trump at Mar-a-Lago to discuss trade relations, following Trump's threat to impose a 25% tariff on Canadian imports and his intention to renegotiate or dismantle the USMCA.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vaillancourt |first=William |title=Donald Trump Dines With Justin Trudeau at Mar-a-Lago After Tariff Threat |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/donald-trump-dines-with-justin-trudeau-at-mar-a-lago-after-tariff-threat |work=The Daily Beast |date=2024-11-29 |access-date=2024-12-03}}</ref>
== Military and security ==
The [[Canadian Forces|Canadian military]], like forces of other NATO countries, fought in cooperation with the United States in most major conflicts since [[World War II]], including the [[Korean War]], the [[Gulf War]], the [[Kosovo War]], and most recently the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|war in Afghanistan]]. The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to some [[CIA activities in Canada]], the [[Vietnam War]], and the [[Iraq War]], which caused some brief diplomatic tensions.<ref name="Massie 2019 pp. 575–594"/><ref name="Mingst Karns 2019 p. 63">{{cite book | last1=Mingst | first1=K. | last2=Karns | first2=M.P. | title=The United Nations In The Post-cold War Era, Second Edition | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-000-30674-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kk2fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63| page=63}}</ref> Despite these issues, military relations have remained close.<ref name="Massie 2019 pp. 575–594">{{cite journal | last=Massie | first=Justin | title=Why Canada Goes to War: Explaining Combat Participation in US-led Coalitions | journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science | publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) | volume=52 | issue=3 | date=2019-04-30 | issn=0008-4239 | doi=10.1017/s0008423919000040 | pages=575–594}}</ref>
[[File:General CQ Brown, Jr. meets with General Jennie Carignan, Chief of the Defence Staff, Canadian Armed Forces at the Pentagon, USA on 22 October 2024.jpg|thumb|General CQ Brown, Jr., Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, meets with General Jennie Carignan, Chief of the Defence Staff, Canadian Armed Forces at the Pentagon in October 2024]]
American defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country.<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2089.htm Background note on Canada], U.S. State Department</ref> The [[Permanent Joint Board of Defense]], established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters. The United States and Canada share [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) mutual security commitments. In addition, American and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the [[North American Aerospace Defense Command]] (NORAD). Canadian forces have provided indirect support for the American invasion of Iraq that began in 2003.<ref>{{cite book|first=Patrick|last=Lennox|title=At Home and Abroad: Canada–US Relationship and Canada's Place in the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EiHkgmCcxicC&pg=PA107|year=2009|publisher=UBC Press|page=107|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780774859073}}</ref> Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold War. Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into American carrier battle groups.<ref>{{cite book|author=Canadian Peace Research Institute|title=Peace Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y34dAQAAMAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Canadian Peace Research and Education Association|access-date=November 6, 2015}} vol 38 page 8</ref>
In commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the War of 1812 ambassadors from Canada and the United States, and naval officers from both countries gathered at the [[Pritzker Military Library]] on August 17, 2012, for a panel discussion on Canada-U.S. relations with emphasis on national security-related matters. Also as part of the commemoration, the navies of both countries sailed together throughout the Great Lakes region.<ref>[http://www.pritzkermilitarylibrary.org/Home/Ties-That-Bind.aspx Webcast Panel Discussion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130704070904/https://www.pritzkermilitarylibrary.org/Home/Ties-That-Bind.aspx |date=July 4, 2013 }} "Ties That Bind" at the [[Pritzker Military Library]] on August 17, 2012</ref>
According to Canadian and U.S. officials, a U.S. fighter jet shot down an unidentified object over Canada on February 23, 2023, on the orders of Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. The operation was coordinated by the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), a joint U.S.-Canadian air defense organization. Prime Minister Trudeau said investigators were looking for debris. This decision was made following the conversation between Biden and Trudeau.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Romero |first1=Dennis |last2=Alba |first2=Monica |title=U.S. shoots down the unidentified object in Canadian airspace |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/trudeau-ordered-takedown-unidentified-object-canadian-airspace-speakin-rcna70261 |website=nbcnews|date=February 12, 2023 }}</ref>
The foreign policies of the countries have been closely aligned, yet ultimately independent, since the [[Cold War]].<ref>See Congressional Research Service. ''Canada–U.S. Relations'' (Congressional Research Service, 2021) [https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/96-397.pdf 2021 Report], by an agency of the U.S. Congress; Updated February 10, 2021.</ref> There is also debate on whether the [[Northwest Passage]] is in international waters or under Canadian sovereignty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Canada and the Arctic: The Issue of Northern Sovereignty {{!}} Wilson Center |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/canada-and-the-arctic-the-issue-northern-sovereignty |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=www.wilsoncenter.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pharand |first=Donat |date=1989 |title=Canada's Sovereignty Over the Northwest Passage |url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?params=/context/mjil/article/1737/&path_info= |journal=Michigan Journal of International Law |volume=10 |issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=says |first=Teknoloji Alemi |date=2020-04-08 |title=The U.S. - Canada Northwest Passage Dispute |url=https://brownpoliticalreview.org/2020/04/the-u-s-canada-northwest-passage-dispute/ |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Brown Political Review |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Herrmann |first=Thomas |date=June 27, 2019 |title=Shipping Through the Northwest Passage: A Policy Brief |url=https://jsis.washington.edu/news/shipping-through-the-northwest-passage-a-policy-brief/ |access-date=September 7, 2023 |website=University of Washington}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rothwell |first=Donald R. |date=1993 |title=The Canadian-U.S. Northwest Passage Dispute: A Reassessment |url=https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1309&context=cilj |journal=Cornell International Law Journal |volume=26 |issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Charron |first=Andrea |date=2005 |title=The Northwest Passage: Is Canada's Sovereignty Floating Away? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40204066 |journal=International Journal |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=831–848 |doi=10.2307/40204066 |issn=0020-7020 |jstor=40204066}}</ref>
=== Iran hostage crisis ===
{{main article|Canadian Caper}}
During the 1979 revolution, protesters invaded the U.S. embassy and took many hostages. Six Americans evaded capture and were sheltered by the British and Canadian diplomatic missions. After a U.S. military operation to get them out of Iran failed,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art1.html |title=A Classic Case of Deception — Central Intelligence Agency |website=www.cia.gov |access-date=September 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130219204103/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art1.html |archive-date=February 19, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Canadian diplomat [[Kenneth D. Taylor|Ken Taylor]], [[Secretary of State for External Affairs (Canada)|Secretary of State for External Affairs]] [[Flora MacDonald (politician)|Flora MacDonald]], and [[Canadian Prime Minister|Prime Minister]] [[Joe Clark]] decided to smuggle the six Americans out of Iran on an international flight by using [[Canadian passport]]s. An [[Order in Council]] was made to issue multiple official copies of Canadian passports with fake identities to the American diplomats in the Canadian sanctuary. The passports contained forged Iranian [[Visa (document)|visas]] prepared by the U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].<ref name="Windsor Star 1981">
{{cite news
| last = Gervais
| first = Marty
| title = Iran Rescue: Our Bashful Heroes
| newspaper = [[Windsor Star]]
| date = March 28, 1981
| page = C8
| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=1ttYAAAAIBAJ&pg=1072,3794740
| access-date = February 24, 2013
}}
</ref>
=== War in Afghanistan ===
{{Main|Canada's role in the invasion of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Canadian US celebration in Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|upright|American and Canadian [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]] soldiers gather to commemorate the 65th anniversary of [[1st Special Service Force]] in [[Bagram]], Afghanistan. The 1st Special Service Force was an American-Canadian unit during World War II.]]
Canada's elite [[JTF2]] unit joined [[United States special operations forces|American special forces]] in Afghanistan shortly after the [[September 11 attacks|al-Qaeda attacks on September 11, 2001]]. Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in [[Operation Anaconda]] in January 2002. On April 18, 2002, an American pilot [[Tarnak Farm incident|bombed Canadian forces involved in a training exercise]], killing four and wounding eight Canadians. A joint American-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were "second-guessing" his field tactical decision.<ref name="friendly fire cbc">{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/u-s-friendly-fire-pilot-won-t-face-court-martial-1.479996|title=U.S. 'friendly fire' pilot won't face court martial|publisher=CBC News|date=July 6, 2004|access-date=January 28, 2004}}</ref><ref name="friendly fire bbc">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2073024.stm|title=Pilots blamed for 'friendly fire' deaths|work=BBC News|date=August 22, 2002|access-date=January 28, 2007}}</ref> Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the [[International Security Assistance Force]] in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in [[Kandahar]], with 2,300 troops, and supervises the [[Provincial Reconstruction Team]] in Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active. Canada has also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf Multinational Interdiction Force.<ref name=" Canada navy in gulf">{{cite web|url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/focus/canada-us/backgrounder_e.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070405221038/http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/focus/canada-us/backgrounder_e.asp |archive-date=April 5, 2007|title=CANADIAN NAVY TEAMS UP WITH U.S. CARRIER BATTLE GROUPS|publisher=Department of National Defence|date=September 25, 2006|access-date=January 28, 2007}}</ref>
The [[Embassy of Canada, Washington, D.C.|Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.]] maintains a public relations website named [http://www.canadianembassy.org/ca/index-eng.asp CanadianAlly.com], which is intended "to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror".
The [[New Democratic Party (Canada)|New Democratic Party]] and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict because it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Wayne S.|last1=Cox|first2=Bruno|last2=Charbonneau|title=Locating Global Order: American Power and Canadian Security After 9/11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESyG4mAgcRMC&pg=PA119|year=2010|publisher=UBC Press|page=119|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780774859660}}</ref>
=== 2003 Invasion of Iraq ===
{{See also|Canada and the Iraq War|Canada and Iraq War resisters}}
According to contemporary polls, 71% of Canadians were opposed to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].<ref name=Harper>{{Cite news| last=Harper| first=Tim| title=Canadians back Chrétien on war, poll finds| newspaper=Toronto Star| date=March 22, 2003| url=http://www.ekospolitics.com/articles/torstar-24-03-2003c.html| access-date=January 12, 2009}}</ref> Many Canadians, and the former Liberal [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] headed by [[Paul Martin]] (as well as many Americans such as [[Bill Clinton]] and [[Barack Obama]]),<ref name="clinton canada">{{cite news|title=Clinton speaks on Afghanistan, and Canada listens|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/clinton-speaks-on-afghanistan-and-canada-listens/article732939/|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|last=Spector|first=Norman|date=November 20, 2006|access-date=January 28, 2007}}</ref> made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the [[Bush Doctrine]], which linked these together in a "Global war on terror".
=== Responding to ISIS/Daesh ===
{{Main|International military intervention against ISIL}}
[[File:Ash Carter and Harjit Sajjan February 2016.jpg|thumb|Canadian Minister of Defence [[Harjit Sajjan]] meets with U.S. Secretary of Defense [[Ash Carter]] at [[NATO headquarters]] in 2016]]
Canada has been involved in international responses to the threats from [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Daesh/ISIS/ISIL]] in [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]] and is a member of the Global Coalition to Counter Daesh. In October 2016, Foreign Affairs Minister Dion and National Defence Minister Sajjan met the U.S. special envoy for this coalition. The Americans thanked Canada "for the role of Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) in providing training and assistance to Iraqi security forces, as well as the CAF's role in improving essential capacity-building capabilities with regional forces".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.gc.ca/web/article-en.do;jsessionid=f30b3f0d2b6b7640fe0f7ba037412537907c8ea2294e1710ff909baa19cec01e.e38RbhaLb3qNe3eMahz0?mthd=advSrch&crtr.page=1&crtr.dpt1D=6673&nid=1134179|title=Ministers Dion and Sajjan meet U.S. special envoy for Global Coalition to Counter ISIL|date=October 6, 2016|publisher=Global Affairs Canada|access-date=October 10, 2016|archive-date=October 10, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010220834/http://news.gc.ca/web/article-en.do;jsessionid=f30b3f0d2b6b7640fe0f7ba037412537907c8ea2294e1710ff909baa19cec01e.e38RbhaLb3qNe3eMahz0?mthd=advSrch&crtr.page=1&crtr.dpt1D=6673&nid=1134179|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Illicit drugs ===
{{main|Drug policy of the United States|Drug policy of Canada}}
In 2003, the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize the use of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]. David Murray, an assistant to the U.S. [[Director of the National Drug Control Policy|Drug Czar]] [[John P. Walters]], said in a [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] interview that, "We would have to respond. We would be forced to respond."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/u-s-warns-canada-against-easing-pot-laws-1.393091 |title=U.S. warns Canada against easing pot laws |publisher=Cbc.ca |date=May 2, 2003 |access-date=February 26, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324005525/http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2003/05/02/us_pot_rxn030502.html |archive-date=March 24, 2009 }}</ref> However, the [[2006 Canadian federal election|election]] of the [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative Party]] in early 2006 halted the liberalization of cannabis laws until the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] legalized recreational cannabis use in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Canada|first=Health|date=January 23, 2020|title=Cannabis laws and regulations|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-medication/cannabis/laws-regulations.html|access-date=March 13, 2021|website=aem}}</ref>
A 2007 joint report by American and Canadian officials on cross-border drug smuggling indicated that, despite their best efforts, "drug trafficking still occurs in significant quantities in both directions across the border. The principal illicit substances smuggled across our shared border are [[MDMA]] (''Ecstasy''), [[cocaine]], and cannabis"<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://etacanadaonline.com/ |title = ETA Canada Visa Application - Apply for Canadian E-Visa Online}}</ref> The report indicated that Canada was a major producer of ''Ecstasy'' and marijuana for the U.S. market, while the U.S. was a transit country for cocaine entering Canada.
== Trade ==
{{Main|Canada–United States trade relations}}
[[File:Log driving in Vancouver.jpg|thumb|upright|Timber being floated along the [[Fraser River]] in Vancouver. [[Canada–United States softwood lumber dispute|Trade disputes over softwood lumber]] exist between the two countries.]]
Canada and the United States have the world's second-largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year. Since the 1987 [[Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement]], there have been no [[tariff]]s on most goods passed between the two countries.
In the course of the [[Canada–United States softwood lumber dispute|softwood lumber dispute]], the U.S. has placed tariffs on Canadian softwood lumber because of what it argues is an unfair Canadian government subsidy, a claim that Canada disputes. The dispute has cycled through several agreements and arbitration cases. Other notable disputes include the [[Canadian Wheat Board]], and [[Canadian cultural protectionism]] in cultural industries such as magazines, radio, and television. Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|Mad Cow disease]] was discovered in 2003 in cows from the United States (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies. Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11.<ref>{{cite book|first=Eric|last=Miller|title=The Outlier Sectors: Areas of Non-free Trade in the North American Free Trade Agreement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fwit1QwswY0C&pg=PA19|year=2002|publisher=BID-INTAL|page=19|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9789507381287}}</ref>
== Environmental issues ==
[[File:President Nixon and Prime Minister Trudeau at the signing ceremony for the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement - NARA - 194763 (restored).jpg|thumb|Richard Nixon and [[Pierre Trudeau]] at the signing ceremony for the [[Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement]] in 1972]]
A principal instrument of this cooperation is the [[International Joint Commission]] (IJC), established as part of the [[Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909]] to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters. The [[Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement]] of 1972 is another historic example of cooperation in controlling trans-border water pollution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ottawa.usembassy.gov/content/textonly.asp?section=can_usa&document=environment|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527153939/http://ottawa.usembassy.gov/content/textonly.asp?section=can_usa&document=environment |archive-date=May 27, 2010|title=The Embassy of the U.S.A., Ottawa – United States – Canada Relations|author=GMcKeating|access-date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> However, there have been some disputes. Most recently, the [[Devil's Lake (North Dakota)|Devil's Lake]] Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project.
Beginning in 1986, the Canadian government of Brian Mulroney began pressing the Reagan administration for an "Acid Rain Treaty" to do something about U.S. industrial air pollution causing acid rain in Canada. The Reagan administration was hesitant and questioned the science behind Mulroney's claims. However, Mulroney was able to prevail. The product was the signing and ratification of the [[Air Quality Agreement]] of 1991 by the first Bush administration. Under that treaty, the two governments consult semi-annually on trans-border air pollution, which has demonstrably reduced acid rain, and they have since signed an annex to the treaty dealing with ground level ozone in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/airmarkt/progsregs/usca/index.htm|title=Clean Air Markets|access-date=April 27, 2016|date=August 12, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/air/default.asp?lang=En&n=83930AC3-1|title=Environment and Climate Change Canada – Air – Canada- United States Air Quality Agreement|access-date=April 27, 2016|date=January 25, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/exclusive-interview-brian-mulroney-remembers-his-friend-ronald-reagan|title=Exclusive Interview: Brian Mulroney remembers his friend Ronald Reagan|website=News.nationalpost.com|date=February 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-04-06-mn-139-story.html | work=Los Angeles Times | first1=Kenneth | last1=Freed | first2=James | last2=Gerstenzang | date=April 6, 1987 | title=Mulroney Asks Reagan for Treaty on Acid Rain}}</ref> Despite this, trans-border air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed during the summer. The main source of this trans-border pollution results from coal-fired power stations, most of them located in the [[Midwestern United States]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Edward S.|last1=Cassedy|first2=Peter Z.|last2=Grossman|title=Introduction to Energy: Resources, Technology, and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3cf97Wt07MC&pg=PA157|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|page=157|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780521637671}}</ref> As part of the negotiations to create [[NAFTA]], Canada and the U.S. signed, along with Mexico, the [[North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation]] that created the [[Commission for Environmental Cooperation]] that monitors environmental issues across the continent, publishing the [[North American Environmental Atlas]] as one aspect of its monitoring duties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cec.org/Page.asp?PageID=1226&SiteNodeID=310&BL_ExpandID=154|title=COMMISSION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION|access-date=April 27, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511004728/http://www.cec.org/Page.asp?PageID=1226&SiteNodeID=310&BL_ExpandID=154|archive-date=May 11, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Currently, neither of the countries' governments support the [[Kyoto Protocol]], which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement. Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the Canadian government does not enforce the [[Kyoto Protocol]] and has received criticism from environmental groups and other governments for its climate change positions. In January 2011, the [[Minister of the Environment (Canada)|Canadian minister of the environment]], [[Peter Kent]], explicitly stated that the policy of his government about greenhouse gas emissions reductions is to wait for the United States to act first, and then try to harmonize with that action – a position that has been condemned by environmentalists and Canadian nationalists, and as well as scientists and government think-tanks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://money.canoe.ca/money/business/canada/archives/2011/01/20110128-152706.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20110706171230/http://money.canoe.ca/money/business/canada/archives/2011/01/20110128-152706.html |archive-date=July 6, 2011|title=Canada's environment policy to follow the U.S.: Minister|url-status=usurped|access-date=April 27, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.climateprosperity.ca/eng/studies/canada-us/report/media-release-canada-us-report-eng.php|title=Resources – Climate Prosperity|access-date=April 27, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706173124/http://www.climateprosperity.ca/eng/studies/canada-us/report/media-release-canada-us-report-eng.php|archive-date=July 6, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
With large [[Water supply and sanitation in Canada|freshwater supplies in Canada]] and long-term concern about water scarcity in [[Water supply and sanitation in the United States|parts of the United States]], [[water export]] availability or restriction has been identified as an issue of possible future contention between the countries.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Montgomery |first1=Marc |title=Canada has water, the U.S wants it. |url=https://www.rcinet.ca/en/2015/10/01/canada-has-water-the-u-s-wants-it/ |access-date=April 4, 2022 |work=RCI English |agency=Radio Canada International |date=October 1, 2015}}</ref>
=== Newfoundland fisheries dispute ===
The United States and Britain had a long-standing dispute about the rights of Americans fishing in the waters near Newfoundland.<ref>{{cite book|last=Michael Rheta Martin|title=Dictionary of American History: With the Complete Text of the Constitution of the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqG-B4jsMIAC&pg=PA227|year=1978|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|page=227|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780822601241}}</ref> Before 1776, there was no question that American fishermen, mostly from Massachusetts, had rights to use the waters off Newfoundland. In the peace treaty negotiations of 1783, the Americans insisted on a statement of these rights. However, France, an American ally, disputed the American position because France had its own specified rights in the area and wanted them to be exclusive.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Orville T. |year=1965 |title=The Comte De Vergennes, The Newfoundland Fisheries And The Peace Negotiation Of 1783: A Reconsideration |journal=Canadian Historical Review |volume=46 |issue=1|pages=32–46 |doi=10.3138/chr-046-01-02|s2cid=143808239 }}</ref> The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]] gave the Americans not rights, but rather "liberties" to fish within the territorial waters of British North America and to dry fish on certain coasts.
After the War of 1812, the Convention of 1818 between the United States and Britain specified exactly what liberties were involved.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Golladay |first1=V. Dennis |year=1973 |title=The United States and British North American Fisheries, 1815–1818 |journal=American Neptune |volume=33 |issue=4|pages=246–257}}</ref> Canadian and Newfoundland fishermen contested these liberties in the 1830s and 1840s. The [[Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty]] of 1854, and the [[Treaty of Washington (1871)|Treaty of Washington of 1871]] spelled out the liberties in more detail. However the Treaty of Washington expired in 1885, and there was a continuous round of disputes over jurisdictions and liberties. Britain and the United States sent the issue to the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] in The Hague in 1909. It produced a compromise settlement that permanently ended the problems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alvin |first1=C. Gluek Jr |year=1976 |title=Programmed Diplomacy: The Settlement of the North Atlantic Fisheries Question, 1907–12 |journal=Acadiensis |volume=6 |issue=1|pages=43–70 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kurkpatrick Dorsey|title=The Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy: U.S.-Canadian wildlife protection treaties in the progressive era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwqSUGLTRsgC&pg=PA19|year=2009|publisher=University of Washington Press|page=19ff|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780295989792}}</ref>
== Common memberships ==
Canada and the United States both hold membership in several multinational organizations, including:
{{col div}}
* [[Arctic Council]]
* [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]]
* [[Canadian Hockey League]] (CHL)
* [[CONCACAF]]
* [[FIBA]]
* [[FIFA]]
* [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]
* [[G7]]
* [[Group of Ten (economic)|G-10]]
* [[G-20 major economies]]
* [[International Chamber of Commerce]]
* [[International Development Association]]
* [[International Ice Hockey Federation]] (IIHF)
* [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF)
* [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC)
* [[Interpol]]
* [[Major League Baseball]] (MLB)
* [[Major League Soccer]] (MLS)
* [[National Basketball Association]] (NBA)
* [[National Hockey League]] (NHL)
* [[National Lacrosse League]] (NLL)
* [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA)
* [[North American Aerospace Defense Command]] (NORAD)
* [[North American Numbering Plan]]
* [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO)
* [[Organization of American States]]
* [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)
* [[Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America]]
* [[UKUSA Community]]
* [[United Nations]] (UN)
* [[UNESCO]]
* [[World Bowling]]
* [[World Health Organization]] (WHO)
* [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO)
* [[World Bank]]
* [[World Rugby]]
{{col div end}}
== Territorial disputes ==
{{See also|List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States}}
[[File:U.S. Coast Guard on scene at Canadian "X2" buoy - 190925-G-G0101-012.jpg|thumb|A "buoy" on [[Machias Seal Island]]. The waters around the island are one of several maritime territorial disputes between the two countries.]]
The two countries have had several territorial disputes throughout their histories. Current maritime territorial disputes between the two countries include the [[Beaufort Sea#Border dispute|Beaufort Sea]], [[Dixon Entrance]], [[Strait of Juan de Fuca]], [[San Juan Islands]], [[Machias Seal Island]], and [[North Rock]]. Additionally, the United States is one of several countries that contends the [[Northwest Passage]] is international waters; whereas the Canadian government asserts it forms [[Canadian Internal Waters]]. The [[Inside Passage]] is also disputed as international waters by the United States.
Historical boundary disputes include the [[Aroostook War]] at the [[Maine]]–[[New Brunswick]] border; the [[Oregon boundary dispute]] at the present day [[British Columbia]]–[[Washington (state)|Washington]] border; and the [[Alaska Boundary Dispute]] at the Alaska–British Columbia border. The Maine–New Brunswick boundary dispute was resolved through the [[Webster–Ashburton Treaty]] in 1842, the Oregon boundary dispute through the [[Oregon Treaty]] of 1846, and the Alaska boundary dispute through arbitration in 1903.
=== Northwest Passage ===
[[File:Northwest passage.jpg|thumb|Popular routes on the [[Northwest Passage]]]]
A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the [[Northwest Passage]] (the sea passages in the [[Arctic]]). Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an [[international strait]]. Canadians were alarmed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker {{SS|Manhattan|1962|2}} through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker [[USCGC Polar Sea (WAGB-11)|Polar Sea]] in 1985, which resulted in a [[1985 Polar Sea controversy|minor diplomatic incident]]. In 1970, the Canadian parliament enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone. In response, the United States in 1970 stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada. ... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide." A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an agreement on "Arctic Cooperation", which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers "will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada". However, the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position. [[Paul Cellucci]], the American ambassador to Canada, in 2005 suggested to Washington that it should recognize the straits as belonging to Canada. His advice was rejected and Harper took opposite positions. The U.S. opposes Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.<ref>Matthew Carnaghan, Allison Goody, [http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/prb0561-e.htm "Canadian Arctic Sovereignty"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304003939/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/prb0561-e.htm |date=March 4, 2012 }} (Library of Parliament: Political and Social Affairs Division, January 26, 2006); [https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/harper-brushes-off-u-s-criticism-of-arctic-plan-1.611471 2006 news]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Politics/20070817/qp_cellucci_070819/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222190522/http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Politics/20070817/qp_cellucci_070819/ |archive-date=February 22, 2011 |title=Cellucci: Canada should control Northwest Passage |publisher=CTV.ca |url-status=dead|access-date=February 26, 2011}}</ref>
== Views of presidents and prime ministers ==
Presidents and prime ministers typically make formal or informal statements that indicate the diplomatic policy of their administration. Diplomats and journalists at the time—and historians since—dissect the nuances and tone to detect the warmth or coolness of the relationship.
* Prime Minister [[John A. Macdonald]], speaking at the beginning of the [[1891 Canadian federal election|1891 election]] (fought mostly over [[Reciprocity (Canadian politics)|Canadian free trade with the United States]]), arguing against closer trade relations with the U.S. stated "As for myself, my course is clear. A [[British subject]] I was born—a British subject I will die. With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the 'veiled treason' which attempts by sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance." (February 3, 1891.<ref>Histor!ca [http://www.histori.ca/prodev/article.do;jsessionid=8D3831D48EE489EBCF46813C8427E685.tomcat1?id=15356 "Election of 1891: A Question of Loyalty"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406092452/http://www.histori.ca/prodev/article.do%3Bjsessionid%3D8D3831D48EE489EBCF46813C8427E685.tomcat1?id=15356 |date=April 6, 2008 }}, James Marsh.</ref>)
Canada's first Prime Minister also said:
{{blockquote|It has been said that the United States Government is a failure. I don't go so far. On the contrary, I consider it a marvelous exhibition of human wisdom. It was as perfect as human wisdom could make it, and under it, the American States greatly prospered until very recently, but being the work of men it had its defects, and it is for us to take advantage by experience, and endeavor to see if we cannot arrive by careful study at such a plan as will avoid the mistakes of our neighbors. In the first place, we know that every individual state was an individual sovereign—that each had its own army and navy and political organization – and when they formed themselves into a confederation they only gave the central authority certain specific rights appertaining to sovereign powers. The dangers that have risen from this system we will avoid if we can agree upon forming a strong central government—a great Central Legislature—a constitution for a Union which will have all the rights of sovereignty except those that are given to the local governments. Then we shall have taken a great step in advance of the American Republic. (September 12, 1864)}}
* Prime Minister [[John Sparrow Thompson]], angry at failed trade talks in 1888, privately complained to his wife, [[Annie Thompson|Lady Thompson]], that "These Yankee politicians are the lowest race of thieves in existence."<ref>Donald Creighton, ''John A. Macdonald: The Old Chieftain'' (1955) p. 497</ref>
* After World War II years of close military and economic cooperation, President [[Harry S. Truman]] said in 1947 that "Canada and the United States have reached the point where we can no longer think of each other as 'foreign' countries."<ref>Council on Foreign Relations, ''Documents on American foreign relations'' (1957) Volume 9 p 558</ref>
* President [[John F. Kennedy]] told Parliament in Ottawa in May 1961 that "Geography has made us neighbors. History has made us friends. Economics has made us partners. And necessity has made us allies. Those whom nature hath so joined together, let no man put asunder."<ref>John F. Kennedy. ''[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=8136 Address Before the Canadian Parliament in Ottawa]''. The American Presidency Project.</ref>
* President [[Lyndon Johnson]] helped open Expo '67 with an upbeat theme, saying "We of the United States consider ourselves blessed. We have much to give thanks for. But the gift of providence we cherish most is that we were given as our neighbors on this wonderful continent the people and the nation of Canada." Remarks at [[Expo '67]], Montreal, May 25, 1967.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://canada.usembassy.gov/content/textonly.asp?section=can_usa&document=quotes|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323143657/http://canada.usembassy.gov/content/textonly.asp?section=can_usa&document=quotes |archive-date=March 23, 2009 |title=The Embassy of the U.S.A., Ottawa – United States – Canada Relations |publisher=Canada.usembassy.gov |access-date=February 26, 2011}}</ref>
{{listen | help = no | pos = right| filename = Trudeau sleeping with an elephant.ogg | title = Trudeau Washington Press Club speech | description = Trudeau's famous "sleeping with an elephant" quotation | format = [[Ogg]]}}
* Prime Minister [[Pierre Elliot Trudeau]] famously said that being America's neighbor "is like sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly and even-tempered the beast, if one can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt."<ref>From a speech by Trudeau to the [[National Press Club (USA)|National Press Club]] in [[Washington, DC]], on March 25, 1969</ref><ref>J. L. Granatstein and Robert Bothwell, ''Pirouette: Pierre Trudeau and Canadian Foreign Policy'' (1991) p. 51</ref>
* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, sharply at odds with the U.S. over Cold War policy, warned at a press conference in 1971 that the overwhelming American presence posed "a danger to our national identity from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point of view."<ref>J. L. Granatstein and Robert Bothwell, ''Pirouette: Pierre Trudeau and Canadian Foreign Policy'' (1991) p. 195</ref>
* President [[Richard Nixon]], in a speech to Parliament in 1972 was angry at Trudeau and declared that the "special relationship" between Canada and the United States was dead. "It is time for us to recognize", he stated, "that we have very separate identities; that we have significant differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these realities are obscured."<ref>J. L. Granatstein and Robert Bothwell, ''Pirouette: Pierre Trudeau and Canadian Foreign Policy'' (1991) p. 71</ref>
* In late 2001, President [[George W. Bush]] did not mention Canada during a speech in which he thanked a list of countries who had assisted in responding to the events of [[Operation Yellow Ribbon|September 11]], although Canada had provided military, financial, and other support.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gwbush911jointsessionspeech.htm|title=The Rhetoric of 9/11: President George W. Bush – Address to Joint Session of Congress and the American People (9-20-01)|access-date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> Ten years later, [[David Frum]], one of President Bush's speechwriters, stated that it was an unintentional omission.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/david-frum-why-bush-didnt-mention-canada-in-his-920-speech |title=David Frum: Why Bush didn't mention Canada in his 9/20 speech|last=Frum|first=David|newspaper=National Post|date=September 9, 2011|access-date=October 12, 2016}}</ref>
* Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]], in a statement congratulating [[Barack Obama]] on his inauguration, stated that "The United States remains Canada's most important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we build on this special relationship."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/media.asp?category=3&id=2391|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113232449/http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/media.asp?category=3&id=2391 |archive-date=January 13, 2010|title=Statement by Prime Minister Stephen Harper|access-date=January 21, 2009|date=January 20, 2009|publisher=Office of the Prime Minister of Canada}}</ref>
* President Barack Obama, speaking in Ottawa at his first official international visit on February 19, 2009, said, "I love this country. We could not have a better friend and ally."<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSTRE51I7GY20090219 |work=Reuters |title=Obama declares love for Canada, banishes Bush era |date=February 19, 2009}}</ref>
* President Joe Biden, while addressing Parliament on March 24, 2023, emphasized the strong relationship between the two countries, stating, “Americans and Canadians are two people, two countries, in my view, sharing one heart, a personal connection. No two nations on Earth are bound by such close ties, friendship, family, commerce and culture." Biden additionally commented on Canada's sports culture, saying, "I have to say, I like your teams except the [[Toronto Maple Leafs|Leafs.]]" which was met with laughter and applause.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 24, 2023 |title=Remarks by President Biden in Address to the Canadian Parliament |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2023/03/24/remarks-by-president-biden-in-address-to-the-canadian-parliament/ |website=whitehouse.gov}}</ref>
== Public opinion ==
Today there remain cross-border cultural ties <ref>{{cite web|title=Canadians and Americans are more similar than assumed|url=http://news.ubc.ca/2011/07/07/canadians-and-americans-are-more-similar-than-assumed/|first=Basil|last=Waugh|date=July 7, 2011|website=News.ubc.ca|access-date=July 18, 2016|archive-date=September 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901215309/https://news.ubc.ca/2011/07/07/canadians-and-americans-are-more-similar-than-assumed/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadians-and-americans-think-a-lot-alike|title=Canadians and Americans think a lot alike|encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]|access-date=September 8, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=United North America|url=http://www.unitednorthamerica.org/simdiff.htm|website=Unitednorthamerica.org|access-date=July 18, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725094714/http://www.unitednorthamerica.org/simdiff.htm|archive-date=July 25, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> and according to [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]]'s annual public opinion polls, Canada has consistently been Americans' favorite nation, with 96% of Americans viewing Canada favorably in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/126116/Canada-Places-First-Image-Contest-Iran-Last.aspx |title=In U.S., Canada Places First in Image Contest; Iran Last |publisher=Gallup.com |date=February 19, 2010 |access-date=February 26, 2011}} published in 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.gallup.com/poll/152735/americans-give-record-high-ratings-several-allies.aspx Americans Give Record-High Ratings to Several U.S. Allies] ''[[Gallup (company)|Gallup]]''</ref> As of spring 2013, 64% of Canadians had a favorable view of the U.S. and 81% expressed confidence in then-US President Obama to do the right thing in international matters. According to the same poll, 30% viewed the U.S. negatively.<ref>See Jacob Poushter and Bruce Drake, [http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/02/19/americans-views-of-mexico-canada-diverge-as-obama-attends-three-amigos-summit/ "Americans' views of Mexico, Canada diverge as Obama attends 'Three Amigos' summit"] ''Pew research Center'' February 19, 2014</ref>  In addition, according to Spring 2017 Global Attitudes Survey, 43% of Canadians view the U.S. positively, while 51% hold a negative view.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2017/06/27162930/PG_2017.06.26_US-Image-Report_Full-Report.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721075551/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2017/06/27162930/PG_2017.06.26_US-Image-Report_Full-Report.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 21, 2017|title=US Image Report|date=June 26, 2017}}</ref> More recently, however, a poll in January 2018 showed Canadians' approval of U.S. leadership dropped by over 40 percentage points under President [[Donald Trump]], in line with the view of residents of many other U.S. allied and neutral countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/225761/world-approval-leadership-drops-new-low.aspx |title=World's Approval of U.S. Leadership Drops to New Low |publisher=[[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] |date=January 18, 2018 |access-date=August 18, 2018}}</ref> Since then, Canadian opinion of the U.S. has improved significantly, following an international rebound in the U.S. image abroad following the transition as [[President of the United States]] from Donald Trump to [[Joe Biden]], with 61% of Canadians having a favorable opinion of the United States in 2021.<ref name="pewresearch.org">{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2021/06/10/americas-image-abroad-rebounds-with-transition-from-trump-to-biden/ | title=America's Image Abroad Rebounds with Transition from Trump to Biden | date=June 10, 2021 }}</ref>
=== Anti-Americanism ===
{{further|Anti-Americanism#Canada}}
Anti-Americanism in Canada has unique historic roots.<ref name="Anon. x583"/><ref name="Doran Sewell 1988 pp. 105–119"/> Since the arrival of the Loyalists as refugees from the American Revolution in the 1780s, historians have identified a constant theme of Canadian fear of the United States and of "[[Americanization]]" or a cultural takeover. In the War of 1812, for example, the enthusiastic response by French militia to defend Lower Canada reflected, according to Heidler and Heidler (2004), "the fear of Americanization".<ref>David Stephen Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, ''Encyclopedia of the War of 1812'' (2004) p. 194</ref> Scholars have traced this attitude over time in Ontario and Quebec.<ref>J. L. Granatstein, ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997)</ref>
[[File:Uncle Sam kicked out.png|thumb|upright|left|A Canadian political cartoon from 1869 of a "Young Canada" kicking out [[Uncle Sam]] from "Dominion House", while [[John Bull]] watches in the background]]
Canadian intellectuals who wrote about the U.S. in the first half of the 20th century identified America as the world center of modernity and deplored it. Anti-American Canadians (who admired the British Empire) explained that Canada had narrowly escaped American conquest with its rejection of tradition, its worship of "progress" and technology, and its mass culture; they explained that Canada was much better because of its commitment to orderly government and societal harmony. There were a few ardent defenders of the nation to the south, notably liberal and socialist intellectuals such as [[F. R. Scott]] and Jean-Charles Harvey (1891–1967).<ref>Damien-Claude Bélanger, ''Prejudice and Pride: Canadian Intellectuals Confront the United States, 1891–1945'' (University of Toronto Press, 2011), pp 16, 180</ref>
Looking at television, Collins (1990) finds that it is in Anglophone Canada that fear of cultural Americanization is most powerful, for there the attractions of the U.S. are strongest.<ref>Richard Collins, ''Culture, Communication, and National Identity: The Case of Canadian Television'' (U. of Toronto Press, 1990) p. 25</ref> Meren (2009) argues that after 1945, the emergence of Quebec nationalism and the desire to preserve French-Canadian cultural heritage led to growing anxiety regarding American cultural imperialism and Americanization.<ref>David Meren, "'Plus que jamais nécessaires': Cultural Relations, Nationalism and the State in Canada–Quebec–France Triangle, 1945–1960", ''Journal of the Canadian Historical Association'', 2009, Vol. 19 Issue 1, pp 279–305,</ref> In 2006 surveys showed that 60 percent of Québécois had a fear of Americanization, while other surveys showed they preferred their current situation to that of the Americans in the realms of health care, quality of life as seniors, environmental quality, poverty, educational system, racism and standard of living. While agreeing that job opportunities are greater in America, 89 percent disagreed with the notion that they would rather be in the United States, and they were more likely to feel closer to English Canadians than to Americans.<ref name="autogenerated114">Paula Ruth Gilbert, ''Violence and the Female Imagination: Quebec's Women Writers'' (2006) p. 114</ref> However, there is evidence that the elites and Quebec are much less fearful of Americanization and much more open to economic integration than the general public.<ref name="autogenerated114" />
[[File:Anti-reciprocity signs 1911 Toronto.jpg|thumb|Signage advocating against free trade with the United States on a building in Toronto in 1911]]
The history has been traced in detail by a leading Canadian historian J.L. Granatstein in ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997). Current studies report the phenomenon persists. Two scholars report, "Anti-Americanism is alive and well in Canada today, strengthened by, among other things, disputes related to NAFTA, American involvement in the Middle East, and the ever-increasing Americanization of Canadian culture."<ref>{{cite book |first1=Barbara S. |last1=Groseclose |first2=Jochen |last2=Wierich |title=Internationalizing the History of American Art: Views |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXqgwtSEupQC&pg=PA105 |year=2009| publisher=Penn State Press |page=105 |access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=978-0271032009 }}</ref> [[Jamie Glazov]] writes, "More than anything else, Diefenbaker became the tragic victim of Canadian anti-Americanism, a sentiment the prime minister had fully embraced by 1962. [He was] unable to imagine himself (or his foreign policy) without enemies."<ref>{{cite book |first=Jamie |last=Glazov |title=Canadian Policy Toward Khrushchev's Soviet Union |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TRs_t6fhyX4C&pg=PA138 |year=2002 |publisher=McGill-Queens |page=138 |access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780773522763 }}</ref> Historian J. M. Bumsted says, "In its most extreme form, Canadian suspicion of the United States has led to outbreaks of overt anti-Americanism, usually spilling over against American residents in Canada."<ref>{{cite book|first=J. M.|last=Bumsted|editor-first=Paul|editor-last=Magocsi|title=Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&pg=PA197|year=1999|publisher=University of Toronto Press|page=197|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780802029386}}</ref> John R. Wennersten writes, "But at the heart of Canadian anti-Americanism lies a cultural bitterness that takes an American expatriate unaware. Canadians fear the American media's influence on their culture and talk critically about how Americans are exporting a culture of violence in its television programming and movies."<ref>{{cite book|first=John R.|last=Wennersten|title=Leaving America: The New Expatriate Generation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_FzYO9YV0CsC&pg=PA44|year=2008|publisher=Greenwood|page=44|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780313345067}}</ref> However Kim Nossal points out that the Canadian variety is much milder than anti-Americanism in some other countries.<ref>{{cite book|first=Brendon|last=O'Connor|title=Anti-Americanism: Comparative perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jq4FMb47AnEC&pg=PA60|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood |page=60 |access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9781846450266}}</ref> By contrast, Americans show very little knowledge or interest one way or the other regarding Canadian affairs.<ref>{{cite book|first=Seymour Martin|last=Lipset|title=Continental Divide: The Values and Institutions of the United States and Canada|url=https://archive.org/details/continentaldivid00lips|url-access=registration|year=1990|publisher=Routledge|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780415903097}}</ref> Canadian historian [[Frank Underhill]], quoting Canadian playwright [[Merrill Denison]] summed it up: "Americans are benevolently ignorant about Canada, whereas Canadians are malevolently informed about the United States."<ref>{{cite book|first=Camille R.|last=La Bossière|title=Context North America: Canadian/U.S. Literary Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zwoWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA11|year=1994|publisher=U. of Ottawa Press|page=11|access-date=November 6, 2015|isbn=9780776603605}}</ref>
=== Canadian public opinion on U.S. presidents ===
[[File:Ya goof! (31605832784).jpg|thumb|Anti-Trump rally organized in [[Vancouver]] in January 2017]]
United States President [[George W. Bush]] was "deeply disliked" by a majority of Canadians according to the ''Arizona Daily Sun''. A 2004 poll found that more than two-thirds of Canadians favored Democrat [[John Kerry]] over Bush in the [[2004 United States presidential election|2004 presidential election]], with Bush's lowest approval ratings in Canada being in the province of [[Quebec]] where just 11% of the population supported him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://azdailysun.com/poll-deep-anti-bush-sentiment-in-canada/article_1c8749cf-9704-5e02-9c7c-159214c9a5f5.html|title=Poll: Deep anti-Bush sentiment in Canada|date=October 20, 2004|work=Arizona Daily Sun|access-date=April 27, 2016}}</ref> Canadian public opinion of [[Barack Obama]] was significantly more positive. A 2012 poll found that 65% of Canadians would vote for Obama in the [[2012 United States presidential election|2012 presidential election]] "if they could" while only 9% of Canadians would vote for his Republican opponent [[Mitt Romney]]. The same study found that 61% of Canadians felt that the Obama administration had been "good" for America, while only 12% felt it had been "bad". Similarly, a [[Pew Research]] poll conducted in June 2016 found that 83% of Canadians were "confident in Obama to do the right thing regarding world affairs".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2016/06/29/2-obamas-international-image-remains-strong-in-europe-and-asia/|title=2. Obama's international image remains strong in Europe and Asia|first1=Richard|last1=Wike|first2=Jacob|last2=Poushter|first3=Hani|last3=Zainulbhai|date=June 29, 2016|website=Pewglobal.org}}</ref> The study also found that a majority of members of all three major Canadian political parties supported Obama, and also found that Obama had slightly higher approval ratings in Canada in 2012 than he did in 2008. John Ibbitson of ''[[The Globe and Mail]]'' stated in 2012 that Canadians generally supported Democratic presidents over Republican presidents, citing how President [[Richard Nixon]] was "never liked" in Canada and that Canadians generally did not approve of Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]]'s friendship with President [[Ronald Reagan]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/who-do-canadians-want-to-vote-for-barack-obama/article4219652/|title=Who do Canadians want to vote for? Barack Obama|work=The Globe and Mail|access-date=April 27, 2016}}</ref>
A November 2016 poll found 82% of Canadians preferred [[Hillary Clinton]] over Donald Trump.<ref>{{cite news |title=Canadians rooting for Hillary Clinton to become president: poll |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/3047708/canadians-rooting-for-hillary-clinton-to-become-president-poll/ |work=Global News |date=November 6, 2016}}</ref> A January 2017 poll found that 66% of Canadians "disapproved" of [[Donald Trump]], with 23% approving of him and 11% being "unsure". The poll also found that only 18% of Canadians believed Trump's presidency would have a positive impact on Canada, while 63% believed it would have a negative effect.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.torontosun.com/2017/01/24/majority-of-canadians-dont-trust-trump-poll|title=Majority of Canadians don't trust Trump: Poll|newspaper=Toronto Sun|access-date=May 18, 2017}}</ref> A July 2019 poll found 79% of Canadians preferred [[Joe Biden]] or [[Bernie Sanders]] over Trump.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nearly 8 in 10 Canadians prefer Dems over Trump; Sanders, Biden most popular: poll |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/nearly-8-in-10-canadians-prefer-dems-over-trump-sanders-biden-most-popular-poll-1.4517305 |work=CTV News |date=July 21, 2019}}</ref> A Pew Research poll released in June 2021, showed that Canadian opinion of American president [[Joe Biden]] is much more favorable than his predecessor Donald Trump, with 77% approving of his leadership and having confidence in him to do the right thing.<ref name="pewresearch.org"/>
== Resident diplomatic missions ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
; Resident diplomatic missions of Canada in the United States
* [[Washington, D.C.]] ([[Embassy of Canada, Washington, D.C.|Embassy]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.international.gc.ca/country-pays/us-eu/washington.aspx?lang=eng|title=Embassy of Canada to the United States, in Washington, D.C.|first=Global Affairs|last=Canada|date=April 29, 2021|website=GAC}}</ref>
* [[Atlanta]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Boston]] ([[Consulate General of Canada, Boston|Consulate-General]])
* [[Chicago]] ([[Consulate General of Canada, Chicago|Consulate-General]])
* [[Dallas]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Denver]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Detroit]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Los Angeles]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Miami]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Minneapolis]] (Consulate-General)
* [[New York City]] (Consulate-General)
* [[San Francisco]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Seattle]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Houston]] (Trade Office)
* [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]] (Trade Office)
* [[San Diego]] (Trade Office)
{{col-2}}
; Resident diplomatic missions of the United States in Canada
* [[Ottawa]] ([[Embassy of the United States, Ottawa|Embassy]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ca.usembassy.gov/embassy-consulates/ottawa/|title=Embassy of the United States in Ottawa}}</ref>
* [[Calgary]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Montreal]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Quebec City]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Toronto]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Vancouver]] (Consulate-General)
* [[Winnipeg]] (Consulate)
{{col-end}}
== See also ==
{{Column|num=2
|1=
* [[American Canadians]]
* [[Canada–United States border]]
* [[Canada–United States sports rivalries]]
* [[Canadian Americans]]
* [[Canadian nationalism]]
* [[Comparison of Canadian and American economies]]
* [[Comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States|Comparison of the Canadian and American healthcare systems]]
* [[Foreign relations of Canada]]
* [[Foreign relations of the United States]]
|2=
* [[History of homeland security in the United States]]
* [[North Atlantic triangle]]
* [[Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America]]
* [[United Kingdom–United States relations]]
* [[List of ambassadors of Canada to the United States]]
* [[List of ambassadors of the United States to Canada]]
* [[CIA activities in Canada]]
}}
{{portalbar|Canada|United States|Politics}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
=== Cited sources ===
* {{cite book |last1=Nugent |first1=Walter |title=Habits of Empire |date=June 10, 2008 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-307-26949-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_zDQlAp4T4wC |language=en}}
== Further reading ==
{{Further|History of Canadian foreign relations#Relations with United States}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|author1=Anderson, Greg|first2=Christopher|last2=Sands|title=Forgotten Partnership Redux: Canada-U.S. Relations in the 21st Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZuLZwEACAAJ|year=2011|publisher=Cambria Press|isbn=978-1-60497-762-2|access-date=November 6, 2015}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* Azzi, Stephen. ''Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada–US Relations'' (Oxford University Press, 2014)
* Behiels, Michael D. and Reginald C. Stuart, eds. ''Transnationalism: Canada–United States History into the Twenty-First Century'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010) 312 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=35132 online 2012 review]
* Bothwell, Robert. ''Your Country, My Country: A Unified History of the United States and Canada'' (2015), 400 pages; traces relations, shared values, and differences across the centuries
* Boyko, John. ''Cold fire: Kennedy's northern front'' (Alfred A. Knopf Canada, 2016)
* Congressional Research Service. ''Canada–U.S. Relations'' (Congressional Research Service, 2021) [https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/96-397.pdf 2021 Report], by an agency of the U.S. Congress; Updated February 10, 2021
* Clarkson, Stephen. ''Uncle Sam and Us: Globalization, Neoconservatism and the Canadian State'' (University of Toronto Press, 2002)
* Doran, Charles F., and James Patrick Sewell, "Anti-Americanism in Canada", ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', Vol. 497, Anti-Americanism: Origins and Context (May 1988), pp.&nbsp;105–119 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1045764 in JSTOR]
* Dunning, William Archibald. ''The British Empire and the United States'' (1914) [https://archive.org/details/britishempireuni0000dunn/page/n5/mode/2up online] celebratory study by a leading American scholar.
* [[David Dyment|Dyment, David]] "Doing the Continental: A New Canadian-American Relationship" (Dundurn Press, 2010)
* [[Yves Engler|Engler, Yves]]{{Cite book
| title = The Black Book of Canadian Foreign Policy
| publisher = Co-published: RED Publishing, [[Fernwood Publishing]]
| date = April 2009
| isbn = 978-1-55266-314-1
}}
* Granatstein, J. L. ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997)
* Granatstein, J. L. and Norman Hillmer, ''For Better or for Worse: Canada and the United States to the 1990s'' (1991)
* Gravelle, Timothy B. "Partisanship, Border Proximity, and Canadian Attitudes toward North American Integration." ''International Journal of Public Opinion Research'' (2014) 26#4 pp: 453–474.
* Gravelle, Timothy B. "Love Thy Neighbor (u) r? Political Attitudes, Proximity and the Mutual Perceptions of the Canadian and American Publics". ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (2014) 47#1 pp: 135–157.
* Greaves, Wilfrid. "Democracy, Donald Trump, and the Canada-US Security Environment". (NAADSN – North American and Arctic Defense Security Network, 2020). [https://www.naadsn.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/20-May_Greaves_Democracy-Trump-and-the-Canada-US-PSC.pdf online]
* {{cite journal |last=Hacker |first=Louis M. |title=Western Land Hunger and the War of 1812: A Conjecture |date=March 1924 |pages=365–395 |author-link=Louis M. Hacker |journal=Mississippi Valley Historical Review |volume=X |jstor=1892931 |issue=4 |doi=10.2307/1892931 }}
* Hale, Geoffrey. ''So Near Yet So Far: The Public and Hidden Worlds of Canada-US Relations'' (University of British Columbia Press, 2012); 352 pages focus on 2001–2011
* Hillmer, Norman, and Philippe Lagassé, eds. ''Justin Trudeau and Canadian foreign policy'' (Springer, 2018) [https://books.google.com/books?id=C5ZaDwAAQBAJ&dq=foreign+policy+justin+trudeau&pg=PR6 online].
* Holland, Kenneth. "The Canada–United States defense relationship: a partnership for the twenty-first century". ''Canadian Foreign Policy Journal'' ahead-of-print (2015): 1–6. [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/11926422.2014.995686 online]
* Holmes, Ken. "The Canadian Cognitive Bias and its Influence on Canada/US Relations". ''International Social Science Review'' (2015) 90#1 [http://digitalcommons.northgeorgia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1073&context=issr online].
* Holmes, John W. "Canadian External Policies since 1945" "International Journal" 18#2 (1963) 137–147.  https://doi.org/10.1177/002070206301800201 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40198783 online]
* Holmes, John W. "Impact of Domestic Political Factors on Canadian-American Relations: Canada", ''International Organization'', Vol. 28, No. 4, Canada and the United States: Transnational and Transgovernmental Relations (Autumn, 1974), pp.&nbsp;611–635 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2706227 in JSTOR]
* Innes, Hugh, ed. ''Americanization: Issues for the Seventies'' (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972). {{ISBN|0-07-092943-2}}; re 1970s
* Keenleyside, Hugh Ll. ''Canada and the United States'' (1929) [https://archive.org/details/canadaunitedstat0000unse_t5a2 online]
* Lennox, Patrick. ''At Home and Abroad: The Canada-U.S. Relationship and Canada's Place in the World'' (University of British Columbia Press; 2010) 192 pages; the post–World War II period.
* Little, John Michael. "Canada Discovered: Continental Perceptions of the Roosevelt Administration, 1939–1945", PhD dissertation. ''Dissertation Abstracts International'', 1978, Vol. 38 Issue 9, p5696-5697
* Lumsden, Ian, ed. ''The Americanization of Canada'', ed. for the University League for Social Reform (U of Toronto Press, 1970). {{ISBN|0-8020-6111-7}}
* McInnis, Edgard W. ''The Unguarded Frontier: A History of American-Canadian Relations'' (1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.225182 online]; well-regarded older study
* MacKenzie, Scott A. "But There Was No War: The Impossibility of a United States Invasion of Canada after the Civil War" ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' (2017): [https://doi.org/10.1080/02722011.2017.1406965 online]
* McKercher, Asa. ''Camelot and Canada: Canadian-American Relations in the Kennedy Era'' (Oxford UP, 2016). xii, 298 pp.&nbsp;1960-1963.
* Molloy, Patricia. ''Canada/US and Other Unfriendly Relations: Before and After 9/11'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 192 pages; essays on various "myths"
* Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant. ''Invisible and Inaudible in Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War'' (1999)
* Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant. ''''An Introduction to Canadian-American Relations'' (2nd ed.1989)
* Myers, Phillip E. ''Dissolving Tensions: Rapprochement and Resolution in British-American-Canadian Relations in the Treaty of Washington Era, 1865–1914'' (Kent State UP, 2015). x, 326 pp.
* Pacheco, Daniela Pereira. "Politics on Twitter: a comparison between Donald Trump and Justin Trudeau". (ICSCP 2020). [http://www.academia.edu/download/61922051/Paper_-_Daniela_Pacheco.pdf online]{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Paltiel, Jeremy. "Canada's middle-power ambivalence: The palimpsest of US power under the Chinese shadow". in ''America's Allies and the Decline of US Hegemony'' (Routledge, 2019) pp. 126–140.
* Pederson, William D. ed. ''A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (2011)  pp 517–41, covers FDR's policies
* {{Cite book |last= Stagg |first=J.C.A. |title=The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent |series=Cambridge Essential Histories |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-521-72686-3}}
* Stoett, Peter J. "Fairweather Friends? Canada–United States Environmental Relations in the Days of Trump and the Era of Climate Change". in ''Canada–US Relations'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019) pp.&nbsp;105–123.
* Stuart, Reginald C. ''Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper North America'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0801887852 excerpt and text search]
* Tagg, James. "'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism", ''The History Teacher'', 37#3 (May 2004), pp.&nbsp;309–334 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1555672 in JSTOR]
* Tansill, C. C. ''Canadian-American Relations, 1875–1911'' (1943)
* Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall. ''Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies'' (4th ed. McGill-Queen's UP, 2008), 387pp
* Wrong, Hume, and John W. Holmes. "The Canada–United States Relationship 1927/1951". ''International Journal'' 31#3 (1976): 529–45. [https://doi.org/10.2307/40201357 The Canada–United States Relationship 1927/1951] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40201357 online]
=== Trade and tariffs ===
* Ciuriak, Dan, How U.S. Trade Policy Has Changed Under President Donald Trump – Perceptions From Canada (SSRN, March 29, 2019). [https://ssrn.com/abstract=3362910 online] or [http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3362910 How U.S. Trade Policy Has Changed Under President Donald Trump – Perceptions From Canada]
* Georges, Patrick. "Canada's Trade Policy Options under Donald Trump: NAFTA's rules of origin, Canada US security perimeter, and Canada's geographical trade diversification opportunities". (Working Paper #1707E Department of Economics, University of Ottawa, 2017). [https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/40361/1/1707E.pdf online]
* Grey, Earl. ''The Commercial Policy of the British Colonies and the McKinley Tariff'' (London: Macmillan, 1892). [https://archive.org/details/commercialpolic00greygoog online]
* Lawder, Robert H. ''Commerce between the United States & Canada, Observations on Reciprocity and the McKinley Tariff'' (Toronto: Monetary Times Printing, 1892). [https://archive.org/details/cihm_09012 online]
* Muirhead, Bruce. "From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the U.S., and the Nixon Shock", ''American Review of Canadian Studies'', Vol. 34, 2004
* Palen, Marc-William. "Protection, federation, and union: The global impact of the McKinley tariff upon the British Empire, 1890–94". ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 38.3 (2010): 395–418 [https://www.academia.edu/download/28641358/Palen_Protection__Federation_and_Union.pdf online]{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}.
* Rioux, Hubert. "Canada First vs. America First: Economic Nationalism and the Evolution of Canada–US Trade Relations". ''European Review of International Studies'' 6.3 (2019): 30–56. [https://budrich.de/Zeitschriften/Leseprobe/ERIS-2019-3-04-Rioux-Canada-America-Economy-Nationalism-Trade-Relations.pdf online]
=== Primary sources ===
* Gallagher, Connell. "The Senator George D. Aiken Papers: Sources for the Study of Canadian-American Relations, 1930–1974". ''Archivaria'' 1#21 (1985) pp.&nbsp;176–79 [http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/viewFile/11247/12186 online].
* {{cite book|author=Arthur E. Blanchette|title=Canadian foreign policy, 1977–1992: selected speeches and documents|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QxSwZiivWYC&pg=PP1|year=1994|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-88629-243-0}}
* {{cite book|author=Arthur E. Blanchette|title=Canadian foreign policy, 1945–2000: major documents and speeches|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMw7By8tE2MC&pg=PR1|year=2000|publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd.|isbn=978-0-919614-89-5}}
* Riddell, Walter A. ed. ''Documents on Canadian Foreign Policy, 1917–1939'' Oxford University Press, 1962 806 pages of documents
{{refend}}
== External links ==
* [https://history.state.gov/countries/canada History of Canada – U.S. relations]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130714135714/http://can-am.gc.ca/washington/index.aspx Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.]
* [https://ca.usembassy.gov/ U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Canada]
* [http://www.canadianassociationny.org/ Canadian Association of New York]
* [https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canada-and-the-united-states Canada and the United States, by Stephen Azzi and J.L. Granatstein] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813115958/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/canada-and-the-united-states/ |date=August 13, 2017 }}
* [https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadian-american-relations Canadian-American Relations, by John English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809181532/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/canadian-american-relations/ |date=August 9, 2017 }}
* [https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/362 ''A New North American Neighborhood: The Alaskan Boundary Question and Canadian American Relations, 1898–1913'' Manuscript] at Dartmouth College Library
{{Canada–United States relations}}
{{Foreign relations of Canada}}
{{Foreign relations of the United States}}
{{Trilateral relations of Canada, Mexico, and United States}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Canada-United States relations}}
[[Category:Canada–United States relations| ]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of Canada|United States]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of the United States]]