View source for Cave salamander (spotted-tail)

{{Short description|Species of amphibian}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Eurycea lucifuga in natural habitat.jpg
| image_caption = Adult ''Eurycea lucifuga''
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |author=IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group |year= 2022 |title= ''Eurycea lucifuga'' |page= e.T59269A196339688 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T59269A196339688.en |access-date=20 December 2023}}</ref>
| taxon = Eurycea lucifuga
| authority = [[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque|Rafinesque]], 1822
}}
The '''cave salamander''' or '''spotted-tail salamander''' ('''''Eurycea lucifuga''''') is a [[species]] of [[brook salamander]] in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Plethodontidae]].<ref name=r3/>. It is well known for living in and around caves in the southeast United States. Adult cave salamanders are bright orange with black spots. This species is, somewhat vaguely, referred to by the common name of 'cave salamander'; however, it is not restricted to caves, but is known for inhabiting surface-level, terrestrial, woodland habitats, as well.
==Description==
The cave salamander is a relatively large lungless salamander, ranging in total length from {{cvt|10|to|20|cm|in|0}}. The tail makes up a significant proportion of the total length, up to 60–65%.<ref name=r1/> Post-metamorphic individuals have orange to reddish orange backs and a pale, unmarked ventral surface. The dorsal surface of the body is heavily marked with irregularly spaced spots and dashes.<ref name=r2/> The limbs of the cave salamander are long. There are 14–15 costal grooves on the side of the body. This species has a prehensile tail.<ref name=Petranka/>
==Naming confusion==
The name 'cave salamander' can be confusing because the term is also used more generally to describe [[cave salamander|cave-dwelling salamanders]]. Despite its name, the cave salamander is much less cave adapted than other cave-dwelling salamanders like the [[olm]] or [[Texas blind salamander]]. Unlike the more cave-adapted species, the cave salamander is brightly pigmented, has eyes, and does not exhibit [[neoteny]].
==Habitat and distribution==
Cave salamanders are typically found in areas with exposed limestone or other calcareous rock, particularly in crevices of rock faces, bluffs and caves.<ref name=r4/> This species is also frequently found hundreds of metres from the mouths of caves, far beyond the twilight zone of the cave.<ref name=r5/> Despite its name, the cave salamander is not restricted to caves, and may be found in forests near bluffs and rocky crevices and around springs, and also under moist rocks and logs.<ref name=Petranka/><ref name=r6/> This species is found in [[Alabama]], [[Arkansas]]<ref name="outalasalamanders" /> [[Illinois]],<ref name=r7/> [[Missouri]],<ref name=r8/> [[Kentucky]], [[Virginia]],<ref name=r9/> [[West Virginia]],<ref name=r7/> [[Oklahoma]], [[Tennessee]], [[Kansas]], [[Indiana]], and [[Ohio]].
[[File:Eurycea lucifuga (Cave Salamander) (3679650501).jpg|thumb|right|250px|In Arkansas]]
==Courtship and reproduction==
The courtship and mating season is not well documented in this species, although available data suggests it occurs in the summer, continuing to early autumn. Observations made from a pair maintained in captivity are summarized as follows: The courtship of this species is described as similar to that of the Northern two-lined salamander; where the male nudges and rubs his chin on the females’ head and snout. The male may engage in ‘push-ups’ using his hind legs, and begin to position the base of his tail under the females. If receptive, she will straddle his tail as they walk in unison, while the male arches his back. A spermatophore, approximately 4&nbsp;mm high is deposited on the ground in the females path, which she picks up with her cloaca.<ref name=r10/> After mating, there seems to be a prolonged period in which the females deposit eggs, taking place from September to February.<ref name=Petranka/> Few biologists have found eggs of the cave salamander, suggesting that females seek difficult to access places, such as springs, streams and rim stone pools deep within caves and crevices. In Missouri, eggs have been found laid singly or attached to the sides of rimstone pools, on silt deposits or on the bottom of small pools. Recently laid eggs are white, with two jelly membranes surrounding the embryo. Egg diameter ranges from 2.5 to 3.2&nbsp;mm.<ref name=r11/> Females can produce between 5–120 eggs.<ref name=r12/>
===Larval ecology===
Larval cave salamanders appear similar to other larval ''Eurycea''. Larvae have been found in both surface streams, and in cave streams and pools. It is thought that larvae found in surface streams may have been washed out of caves and crevices by heavy rains. Cave salamander larvae are predators, and feed primarily on benthic invertebrates, such as snails, ostracods, copepods, isopods, mayflies, stoneflies, beetles and flies, of which ostracods, snails and fly larvae are the most common dietary item. Prey is captured by slowly crawling over the substrate and grasping the invertebrate by the mouth and swallowing it whole, thus prey is limited by the gape of the salamanders mouth.<ref name=r13/> From hatching to metamorphosis to a terrestrial adult takes between 6 and 18 months, although this period is variable by region.<ref name=Petranka/> Larvae may attain sizes of 70&nbsp;mm (33&nbsp;mm snout-to-vent-length) by the time of metamorphosis.<ref name=r14/>
==References==
{{Commons category|Eurycea lucifuga}}
{{Reflist|35em|refs=
<ref name="outalasalamanders">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/Amphibians/Salamanders/ |title=Salamanders |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |access-date=October 17, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928030855/http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/Amphibians/Salamanders/ |archive-date=September 28, 2012 }}</ref>
<ref name=Petranka>Petranka, J.W. (1998). ''Salamanders of the United States and Canada''. Washington, District of Columbia: Smithsonian Institution Press. {{ISBN|1588343081}}.</ref>
<ref name=r1>Hutchison, V.H. (1966). ''Eurycea lucifuga''. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles. pp. 24.1–24.2</ref>
<ref name=r2>Lannoo, M.J. (1998). ''Status and Conservation of Midwestern Amphibians''. Iowa City, Iowa: University of Iowa Press. {{ISBN|0877456321}}.</ref>
<ref name=r3>[[Roger Conant (herpetologist)|Conant, R.]]; [[Joseph T. Collins|Collins, J.T.]]  (1998). ''Peterson Field Guides: Reptiles and Amphibians (Eastern/Central North America)''. New York, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. {{ISBN|0395904528}}.</ref>
<ref name=r4>{{cite journal|author1=Banta, A.M. |author2=McAtee, W.L. |author2-link=species:Waldo Lee McAtee |year=1906|title= The life history of the cave salamander, ''Spelerpes maculicaudus'' (Cope)|journal= Proceedings of the United States National Museum |volume=30|pages=67–73|hdl=10088/13873|doi=10.5479/si.00963801.30-1443.67|issue=1443|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/53119 }}</ref>
<ref name=r5>{{cite journal|author1=Peck, S.B. |author-link=species:Stewart B. Peck |author2=Richardson, B.L. |year= 1976|title= Feeding ecology of the salamander ''Eurycea lucifuga'' in the entrance, twilight zone, and dark zone of caves|journal= Annales de Spéléologie|volume= 31|pages=175–182}}</ref>
<ref name=r6>Mount, R.H. (1975). ''The Reptiles and Amphibians of Alabama''. Auburn, Alabama: Auburn Printing. {{ISBN|0817300546}}.</ref>
<ref name=r7>Conant, R.; J.T. Collins, J.T. (1998). ''A Field Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America''. New York, New York: Houghton Mifflin. {{ISBN|0395904528}}.</ref>
<ref name=r8>Johnson, T.; Love, K. (1987). ''The Amphibians and Reptiles of Missouri''. Jefferson City, Missouri: Missouri Department of Conservation. {{ISBN|1887247092}}.</ref>
<ref name=r9>[[Hobart Muir Smith|Smith, Hobart M.]] (1978). ''Amphibians of North America: A Guide to Field Identification''. New York, New York: Golden Press. p. 160 {{ISBN|0307636623}}</ref>
<ref name=r10>{{cite journal|author=Organ, J.A. |year=1968|title= Courtship behavior and spermatophore of the cave salamander, ''Eurycea lucifuga'' (Rafinesque)|journal= Copeia |volume=1968|pages=576–580|jstor=1442027|doi=10.2307/1442027|issue=3}}</ref>
<ref name=r11>{{cite journal|author=Green, N.B.|author-link=species:Norman Bayard Green |author2=Brant, P. Jr.|author3=Dowler, B.|year= 1967|title= ''Eurycea lucifuga'' in West Virginia: its distribution, ecology and life history|journal= Proceedings of the West Virginia Academy of Science |volume=39|pages=297–304}}</ref>
<ref name=r12>[[Sherman C. Bishop|Bishop, S.]] (1994). ''Handbook of Salamanders: The Salamanders of the United States, of Canada, and of Lower California''. London: Comstock Publishing Associates. {{ISBN|0801482135}}.</ref>
<ref name=r13>{{cite journal|author=Rudolph, D.C.|year= 1978|title= Aspects of the larval ecology of five Plethodontid salamanders of the western Ozarks. |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=100|issue= 1|pages=141–159|jstor=2424785|doi=10.2307/2424785}}</ref>
<ref name=r14>{{cite journal|author=Williams, A.A.|year= 1980|title= Fluctuations in a population of the cave salamander.|journal= National Speleological Society Bulletin|volume= 42|pages=49–52|url=http://www.caves.org/pub/journal/PDF/V42/v42n3-Williams.htm}}</ref>
}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2276281}}
[[Category:Eurycea]]
[[Category:Cave salamanders]]
[[Category:Amphibians of the United States]]
[[Category:Extant Pleistocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Amphibians described in 1822]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque]]