View source for Customs union

{{short description|Type of trade bloc with a free trade area and common external tariff}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{trading blocs}}
A '''customs union''' is generally defined as a type of [[trade bloc]] which is composed of a [[free trade area]] with a [[common external tariff]].<ref name="auto">GATT, [https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/region_art24_e.htm Article 24], s. 8 (a)</ref>
Customs unions are established through [[trade pact]]s where the participant countries set up [[common external trade policy]] (in some cases they use different [[import quota]]s). Common [[competition policy]] is also helpful to avoid ''[[competition]] deficiency''.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aYBoUpj4xTMC&pg=PA177 | title=International Economics, Volume IV | publisher=Routledge | author=Winters, Alan L | year=1991 | pages=528 pages| isbn=9780203028384 }}</ref>
Purposes for establishing a customs union normally include increasing [[economic efficiency]] and establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries. It is the third stage of [[economic integration]].
Every [[economic union]], [[customs and monetary union]] and economic and monetary union includes a customs union.
== WTO definition ==
The [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]], part of the [[World Trade Organization]] framework defines a customs union in the following way:<ref name="auto"/>
{{blockquote|text=(a) A customs union shall be understood to mean the substitution of a single customs territory for two or more customs territories, so that
(i) duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce (except, where necessary, those permitted under Articles XI, XII, XIII, XIV, XV and XX) are eliminated with respect to substantially all the trade between the constituent territories of the union or at least with respect to substantially all the trade in products originating in such territories, and,
(ii) subject to the provisions of paragraph 9, substantially the same duties and other regulations of commerce are applied by each of the members of the union to the trade of territories not included in the union;}}
== Historical background ==
The German Customs Union, the [[Zollverein]], which was established in 1834, and gradually developed and expanded, was a customs union organization that appeared earlier and played a role in promoting German economic development and political unification at that time. Before the establishment of the unified [[German Empire]] in the 1870s, there were checkpoints between and within the German states, which hindered the development of industry and commerce. In 1818, Prussia took the lead in abolishing the customs duties in the mainland; it was followed by the establishment of the North German Customs Union in 1826. Two years later, two customs unions were established in the states of South Germany.<ref name="Flaherty 2018 981–982">{{Cite journal|last=Flaherty|first=Jane|s2cid=158847890|date=2018|title=Tariff Wars and the Politics of Jacksonian America by William K. Bolt|journal=Journal of Southern History|volume=84|issue=4|pages=981–982|doi=10.1353/soh.2018.0262|issn=2325-6893}}</ref>
In 1834, 18 states joined to form the German Customs Union with Prussia as the main leader. Thereafter, this alliance was further expanded to all German-speaking regions{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} and became the All-German Customs Union. The contents of the alliance convention included: abolishing internal tariffs, unifying external tariffs, raising import tax rates, and allocating tariff income to all states in the alliance in proportion. In addition, there is a customs union between France and Monaco, which was established in 1865.
A customs union was established by Switzerland and Liechtenstein in 1924, by Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg in 1948, by the countries of the [[European Economic Community]] in 1958, and by the [[Economic Community of Central African States]] in 1964. At that time, the [[European Free Trade Association]] was different from the [[European Economic Community Customs Union]]. Free trade within the former was limited to industrial products, and no uniform tariffs were imposed on countries outside the Union.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2002|title=Discussion|journal=Brookings Trade Forum|volume=2002|issue=1|pages=227–230|doi=10.1353/btf.2003.0003|issn=1534-0635}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chang|first=Ha-Joon|chapter=Industrial Policy: Can Africa do It?|date=2013|title=The Industrial Policy Revolution II|pages=114–132|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|doi=10.1057/9781137335234_5|isbn=978-1-137-37450-9}}</ref>
It was brought into action by the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. Pre- modern conditions ( 30+ currencies, trade barriers etc.) were viewed as an obstacle as obstacles to o economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.
== Main feature ==
The main feature of the Customs Union is that the member countries have not only eliminated [[trade barrier]]s and implemented [[free trade]], but also established a common external tariff. In other words, in addition to agreeing to eliminate each other's trade barriers, members of the Customs Union also adopt common external tariff and trade policies.<ref>"Free Trade". IGM Forum. 13 March 2012.</ref> [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade|GATT]] stipulates that if the customs union is not established immediately, but is gradually completed over a period of time, it should be completed within a reasonable period, which generally does not exceed 10 years.<ref name="Flaherty 2018 981–982"/>
== Protect measures ==
The exclusive protection measures of the Customs Union mainly include the following:<ref>{{cite book |last=Simonova|first=Aleksandra|chapter=Hackerspaces and Technoparks in Moscow|date=2019|title=From Russia with Code|publisher=Duke University Press|doi=10.1215/9781478003342-007|isbn=978-1-4780-0334-2|s2cid=201508480 }}</ref>
* Reduce tariffs until the tariffs within the union are cancelled. In order to achieve this goal, the alliance often stipulates that the member countries must transition from their current external tariff rates to the unified tariff rates stipulated by the alliance in stages within a certain period of time, until finally canceling tariff.
* Formulate a unified foreign trade policy and foreign tariff rates. In terms of foreign affairs, allied members must increase or decrease their original foreign tariff rates within the prescribed time, and eventually establish a common external tariff rate; and gradually unify their foreign trade policies, such as foreign discrimination policies and import quantities.
* For goods imported from outside the alliance, common different tariffs are levied, such as preferential tax rates, agreed national tax rates, most-favored nation tax rates, ordinary preferential tax rates, and ordinary tax rates, according to the types of commodities and the provider countries.
* Formulate unified protective measures, such as import [[Import quota|quotas]], health and epidemic prevention standards, etc.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Diamond|first1=Peter A.|last2=Mirrlees|first2=James A.|s2cid=153968075|date=2002|title=Optimal Taxation and The Le Chatelier Principle|journal=SSRN Working Paper Series|doi=10.2139/ssrn.331300 |ssrn=331300|issn=1556-5068|hdl=1721.1/63998|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
== Meaning ==
* It avoids the problem that the [[Free-trade zone|free trade zone]] needs to be supplemented by the principle of origin to maintain the normal flow of commodities. Here, instead of the principle of origin, a common 'foreign barrier' is built. In this sense, the customs union is more exclusive than the free trade zone.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krugman, Paul R.|title=Microeconomics|date=2005|publisher=Worth|others=Wells, Robin, 1959-|isbn=0-7167-5229-8|location=New York|oclc=58043929}}</ref>
* It makes the 'national sovereignty' of the member countries to be transferred to the [[economic integration]] organization to a greater extent, so that once a country joins a customs union, it loses its right to [[Autonomy|autonomous]] tariffs. In reality, the more typical customs union is the European Economic Community established in 1958.
== Economic effects ==
Economic effects of customs unions can generally be grouped into ''static effects'' and ''dynamic effects''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Implications of static and dynamic effects of economic integration for investment inflows and outflows using theories on industrial location: A theoretical debate – Nova Science Publishers|date=10 July 2021 |url=https://novapublishers.com/implications-of-static-and-dynamic-effects-of-economic-integration-for-investment-inflows-and-outflows-using-theories-on-industrial-location-a-theoretical-debate/|access-date=2021-09-20|language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Static effects ===
There are trade creation effects and trade diversion effects. The trade creation effect refers to the benefits generated by products from domestic production with higher production costs to the production of customs union countries with lower costs. The trade diversion effect refers to the loss incurred when a product is imported from a non-member country with lower production costs to a member country with a higher cost. This is the price of joining the customs union. When the trade creation effect is greater than the transfer effect, the combined effect of joining the Customs Union on the member countries is net profit, which means an increase in the economic welfare level of the member countries; otherwise, it is a net loss and a decline in the economic welfare level.
The trade creation effect is usually regarded as a positive effect. This is because the domestic production cost of country A is higher than the production cost of country A 's imports from country B. The Customs Union made Country A give up the domestic production of some commodities and change it to Country B to produce these commodities. From a worldwide perspective, this kind of production conversion improves the efficiency of [[resource allocation]].<ref name="Smirnov 805–811">{{Cite conference |last=Smirnov|first=Valery|date=2019-03-29|title=Management of Food Import Substitution in Russia |conference=International Scientific Conference "Social and Cultural Transformations in the Context of Modern Globalism" |series=The European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences|pages=805–811|publisher=Cognitive-Crcs|doi=10.15405/epsbs.2019.03.02.92|doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Dynamic effects ===
The customs union will not only bring static effects to member states, but also bring some dynamic effects to them. Sometimes, this dynamic effect is more important than its static effect, which has an important impact on the economic growth of member countries.<ref name="Smirnov 805–811"/>
# The first dynamic effect of the customs union is the large market effect (or economies of [[Economies of scale|scale effect]]). After the establishment of the customs union, good conditions have been created for the mutual export of products between member countries. This expansion of the market has promoted the development of enterprise production, allowing producers to continuously expand production scale, reduce costs, enjoy the benefits of [[economies of scale]], and can further enhance the [[externality]] of enterprises within the alliance, especially for non-member companies [[Competition|competitive]] power. Therefore, the large market effect created by the Customs Union has triggered the realization of economies of scale.
# The establishment of the Customs Union has promoted competition among enterprises among member countries. Before the member states formed a customs union, many sectors had formed domestic [[Monopoly|monopolies]], and several enterprises had occupied the domestic market for a long time and obtained excessive monopoly profits. Therefore, it is not conducive to the [[resource allocation]] and technological progress of various countries. After the formation of the customs union, due to the mutual openness of the markets of various countries, enterprises of various countries face competition from similar enterprises in other member countries. As a result, in order to gain a favorable position in the competition, enterprises will inevitably increase research and development investment and continuously reduce [[production costs]], thereby creating a strong competitive atmosphere within the alliance, improving economic efficiency, and promoting technological progress.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Krugman|first1=Paul|title=Volkswirtschaftslehre|last2=Wells|first2=Robin|date=2017|publisher=Schäffer-Poeschel|doi=10.34156/9783791039237|isbn=978-3-7910-3923-7}}</ref>
# The establishment of a customs union helps to attract external investment. The establishment of a customs union implies the exclusion of products from non-members. In order to counteract such adverse effects, countries outside the alliance may transfer enterprises to some countries within the customs union to directly produce and sell locally in order to bypass uniform tariff and non-tariff barriers. This objectively generates [[capital inflows]] that accompany the transfer of production, attracting large amounts of foreign direct investment.
== Lists of customs unions ==
[[File:World Customs Unions.svg|thumb|270x270px|{{legend|#0066ffff|[[European Union Customs Union]]}}{{legend|#fac14cff|[[Eurasian Customs Union]]}}{{legend|#00ccffff|[[East African Community]]}}{{legend|#aa0000ff|[[West African Economic and Monetary Union]]}}{{legend|#ff2a2aff|[[Southern African Customs Union]]}}{{legend|#66ff00ff|[[Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa]]}}{{legend|#008f5aff|[[Mercosur]]}}{{legend|#fede0bff|[[Andean Community]]}}{{legend|#ff00ffff|[[Caribbean Community]]}}{{legend|#352c96ff|[[Central American Common Market]]}}{{legend|#aa7b2dff|[[Gulf Cooperation Council]]}}{{legend|#ff5599ff|Switzerland–Liechtenstein}}{{Legend|#ff7f2aff|[[United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union]]}}]]
=== Current ===
<!-- listed below are 'customs unions'elsajean– see respective articles for lists of economic unions; customs and monetary unions; economic and monetary unions -->
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Agreement!!Date (in force)!!Recent reference
|-
|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Andean Community of Nations.svg}} [[Andean Community]] (CAN)||1988-05-25||L/6737
|-
|{{Flagicon|Caribbean Community}} [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM)||1991-01-01||
|-
|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Central American Integration System.svg}} [[Central American Common Market]] (CACM)
| 2004-10-06
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20090305050656/http://docsonline.wto.org/DDFDocuments/t/G/L/696.doc WT/REG93/R/B/2]
|-
|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the African Union.svg}} [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] (COMESA)||2005-01-01<ref>Signed 1993-11-5, but entered into force in 1994-12-8.</ref>||[http://rtais.wto.org/UI/PublicShowRTAIDCard.aspx?rtaid=121]
|-
|{{Flagicon|East African Community}} [[East African Community]] (EAC)||2005-01-01<ref>Signed 2000-7-7, but implemented in 2005.</ref>||[https://web.archive.org/web/20090326200352/http://docsonline.wto.org/DDFDocuments/t/WT/COMTD/N14.doc WT/COMTD/N/14]
|-
|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the African Union.svg}} [[Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa]] (CEMAC)||1999-06-01<ref>Signed 1994-05-16, but implemented in 1999.</ref>||
|-
|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Eurasian Economic Union.svg}} [[Eurasian Customs Union]] (EACU) ||2010-07-01<ref>Customs Union of [[Eurasian Economic Community]] (EurAsEC) envisioned in its 1997-10-08 agreement, but not implemented. [http://docsonline.wto.org/DDFDocuments/t/WT/REG/71-8.doc WT/REG71/8] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305050646/http://docsonline.wto.org/DDFDocuments/t/WT/REG/71-8.doc |date=5 March 2009 }}</ref>||
|-
| style="border-bottom: 0px;" |{{Flagicon image|Flag of the European Union.svg}} [[European Union Customs Union]] (EUCU; EU–Monaco) || 1958 ||
|-
| style="border-top: 0px; border-bottom: 0px;" |&nbsp;'''∟{{Flagicon image|Flag of the European Union.svg}}''' {{Flagicon image|Flag of Andorra.svg}} EU–Andorra Customs Union||1991-07-01||[https://web.archive.org/web/20090225112409/http://docsonline.wto.org/DDFDocuments/t/WT/REG/53M3.doc WT/REG53/M/3]
|-
| style="border-top: 0px; border-bottom: 0px;" |&nbsp;'''∟'''{{Flagicon image|Flag of the European Union.svg}} {{Flagicon image|Flag of San Marino.svg}} EU–San Marino Customs Union ||2002-04-01||
|-
| style="border-top: 0px;" |&nbsp;'''∟{{Flagicon image|Flag of the European Union.svg}}''' {{Flagicon image|Flag of Turkey.svg}} [[European Union–Turkey Customs Union|EU–Turkey Customs Union]]||1996-01-01||[https://web.archive.org/web/20090225112435/http://docsonline.wto.org/DDFDocuments/t/WT/REG/22M4.doc WT/REG22/M/4]
|-
|{{Flagicon|Gulf Cooperation Council}} [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] (GCC)
|2015-01-01<ref>Agreed on 2003-01-01, [http://docsonline.wto.org/DDFDocuments/t/WT/COMTD/N25.doc WT/COMTD/N/25] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305050626/http://docsonline.wto.org/DDFDocuments/t/WT/COMTD/N25.doc |date=5 March 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bilaterals.org/spip.php?article18075|title=GCC countries postpone customs union move}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=GCC customs union fully operational |url=http://thepeninsulaqatar.com/news/middle-east/314466/gcc-customs-union-fully-operational |access-date=24 January 2016 |publisher=The Peninsula |date=3 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150118080233/http://thepeninsulaqatar.com/news/middle-east/314466/gcc-customs-union-fully-operational |archive-date=18 January 2015}}</ref>
|
|-
|{{Flagicon image|Flag of Israel.svg}} {{Flagicon image|Flag of Palestine.svg}} [[Israel]]–[[Palestinian Authority]]||1994<ref>Established following the [[Oslo Accords]] and the [[Protocol on Economic Relations|Paris protocol]].</ref>||<ref>[http://www.btselem.org/freedom_of_movement/paris_protocol ''Paris Protocol'']. B'Tselem, 19 September 2012</ref><ref>[http://dayan.org/content/iqtisadi-israeli-palestinian-economic-agreement-and-current-consequences ''Iqtisadi: The Israeli-Palestinian Economic Agreement and Current Consequences''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307042920/http://dayan.org/content/iqtisadi-israeli-palestinian-economic-agreement-and-current-consequences |date=7 March 2016 }}.
Ephraim Lavie, Moshe Dayan Center–Tel Aviv University, January 2013</ref>
|-
|{{Flagicon|Mercosur}} [[Southern Common Market]] (MERCOSUR)||1991-11-29||[https://web.archive.org/web/20090327013054/http://docsonline.wto.org/DDFDocuments/t/WT/COMTD/1A17.doc WT/COMTD/1/Add.17]
|-
|[[Southern African Customs Union]] (SACU)||1910<ref>latest revision is from 2004-07-15.</ref>||[https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/FE_Search/FE_S_S009-Html.aspx?Id=91621&BoxNumber=3&DocumentPartNumber=1&Language=E&Window=L&PreviewContext=DP&FullTextHash=371857150# WT/REG231/3]
|-
|{{Flagicon image|Flag of Switzerland.svg}} {{Flagicon image|Flag of Liechtenstein.svg}} [[Liechtenstein–Switzerland relations#Cooperation|Switzerland–Liechtenstein]] (CH-FL)||1924<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Marxer |first=Roland |date=31 December 2011 |title=Zollanschlussvertrag |url=https://historisches-lexikon.li/Zollanschlussvertrag |access-date=25 October 2023 |website=[[Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein]] |language=de}}</ref>||
|-
|[[West African Economic and Monetary Union]] (WAEMU)
| 1994-01-10
|[https://web.archive.org/web/20090327013111/http://docsonline.wto.org/DDFDocuments/t/WT/COMTD/N11A1.doc WT/COMTD/N/11/Add.1]
|-
|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the United Kingdom.svg}} [[United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union]]
(UK-CD)
|2018-11-26
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 January 2021|title=Brexit: the impact of the end of the Transition Period on Guernsey and Jersey|url=https://www.careyolsen.com/briefings/brexit-impact-end-transition-period-guernsey-and-jersey|url-status=live|website=[[Carey Olsen]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303154328/https://www.careyolsen.com/briefings/brexit-impact-end-transition-period-guernsey-and-jersey |archive-date=3 March 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sweet|first=Pat|date=November 27, 2018|title="UK agrees customs arrangements with crown dependencies"..|url=https://www.accountancydaily.co/uk-agrees-customs-arrangements-crown-dependencies|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008214327/https://www.accountancydaily.co/uk-agrees-customs-arrangements-crown-dependencies |archive-date=8 October 2020 |access-date=|website=Accountancy Daily}}</ref> [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/customs-arrangements-with-the-crown-dependencies UK CD CU]
|}
Additionally, the [[List of autonomous areas by country|autonomous]] and [[dependent territory|dependent]] territories such as some of the [[Special member state territories and the European Union|EU member state special territories]] are sometimes treated as separate [[customs territory|customs territories]] from their mainland states or have varying arrangements of formal or de facto customs union, [[common market]] and [[currency union]] (or combinations thereof) with the mainland and in regards to third countries through the [[trade pact]]s signed by the mainland state.<ref>EU [[Overseas Countries and Territories|Overseas countries]] and some other territories participate partially in the EU single market per [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/treaties/dat/12002E/htm/C_2002325EN.003301.html part four of the Treaty Establishing the European Community] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116105433/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/treaties/dat/12002E/htm/C_2002325EN.003301.html |date=16 November 2013 }}; some EU Outermost Regions and other territories use the [[Euro]] of the [[currency union]], others are part of the [[European Union Customs Union|customs union]]; some participate in both unions and some in neither. [[Territories of the United States]], [[Australian External Territories]] and [[Realm of New Zealand]] territories share the [[Currency union|currency]] and mostly also the [[Single market|market]] of their respective mainland state, but are generally not part of its [[customs territory]].</ref>
The European Union is a customs union and therefore sets a common external tariff.
=== Proposed ===
*2010 {{Flagicon image|Flag of SADC.svg}} [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC)
*2011 [[Economic Community of Central African States]] (ECCAS)
*2015 {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Arab League.svg}} [[Arab Customs Union]] (ACU)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/NewsDetails.aspx?storyid=240423|title=Leaders set to approve Arab customs union|newspaper=[[Gulf Daily News]]|date=18 January 2009|access-date=15 May 2009|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093804/http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/NewsDetails.aspx?storyid=240423|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*2023 {{Flagicon image|Flag of the African Union.svg}} [[African Economic Community]] (AEC)
=== Defunct ===
*The ''[[Zollverein]]'' in the German states (1834–1919) – Remained in effect after [[German unification]] and not dissolved until superseded by the [[Weimar Constitution]] of 1919.
*{{Flagicon|Austria-Hungary}} {{Flagicon image|Flag of Liechtenstein (1852–1921).svg}} – Customs union between Austria (later [[Austria-Hungary|Austria–Hungary]]) from 1852 to 1918. Was replaced by the Liechtenstein–Switzerland customs union in 1924.<ref name=":1" />
*[[Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa]] (UDEAC) – superseded by [[Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa|CEMAC]]
*{{Flagicon|French Third Republic}} {{Flagicon image|Flag of Saar 1920-1935.svg}} 1925 French Customs Union over occupied [[Saar (League of Nations)|Territory of the Saar Basin]]
*{{Flagicon|Duchy of Brunswick}} {{Flagicon|Kingdom of Hanover}} {{Flagicon|Oldenburg}} [[Steuerverein]] or ''Tax Union'' in north-west Germany
*{{Flagicon image|Flag of Syria (1932–1958, 1961–1963).svg}} {{Flagicon image|Flag of Lebanon.svg}} Custom Union between Lebanon and Syria<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/lebanon/100.htm|title=Lebanon – FOREIGN RELATIONS}}</ref>
*[[Czech Republic|Czechia]] and [[Slovakia]] from the dissolution of [[Czechoslovakia]] on 1 January 1993 until superseded by both countries' accession to the [[European Union]] on 1 May 2004.
== Further reading ==
* The McGill University Faculty of Law runs a Regional Trade Agreements Database that contains the text of almost all preferential and regional trade agreements in the world. [http://www.ptas.mcgill.ca/ ptas.mcgill.ca]
* Michael T. Florinsky. 1934. The Saar Struggle. New York: The Macmillan Company.
== See also ==
* {{section link|Freedom of movement|Examples of free movement arrangements between countries}}
* [[European Customs Information Portal (ECIP)]]
* [[List of international trade topics]]
* [[Trade creation]]
* [[Trade diversion]]
* [[Open Balkan]]
* [[Craiova Group|Craiovia Group]]
* [[Central European Free Trade Agreement|CEFTA]]
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== External links ==
* Agreements Notified to the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade|GATT]]/[[World Trade Organization|WTO]]&nbsp;and [http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/eif_e.xls in Force]
{{Economic integration}}
{{Trade}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Customs unions| ]]
[[Category:Commercial policy]]
[[Category:Economic integration]]
[[Category:Trade blocs]]