View source for Digital media use and mental health

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[[File:Reading mail at night (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|"[[Fear of missing out]]" can lead to psychological stress at the idea of missing posted content by others while offline]]
The relationships between '''digital media use and mental health''' have been investigated by various researchers—predominantly [[psychologist]]s, [[sociologist]]s, [[anthropologist]]s, and medical experts—especially since the mid-1990s, after the [[History of the World Wide Web#1992–1995: Growth of the Web|growth of the World Wide Web]] and rise of [[text messaging]]. A significant body of research has explored "overuse" phenomena, commonly known as "digital addictions", or "digital [[Psychological dependence|dependencies]]". These phenomena manifest differently in many societies and cultures. Some experts have investigated the benefits of moderate digital media use in various domains, including in mental health, and the treatment of mental health problems with novel technological solutions.
The delineation between beneficial and [[pathological]] use of digital media has not been established. There are no widely accepted [[diagnostic criteria]], although some experts consider overuse a manifestation of underlying [[psychiatric disorder]]s. The prevention and treatment of pathological digital media use is also not standardized, although guidelines for safer media use for children and families have been developed. The 2013 fifth edition of the [[DSM-5|''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'']] (DSM-5) and the [[International Classification of Diseases]] (ICD-11) do not include diagnoses for [[problematic internet use]] and [[problematic social media use]]; the ICD-11 includes a diagnosis for [[gaming disorder]] (commonly known as video game addiction), whereas the DSM-5 does not. Debate over how and when to diagnose these conditions is ongoing as of 2023. The use of the term ''addiction'' to refer to these phenomena and diagnoses has been questioned.
Digital media and [[screen time]] amongst modern social media apps such as [[Instagram]], [[Tiktok]], [[Snapchat]] and [[Facebook]] have changed how children think, interact and develop in positive and negative ways, but researchers are unsure about the existence of hypothesized causal links between [[digital media]] use and [[mental health]] outcomes. Those links appear to depend on the individual and the platforms they use. Several large technology firms have made commitments or announced strategies to try to reduce the risks of digital media use.
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== History and terminology ==
The relationship between digital technology and mental health has been investigated from many perspectives.<ref name="Dickson_2018">{{cite book | vauthors = Dickson K, Richardson M, Kwan I, MacDowall W, Burchett H, Stansfield C, Brunton G, Sutcliffe K, Thomas J |title=Screen-based activities and children and young people's mental health: A Systematic Map of Reviews |date=2018 | isbn = 978-1-911605-13-3 |publisher=[[EPPI-Centre]], Social Science Research Unit, UCL Institute of Education, University College London |url=http://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/Portals/0/PDF%20reviews%20and%20summaries/Systematic%20Map%20of%20Reviews%20on%20Screen-based%20activties_08.01.19.pdf?ver=2019-01-29-155200-517 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211144646/http://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/Portals/0/PDF%20reviews%20and%20summaries/Systematic%20Map%20of%20Reviews%20on%20Screen-based%20activties_08.01.19.pdf?ver=2019-01-29-155200-517|archive-date=11 February 2019|access-date=15 May 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":12">{{cite web|url=https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/Children-digital-technology-wellbeing.pdf|title=How does the time children spend using digital technology impact their mental well-being, social relationships and physical activity? – An evidence-focused literature review| vauthors = Kardefelt-Winther D |date=1 February 2017|website=[[UNICEF]] Office of Research – Innocenti|publisher=[[UNICEF]] Office of Research|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705215123/https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/Children-digital-technology-wellbeing.pdf|archive-date=5 July 2019|access-date=12 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Benefits of digital media use in childhood and adolescent development have been found.<ref name=":18">{{cite journal | vauthors=Reid Chassiakos YL, Radesky J, Christakis D, Moreno MA, Cross C | title=Children and Adolescents and Digital Media | journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]] | volume=138 | issue=5 | pages=e20162593 | date=November 2016 | pmid=27940795 | doi=10.1542/peds.2016-2593| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Citation |author=((Office of the Surgeon General)) |title=Social Media Has Both Positive and Negative Impacts on Children and Adolescents |date=2023 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK594763/ |work=Social Media and Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory [Internet] |access-date=2024-01-01 |publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services |language=en}}</ref> Concerns have been expressed by researchers, clinicians and the public in regard to apparent [[Compulsive behavior|compulsive behaviors]] of digital media users, as correlations between technology overuse and mental health problems become apparent.<ref name="Dickson_2018" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":15">{{cite journal | vauthors=Stiglic N, Viner RM | title=Effects of screentime on the health and well-being of children and adolescents: a systematic review of reviews | journal=[[BMJ Open]] | volume=9 | issue=1 | pages=e023191 | date=January 2019 | pmid=30606703 | pmc=6326346 | doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023191}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
Terminologies used to refer to compulsive digital-media-use behaviours are not standardized or universally recognised. They include "digital addiction", "digital dependence", "problematic use", or "overuse", often delineated by the digital media platform used or under study (such as [[problematic smartphone use]] or [[Internet addiction disorder|problematic internet use]]).<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Stiglic N, Viner RM|date=January 2019|title=Effects of screentime on the health and well-being of children and adolescents: a systematic review of reviews|journal=[[BMJ Open]]|volume=9|issue=1|pages=e023191|doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023191|pmc=6326346|pmid=30606703}}<br />{{•}}{{cite book|title=Are we all addicts now? : digital dependence |last1=Beales |first1=Katriona |last2=MacDonald |first2=Fiona |last3=Bartlett |first3=Vanessa |last4=Bowden-Jones |first4=Henrietta |publisher=Liverpool University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-78694-081-0|location=Liverpool|oclc=988053669}}<br />{{•}}{{cite journal|vauthors=Pantic I|date=October 2014|title=Online social networking and mental health|journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking|volume=17|issue=10|pages=652–657|doi=10.1089/cyber.2014.0070|pmc=4183915|pmid=25192305}}<br />{{•}}{{cite journal|vauthors=Kuss DJ, Griffiths MD|date=March 2017|title=Social Networking Sites and Addiction: Ten Lessons Learned|journal=[[International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health]]|volume=14|issue=3|pages=311|doi=10.3390/ijerph14030311|pmc=5369147|pmid=28304359|doi-access=free}}<br />{{•}}{{cite web|url=https://www.steinereducation.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/uk_screen_time.pdf|title=The Impact of Screen Media on Children: A Eurovision For Parliament| vauthors = Sigman A |website=Steiner Education Australia (reprint of original speech)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190317061823/https://www.steinereducation.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/uk_screen_time.pdf|archive-date=17 March 2019|url-status=live|access-date=10 January 2019}}</ref> Unrestrained use of technological devices may affect developmental, social, mental and physical well-being and may result in symptoms akin to other [[Psychological dependence|psychological dependence syndromes]], or [[behavioral addiction]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | vauthors=Grant JE, Chamberlain SR | title=Expanding the definition of addiction: DSM-5 vs. ICD-11 | journal=CNS Spectrums | volume=21 | issue=4 | pages=300–303 | date=August 2016 | pmid=27151528 | pmc=5328289 | doi=10.1017/S1092852916000183}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The focus on problematic technology use in research, particularly in relation to the behavioural addiction paradigm, is becoming more accepted, despite poor standardization and conflicting research.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ellis|first=David A.|date=1 August 2019|title=Are smartphones really that bad? Improving the psychological measurement of technology-related behaviors|journal=[[Computers in Human Behavior]]|volume=97|pages=60–66|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2019.03.006|s2cid=150864248|issn=0747-5632|url=http://psyarxiv.com/cwt8x/|access-date=31 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209125134/https://psyarxiv.com/cwt8x/|archive-date=9 February 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>
Internet addiction has been proposed as a diagnosis since the 1998<ref>{{cite book|title=Caught in the net: how to recognize the signs of Internet addiction—and a winning strategy for recovery|last=Young|first=Kimberly |date=27 February 1998|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-19159-9|location=New York City|oclc=38130573}}</ref> and social media and its relation to addiction has been examined since 2009.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=La Barbera D, La Paglia F, Valsavoia R | title=Social network and addiction | journal=Studies in Health Technology and Informatics | volume=144 | pages=33–36 | date=2009 | pmid=19592725}}</ref> A 2018 [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) report stated there were benefits of structured and limited internet use in children and adolescents for developmental and educational purposes, but that excessive use can have a negative impact on mental well-being. It also noted an overall 40% increase in internet use in school-age children between 2010 and 2015, and that different OECD nations had marked variations in rates of childhood technology use, as well as differences in the platforms used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/els/health-systems/Children-and-Young-People-Mental-Health-in-the-Digital-Age.pdf|title=Children & Young People's Mental Health in the Digital Age|last=Cornford|first=Kate|date=2018|website=OECD.org|access-date=22 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111123203/http://www.oecd.org/els/health-systems/Children-and-Young-People-Mental-Health-in-the-Digital-Age.pdf|archive-date=11 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Hence, why it is so important for adolescents' to be trained to use social media, as it will ensure that users have developed psychologically-informed competencies and skills that will maximize the chances for balanced, safe, and meaningful social media use.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.apa.org/topics/social-media-internet/health-advisory-adolescent-social-media-use|title=Health advisory on social media use in adolescence |access-date=2024-09-30 |website=www.apa.org}}</ref>
The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' has not formally codified problematic digital media use in diagnostic categories, but it deemed internet gaming disorder to be a condition for further study in 2013.<ref name=":17">{{cite web | first=Ranna | last=Parekh | url=https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/internet-gaming | title=Internet Gaming | work=The American Psychiatric Association | access-date=10 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526172908/https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/internet-gaming | archive-date=26 May 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Gaming disorder, commonly known as video game addiction, has been recognised in the [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems#ICD-11|ICD-11]].<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/features/qa/gaming-disorder/en/|title=Gaming disorder|date=September 2018|website=Gaming disorder| publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |access-date=10 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190206190538/https://www.who.int/features/qa/gaming-disorder/en/|archive-date=6 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/1448597234|title=ICD-11 – Mortality and Morbidity Statistics|website=icd.who.int|access-date=11 May 2019|archive-url=https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/1448597234|archive-date=1 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Different recommendations in the DSM and the ICD are due partly to the lack of expert consensus, the differences in emphasis in the classification manuals, as well as difficulties using [[Model organism|animal models]] for behavioural addictions.<ref name="ReferenceA" />
The utility of the term ''addiction'' in relation to the overuse of digital media has been questioned, in regard to its suitability to describe new, digitally mediated psychiatric categories, as opposed to overuse being a manifestation of other psychiatric disorders.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":12" /> Usage of the term has also been criticised for drawing parallels with substance use behaviours. Careless use of the term may cause more problems—both downplaying the risks of harm in seriously affected people, as well as overstating risks of excessive, non-[[Pathology|pathological]] use of digital media.<ref name=":12" /> The evolution of terminology relating excessive digital media use to problematic use rather than addiction was encouraged by Panova and Carbonell, psychologists at [[Ramon Llull University]], in a 2018 review.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Panova T, Carbonell X | title=Is smartphone addiction really an addiction? | journal=Journal of Behavioral Addictions | volume=7 | issue=2 | pages=252–259 | date=June 2018 | pmid=29895183 | pmc=6174603 | doi=10.1556/2006.7.2018.49}}</ref>
Due to the lack of recognition and consensus on the concepts used, diagnoses and treatments are difficult to standardize or develop. Heightened levels of public anxiety around new media (including social media, smartphones and video games) further obfuscate population-based assessments, as well as posing management dilemmas.<ref name=":10">{{cite journal | vauthors=Ryding FC, Kaye LK | title="Internet Addiction": a Conceptual Minefield | journal=International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction | volume=16 | issue=1 | pages=225–232 | date=2018 | pmid=29491771 | pmc=5814538 | doi=10.1007/s11469-017-9811-6}}</ref> Radesky and Christakis, the 2019 editors of ''[[JAMA Pediatrics|JAMA Paediatrics]]'', published a review that investigated "concerns about health and developmental/behavioral risks of excessive media use for child cognitive, language, literacy, and social-emotional development."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Radesky JS, Christakis DA | title=Increased Screen Time: Implications for Early Childhood Development and Behavior | journal=[[Pediatric Clinics of North America]] | volume=63 | issue=5 | pages=827–839 | date=October 2016 | pmid=27565361 | doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2016.06.006}}</ref> Due to the ready availability of multiple technologies to children worldwide, the problem is bi-directional, as taking away digital devices may have a detrimental effect, in areas such as learning, family relationship dynamics, and overall development.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hsin|first=Chong-Ting |year=2014|title=The Influence of Young Children's Use of Technology on Their Learning: A Review|journal=[[Journal of Educational Technology & Society]]|volume=17|issue=4|pages=85–99|jstor=jeductechsoci.17.4.85}}<br />{{•}}{{cite journal| vauthors=Gordo López AJ, Contreras PP, Cassidy P |date=1 August 2015|title=The [not so] new digital family: disciplinary functions of representations of children and technology|journal=Feminism & Psychology|volume=25|issue=3|pages=326–346|doi=10.1177/0959353514562805|s2cid=146174524}}<br />{{•}}{{cite journal | vauthors=Subrahmanyam K, Kraut RE, Greenfield PM, Gross EF | title=The impact of home computer use on children's activities and development | journal=[[The Future of Children]] | volume=10 | issue=2 | pages=123–144 | date=22 September 2000 | pmid=11255703 | doi=10.2307/1602692 | jstor=1602692| s2cid=12421727 }}</ref>
==Problematic use==
{{See also|Cyberpathology|Digital Revolution|Social aspects of television|Television consumption}}
Though associations have been observed between digital media use and mental health symptoms or diagnoses, causality has not been established; nuances and caveats published by researchers are often misunderstood by the general public, or misrepresented by the media.<ref name=":12" /> Females are more likely to overuse social media, and males video games.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Hawi N, Samaha M|date=August 2019|title=Identifying commonalities and differences in personality characteristics of internet and social media addiction profiles: traits, self-esteem, and self-construal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327328659|journal=[[Behaviour & Information Technology]]|volume=38|issue=2|pages=110–119|doi=10.1080/0144929X.2018.1515984|s2cid=59523874|access-date=12 May 2019|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020044400/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327328659_Identifying_commonalities_and_differences_in_personality_characteristics_of_Internet_and_social_media_addiction_profiles_traits_self-esteem_and_self-construal|url-status=live}}<br />{{bull}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuss DJ, Griffiths MD | title = Social Networking Sites and Addiction: Ten Lessons Learned | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 311 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 28304359 | pmc = 5369147 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph14030311 | doi-access = free }}<br />{{bull}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Paulus FW, Ohmann S, von Gontard A, Popow C | title = Internet gaming disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 60 | issue = 7 | pages = 645–659 | date = July 2018 | pmid = 29633243 | doi = 10.1111/dmcn.13754 | s2cid = 205070702 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Following from this, problematic digital media use may not be singular constructs, may be delineated based on the digital platform used, or reappraised in terms of specific activities (rather than addiction to the digital medium).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hawi N, Samaha M |date=August 2019 |title=Identifying commonalities and differences in personality characteristics of internet and social media addiction profiles: traits, self-esteem, and self-construal |journal=[[Behaviour & Information Technology]] |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=110–119 |doi=10.1080/0144929X.2018.1515984 |s2cid=59523874 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327328659 |access-date=12 May 2019 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020044357/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327328659_Identifying_commonalities_and_differences_in_personality_characteristics_of_Internet_and_social_media_addiction_profiles_traits_self-esteem_and_self-construal |url-status=live }}<br />{{bull}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Paulus FW, Ohmann S, von Gontard A, Popow C | title = Internet gaming disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 60 | issue = 7 | pages = 645–659 | date = July 2018 | pmid = 29633243 | doi = 10.1111/dmcn.13754 | s2cid = 205070702 | doi-access = free }}</ref>Problematic social media use can also result in [[fear of missing out]] (FoMO) in which symptoms of anxiety and psychological stress exasperated with the fear of potentially missing content present online leaving the individual feeling unfulfilled or left out of the loop.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Oberst |first1=Ursula |last2=Wegmann |first2=Elisa |last3=Stodt |first3=Benjamin |last4=Brand |first4=Matthias |last5=Chamarro |first5=Andrés |date=2016-12-27 |title=Negative consequences from heavy social networking in adolescents: The mediating role of fear of missing out |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.12.008 |journal=Journal of Adolescence |language=en |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=51–60 |doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.12.008 |pmid=28033503 |hdl=2072/283656 |issn=0140-1971|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal |last1=Dienlin |first1=Tobias |last2=Johannes |first2=Niklas |date=2020-06-30 |title=The impact of digital technology use on adolescent well-being |journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=135–142 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2020.22.2/tdienlin |issn=1958-5969 |pmc=7366938 |pmid=32699513}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Gottfried |first=Monica Anderson, Michelle Faverio and Jeffrey |date=2023-12-11 |title=Teens, Social Media and Technology 2023 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2023/12/11/teens-social-media-and-technology-2023/ |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite journal |last1=Pujazon-Zazik |first1=Melissa |last2=Park |first2=M. Jane |date=2010-02-16 |title=To Tweet, or Not to Tweet: Gender Differences and Potential Positive and Negative Health Outcomes of Adolescents' Social Internet Use |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1557988309360819 |journal=American Journal of Men's Health |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=77–85 |doi=10.1177/1557988309360819 |pmid=20164062 |issn=1557-9883}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last1=Paakkari |first1=Leena |last2=Tynjälä |first2=Jorma |last3=Lahti |first3=Henri |last4=Ojala |first4=Kristiina |last5=Lyyra |first5=Nelli |date=2021-02-15 |title=Problematic Social Media Use and Health among Adolescents |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=1885 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18041885 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=7919645 |pmid=33672074}}</ref>
When an individual has FoMo they will be more likely to constantly check their social media accounts using their personal devices to check social media or messages to ensure they are up to date with information that is occurring within the individuals social network. This constant need to check social media platforms for information induces feelings of anxiety driving individuals to get involved with problematic social media use.<ref name=":2" />
=== Access to means of communication ===
In 1999, 58% of [[Finland|Finnish]] citizens had a [[mobile phone]], including 75% of 15-17 year olds.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20030503175511id_/http://www.cc.nctu.edu.tw:80/~u8942505/content%20of%20iTeens/Local%20use%20and%20sharing%20of%20mobile%20phones.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=August 2024}}</ref> In 2000, a majority of U.S. households had at least one [[personal computer]] and [[internet access]] the following year.<ref>{{cite report|last=File|first=Thom|date=May 2013|title=Computer and Internet Use in the United States|series=Current Population Survey Reports|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]]|place=Washington, D.C.|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p20-569.pdf|access-date=11 February 2020|archive-date=3 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703073029/https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p20-569.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2002, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having a mobile phone.<ref name="Tuckel & O'Neill">{{cite report|last1=Tuckel|first1=Peter|last2=O'Neill|first2=Harry|title=Ownership and Usage Patterns of Cell Phones: 2000–2005|year=2005|series=JSM Proceedings, Survey Research Methods Section|place=[[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria, VA]]|publisher=[[American Statistical Association]]|page=4002|url=http://www.asasrms.org/Proceedings/y2005/files/JSM2005-000345.pdf|access-date=25 September 2020|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816192120/http://www.asasrms.org/Proceedings/y2005/files/JSM2005-000345.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In September and December 2006 respectively, [[Luxembourg]] and the [[Netherlands]] became the first countries to completely [[Digital terrestrial television#Analogue to digital transition by countries|transition from analog to digital television]], while the United States commenced its transition in 2008. In September 2007, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having [[Broadband#Internet broadband|broadband internet]] at home.<ref>{{cite news|title=Demographics of Internet and Home Broadband Usage in the United States|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|date=7 April 2021|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/internet-broadband/#who-has-home-broadband|access-date=19 May 2021|archive-date=30 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830151443/https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/internet-broadband/#who-has-home-broadband|url-status=live}}</ref> In January 2013, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported owning a [[smartphone]].<ref name="Pew 4-7-2021">{{cite news|title=Demographics of Mobile Device Ownership and Adoption in the United States|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|date=7 April 2021|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/mobile/|access-date=19 May 2021|archive-date=3 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903185644/https://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/mobile/|url-status=live}}</ref> An estimated 40% of U.S. households in 2006 owned a dedicated [[home video game console]],<ref>{{cite news|last1=Arendt|first1=Susan|date=5 March 2007|title=Game Consoles in 41% of Homes|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|WIRED]]|publisher=[[Condé Nast]]|url=https://www.wired.com/2007/03/game-consoles-i/|access-date=29 June 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181305/https://www.wired.com/2007/03/game-consoles-i/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|title=Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2008|date=30 December 2007|edition=127|series=[[Statistical Abstract of the United States]]|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]]|page=52|url=https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2007/compendia/statab/127ed/tables/pop.pdf|access-date=29 June 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181157/https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2007/compendia/statab/127ed/tables/pop.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and by 2015, 51 percent of U.S. households owned a dedicated home video game console.<ref>{{cite news|last1=North|first1=Dale|date=14 April 2015|title=155M Americans play video games, and 80% of households own a gaming device|website=[[VentureBeat]]|url=https://venturebeat.com/2015/04/14/155-million-americans-play-video-games-and-4-out-of-5-households-own-a-gaming-device/|access-date=29 June 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181338/https://venturebeat.com/2015/04/14/155-million-americans-play-video-games-and-4-out-of-5-households-own-a-gaming-device/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|title=2015 Essential Facts About the Computer and Video Game Industry|volume=2015|series=Essential Facts About the Computer and Video Game Industry|publisher=[[Entertainment Software Association]]|url=https://templatearchive.com/esa-essential-facts/|access-date=29 June 2021|date=|archive-date=1 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200501234256/https://templatearchive.com/esa-essential-facts/|url-status=live}}</ref> In April 2015, one survey of U.S. teenagers ages 13 to 17 reported that nearly three-quarters of them either owned or had access to a smartphone, and 92 percent went online daily, with 24 percent saying they went online "almost constantly."<ref>{{cite news|last=Lenhart|first=Amanda|title=Teens, Social Media & Technology Overview 2015|date=9 April 2015|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2015/04/09/teens-social-media-technology-2015/|access-date=8 July 2020|archive-date=10 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610025058/https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2015/04/09/teens-social-media-technology-2015/|url-status=live}}</ref> In a 2024 survey, U.S. teenagers reported that 95 percent have access to smartphone, spent 97 percent of their time online daily, and 48 percent is spent online "almost constantly".<ref name=":19" />
===Screen time and mental health===
{{See also|Criticism of Facebook#Psychological/sociological effects|Social media and suicide}}
Some types of potentially problematic internet use are associated with psychiatric or behavioural problems such as [[Major depressive disorder|depression]], [[anxiety]], hostility, aggression and [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD). The studies could not determine if [[causal relationships]] exist; it was unclear, for example, whether people with depression might overuse the internet because they were already depressed, or if using the internet too much triggered the depression.<ref name="Dickson_2018" /> While overuse of digital media has been associated with depressive symptoms, digital media may also be used in some situations to improve mood.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoge E, Bickham D, Cantor J | title = Digital Media, Anxiety, and Depression in Children | journal = [[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]] | volume = 140 | issue = Suppl 2 | pages = S76–S80 | date = November 2017 | pmid = 29093037 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2016-1758G | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Elhai JD, Dvorak RD, Levine JC, Hall BJ | title = Problematic smartphone use: A conceptual overview and systematic review of relations with anxiety and depression psychopathology | journal = [[Journal of Affective Disorders]] | volume = 207 | pages = 251–259 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 27736736 | doi = 10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.030 | s2cid = 205642153 }}</ref> Symptoms of ADHD have been positively correlated with digital media use in a large [[prospective study]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-in-children-and-adolescents-clinical-features-and-diagnosis|title=Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents, clinical features and diagnosis|last=Krull|first=Kevin|date=19 February 2019|website=UpToDate.com|publisher=[[UpToDate]]|access-date=23 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401134427/https://www.uptodate.com/contents/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-in-children-and-adolescents-clinical-features-and-diagnosis?sectionName=Diagnosis%20in%20adolescents&topicRef=8349&anchor=H830607539&source=see_link#H830607539|archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The ADHD symptom of [[hyperfocus]] may cause affected individuals to overuse video games, social media, or online chatting; however the correlation between hyperfocus and [[problematic social media use]] is weak.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kooij JJ, Bijlenga D, Salerno L, Jaeschke R, Bitter I, Balázs J, Thome J, Dom G, Kasper S, Nunes Filipe C, Stes S, Mohr P, Leppämäki S, Casas M, Bobes J, Mccarthy JM, Richarte V, Kjems Philipsen A, Pehlivanidis A, Niemela A, Styr B, Semerci B, Bolea-Alamanac B, Edvinsson D, Baeyens D, Wynchank D, Sobanski E, Philipsen A, McNicholas F, Caci H, Mihailescu I, Manor I, Dobrescu I, Saito T, Krause J, Fayyad J, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Foeken K, Rad F, Adamou M, Ohlmeier M, Fitzgerald M, Gill M, Lensing M, Motavalli Mukaddes N, Brudkiewicz P, Gustafsson P, Tani P, Oswald P, Carpentier PJ, De Rossi P, Delorme R, Markovska Simoska S, Pallanti S, Young S, Bejerot S, Lehtonen T, Kustow J, Müller-Sedgwick U, Hirvikoski T, Pironti V, Ginsberg Y, Félegyházy Z, Garcia-Portilla MP, Asherson P | title = Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD | journal = [[European Psychiatry]] | volume = 56 | pages = 14–34 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30453134 | doi = 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.11.001 | doi-access = free | hdl = 10067/1564410151162165141 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
A 2018 review found associations between the self-reported mental health symptoms by users of the Chinese social media platform [[WeChat]] and excessive platform use. However, the motivations and usage patterns of WeChat users affected overall psychological health, rather than the amount of time spent using the platform.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Montag C, Becker B, Gan C | title = The Multipurpose Application WeChat: A Review on Recent Research | language = en | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 9 | pages = 2247 | date = 2018 | pmid = 30618894 | pmc = 6297283 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02247 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
An analysis of data from the [[Monitoring the Future]] survey, the [[Millennium Cohort Study]], and the [[Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System]] found that  digital technology use (including, playing video games, watching television, using social media, etc.) accounted for only 0.4% of the variation in adolescent well-being.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Orben|first1=Amy|last2=Przybylski|first2=Andrew K.|year=2019|title=The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use|journal=[[Nature Human Behaviour]]|publisher=[[Springer Nature|Springer Nature Publishing]]|volume=3|issue=2|pages=173–182|doi=10.1038/s41562-018-0506-1|pmid=30944443|s2cid=58006454|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-018-0506-1|access-date=12 June 2021|archive-date=23 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423202644/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-018-0506-1|url-status=live}}</ref> Additional research found little evidence for substantial negative associations for digital screen engagement and adolescent well-being.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Orban|first1=Amy|last2=Przybylski|first2=Andrew K.|year=2019|title=Screens, Teens, and Psychological Well-Being: Evidence From Three Time-Use-Diary Studies|journal=[[Psychological Science]]|publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|SAGE Publications]]|volume=30|issue=5|pages=682–696|doi=10.1177/0956797619830329|pmid=30939250|pmc=6512056}}</ref>  However, looking exclusively at the effect social media usage has on girls, there was a strong association between using social media and poor mental health.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Twenge |first1=Jean M. |author-link1=Jean Twenge |last2=Blake |first2=Andrew B. |last3=Haidt |first3=Jonathan |author-link3=Jonathan Haidt |last4=Campbell |first4=W. Keith |author-link4=W. Keith Campbell |date=18 February 2020 |title=Commentary: Screens, Teens, and Psychological Well-Being: Evidence From Three Time-Use-Diary Studies |journal=[[Frontiers in Psychology]] |publisher=[[Frontiers Media]] |volume=11 |page=181 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00181 |pmc=7040178 |pmid=32132949 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Twenge |first1=Jean |author-link1=Jean Twenge |last2=Haidt |first2=Jonathan |author-link2=Jonathan Haidt |last3=Joiner |first3=Thomas E. |author-link3=Thomas Joiner |last4=Campbell |first4=W. Keith |author-link4=W. Keith Campbell |year=2020 |title=Underestimating digital media harm |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-020-0839-4 |url-status=live |journal=[[Nature Human Behaviour]] |publisher=[[Springer Nature|Springer Nature Publishing]] |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=346–348 |doi=10.1038/s41562-020-0839-4 |pmid=32303719 |s2cid=215804486 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808181729/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-020-0839-4 |archive-date=8 August 2021 |access-date=13 June 2021}}</ref>
The evidence, although of mainly low to moderate [[Evidence quality|quality]], shows an correlation between heavy [[screen time]] and a variety of health physical and mental health problems.<ref name=":15" /> However, moderate use of digital media is also correlated with benefits for young people in terms of social integration, mental health, and overall well-being.<ref name=":15" />
A 2017 UK large-scale study of the "Goldilocks hypothesis"—of avoiding both too much and too little digital media use<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Przybylski AK, Weinstein N | title = A Large-Scale Test of the Goldilocks Hypothesis | journal = [[Psychological Science]] | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 204–215 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28085574 | doi = 10.1177/0956797616678438 | s2cid = 9669390 | url = http://orca.cf.ac.uk/99720/1/0956797616678438.pdf | access-date = 24 June 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180719184740/http://orca.cf.ac.uk/99720/1/0956797616678438.pdf | archive-date = 19 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>—was described as the "best quality" evidence to date by experts and [[non-government organisations]] (NGOs) reporting to a 2018 UK parliamentary committee. That study concluded that modest digital media use may have few adverse affects, and some positive associations in terms of well-being.<ref name=":13">{{cite web |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmsctech/822/822.pdf |title=Impact of social media and screen-use on young people's health |date=31 January 2019 |website=House of Commons Science and Technology Committee |access-date=12 May 2019 |archive-date=20 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720114457/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmsctech/822/822.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
In a 2022 review, it was discovered that when it comes to adolescents' well-being that perhaps there is too much focus on locating a negative correlation between digital technologies and adolescents' well-being, If a negative correlation between the two are located the impact would potentially be minimal to the point where it would have little to no impact on adolescent well-being or quality of life.<ref name=":20" />
[[File:Social media apps.jpg|thumb|Social media applications in which users can easily access social feeds, be notified of new content, and connect with others in real time.]]
===Social media and mental health===
Excessive time spent on social media may be more harmful than digital screen time as a whole, especially for young people. Some research found a "substantial" association between social media use and mental health issues, but most found only a weak or inconsistent relationship.<ref name = "2022umbrella">{{cite journal | vauthors = Valkenburg P, Meier A, Beyens I | title = Social media use and its impact on adolescent mental health: An umbrella review of the evidence | journal = [[Current Opinion (Elsevier)|Current Opinion in Psychology]] | volume =44 | pages = 58–68  | date = April 2022 | doi =10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.017  | pmid = 34563980 | s2cid = 237941749 | doi-access = free | hdl = 11245.1/07562e63-5608-4af8-bfc3-70d0a2c34390 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Meier A, Reinecke L  | title = Computer-Mediated Communication, Social Media, and Mental Health: A Conceptual and Empirical Meta-Review | journal = [[Communication Research (journal)|Communication Research]] | volume =48 | pages =1182–1209  | date =  October 2020| issue = 8 | doi = 10.1177/0093650220958224 | s2cid = 226332693 | url = https://osf.io/573ph }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ivie E, Pettitt A, Moses L, Allen N | title = A meta-analysis of the association between adolescent social media use and depressive symptoms | journal = [[Journal of Affective Disorders]] | volume = 275 | pages = 165–174 | date = 2020  | doi =10.1016/j.jad.2020.06.014 | pmid = 32734903 | s2cid = 220892285 | url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/23076725 }}</ref><ref name = "2024Orben">{{cite journal | vauthors = Orben A , Meier A , Dalgleish T , Blakemore S | title = Mechanisms linking social media use to adolescent mental health vulnerability| journal = [[Nature Reviews Psychology]] | date = May 2024 | volume = 3| issue = 6| pages = 407–423| doi =10.1038/s44159-024-00307-y  | doi-access = free }}</ref>  Social media can have both positive and negative effects on mental health; whether the overall affect is harmful or helpful may depend on a variety of factors, including the quality and quantity of social media usage. In the case of [[old people|over 65s]], studies have found high levels of social media usage was associated with positive outcomes overall, such as  [[Flourishing#Positive Psychology and Flourishing|flourishing]], though it remains unclear if social media use is a causative factor.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors =  Gudka M, Gardiner K, Lomas T | title = Towards a framework for flourishing through social media: a systematic review of 118 research studies| journal = [[The Journal of Positive Psychology]] | volume = 18 | pages = 86–105  | date = 2021 | pmid = | doi = 10.1080/17439760.2021.1991447 | s2cid = 255968367| doi-access = free }}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lei X , Matovic D , Leung W, Viju A, Wuthrich V | title = The relationship between social media use and psychosocial outcomes in older adults: A systematic review| journal =International Psychogeriatrics | date = January 2024 | pages = 1–33| doi =10.1017/S1041610223004519 | doi-access = free | pmid = 38287785}}</ref>
Social media can be beneficial to individuals as a tool which if used correctly can bring about positive impacts to users online and offline. When it comes to social media, adolescence can benefit from it's use by allowing users to build and maintain online and offline relationships, access information, connect to other in real time, and help adolescence to express themselves by creating and engaging with content.<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":20" /> Social media can also be detrimental to users when used incorrectly. Adolescence who use social media can be exposed or placed at risk from the following: Cyberbullying, sexual predators, adult content, substance use, and content that uses unrealistic representations of people and lifestyles.<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":20" />
In a 2021 study, it was reported that adolescents who are associated with problematic media use are three times more likely to experience health complications such as irritability, nervousness, tiredness, and insomnia.<ref name=":22" /> Digital technologies tend to focus more on hedonic well-being, in which users are exposed to content that evokes joy and laughter towards positive content, to anger and sadness towards negative content. In turn these negative impacts on adolescence or any users of social media will only experience temporary impacts on mental well-being, which will not have a permanent effect on the user's quality of life and life satisfaction.<ref name=":20" />
In 2023, it was discovered that 57 percent of teenagers between the ages of 13-17 would find it difficult to give up using social media, while the remaining 46 percent reported it would be easy. Older teenagers ranging from 15-17 years of age found it more difficult to give up social media, especially among teenage girls.<ref name=":19" /> There is a significant association between social media use and depression, with the association especially high for adolescent girls.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mingli L, Kamper-DeMarco K, Zhang J, Xiao J, Dong D, Xue P  | title =Time Spent on Social Media and Risk of Depression in Adolescents: A Dose–Response Meta-Analysis | journal = [[International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health]] | volume =19 | date = 2022 | issue =9 | page =5164 | pmid = 35564559| doi =10.3390/ijerph19095164  | pmc =9103874 | doi-access =free }}</ref> When asked about the amount of time spent on social media teenagers reported that 55 percent have the right amount of time spent on social media. 35 percent of teenagers reported they spent too much time on social media, while 8 percent stated they spent too little time on social media. <ref name=":20" />
=== Proposed diagnostic categories ===
{{See also|Computer addiction|Internet addiction disorder|Internet sex addiction|Nomophobia|Problematic smartphone use|Problematic social media use|Television addiction|Video game addiction}}
Gaming disorder has been considered by the DSM-5 task force as warranting further study (as the subset ''internet gaming disorder''), and was included in the ICD-11.<ref name=":17" /> Concerns have been raised by Aarseth and colleagues over this inclusion, particularly in regard to stigmatization of heavy gamers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aarseth E, Bean AM, Boonen H, Colder Carras M, Coulson M, Das D, Deleuze J, Dunkels E, Edman J, Ferguson CJ, Haagsma MC, Helmersson Bergmark K, Hussain Z, Jansz J, Kardefelt-Winther D, Kutner L, Markey P, Nielsen RK, Prause N, Przybylski A, Quandt T, Schimmenti A, Starcevic V, Stutman G, Van Looy J, Van Rooij AJ | title = Scholars' open debate paper on the World Health Organization ICD-11 Gaming Disorder proposal | journal = Journal of Behavioral Addictions | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 267–270 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28033714 | pmc = 5700734 | doi = 10.1556/2006.5.2016.088 }}</ref>
Christakis has asserted that internet addiction may be "a 21st century epidemic".<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Christakis DA | title = Internet addiction: a 21st century epidemic? | journal = [[BMC Medicine]] | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 61 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20955578 | pmc = 2972229 | doi = 10.1186/1741-7015-8-61 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In 2018, he commented that childhood Internet overuse may be a form of  "uncontrolled experiment[s] on ... children".<ref name=":7">{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/groundbreaking-study-examines-effects-of-screen-time-on-kids-60-minutes/|last1=Cooper|first1=Anderson|date=9 December 2018|access-date=12 December 2018|publisher=[[CBS News]]|title=Groundbreaking study examines effects of screen time on kids|website=60 Minutes Canada|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211194256/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/groundbreaking-study-examines-effects-of-screen-time-on-kids-60-minutes/|archive-date=11 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> International estimates of the prevalence of internet overuse have varied considerably, with marked variations by nation. A 2014 [[meta-analysis]] of 31&nbsp;nations yielded an overall worldwide prevalence of six percent.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cheng C, Li AY | title = Internet addiction prevalence and quality of (real) life: a meta-analysis of 31 nations across seven world regions | journal = Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking | volume = 17 | issue = 12 | pages = 755–760 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 25489876 | pmc = 4267764 | doi = 10.1089/cyber.2014.0317 }}</ref> A different perspective in 2018 by Musetti and colleagues reappraised the internet in terms of its necessity and ubiquity in modern society, as a social environment, rather than a tool, thereby calling for the reformulation of the internet addiction model.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Musetti A, Corsano P | title = The Internet Is Not a Tool: Reappraising the Model for Internet-Addiction Disorder Based on the Constraints and Opportunities of the Digital Environment | journal = [[Frontiers in Psychology]] | volume = 9 | pages = 558 | date = 18 April 2018 | pmid = 29720954 | pmc = 5915628 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00558 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Some medical and behavioural scientists recommend adding a diagnosis of "social media addiction" (or similar) to the next ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' update.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pantic I | title = Online social networking and mental health | journal = Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking | volume = 17 | issue = 10 | pages = 652–7 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25192305 | pmc = 4183915 | doi = 10.1089/cyber.2014.0070 }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite journal| vauthors = van den Eijnden RJ, Lemmens JS, Valkenburg PM |date=1 August 2016|title=The Social Media Disorder Scale|journal=[[Computers in Human Behavior]]|volume=61|pages=478–487|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.038 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> A 2015 review concluded there was a probable link between basic psychological needs and social media addiction. "Social network site users seek feedback, and they get it from hundreds of people—instantly. It could be argued that the platforms are designed to get users 'hooked'."<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Andreassen CS |date=1 June 2015|title=Online Social Network Site Addiction: A Comprehensive Review|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs40429-015-0056-9.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Current Addiction Reports|volume=2|issue=2|pages=175–184|doi=10.1007/s40429-015-0056-9|s2cid=145799241|issn=2196-2952|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827000018/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs40429-015-0056-9.pdf|archive-date=27 August 2017}}</ref>
Internet sex addiction, also known as cybersex addiction, has been proposed as a [[sexual addiction]] characterized by virtual internet [[Human sexual activity|sexual activity]] that causes serious negative consequences to one's physical, mental, social, and/or financial well-being.<ref name="SteinHollander2009">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quQY1R8vsZcC&pg=PA359|title=Textbook of Anxiety Disorders|last1=Stein|first1=Dan J.|last2=Hollander|first2=Eric|last3=Rothbaum|first3=Barbara Olasov|date=31 August 2009|publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing|isbn=978-1-58562-254-2|location=Washington, DC|pages=359|access-date=24 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011082608/http://books.google.com/books?id=quQY1R8vsZcC&pg=PA359|archive-date=11 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pmid17503551">{{cite journal | vauthors = Parashar A, Varma A | title = Behavior and substance addictions: is the world ready for a new category in the DSM-V? | journal = CNS Spectrums | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 257; author reply 258–9 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17503551 | doi = 10.1017/S109285290002099X | doi-access = free }}</ref> It may be considered a form of problematic internet use.<ref name=Griffiths>{{cite journal|last=Griffiths|first=Mark|title=Sex on the internet: Observations and implications for internet sex addiction.|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|date=November 2001|volume=38|issue=4|pages=333–342|doi=10.1080/00224490109552104|s2cid=144522990|url=http://journals1.scholarsportal.info/details-sfx.xqy?uri=/00224499/v38i0004/333_sotioaifisa.xml|access-date=2 April 2013|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020044428/https://journals.scholarsportal.info/details?uri=%2F00224499%2Fv38i0004%2F333_sotioaifisa.xml|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Related phenomena===
==== Online problem gambling ====
{{Main|Online gambling#Problem gambling}}
A 2015 review found evidence of higher rates of mental health [[Comorbidity|comorbidities]], as well as higher amounts of substance use, among internet gamblers, compared to non-internet gamblers. Causation, however, has not been established. The review postulates that there may be differences in the cohorts between internet and land-based problem gamblers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Gainsbury SM | title=Online Gambling Addiction: the Relationship Between Internet Gambling and Disordered Gambling | journal=Current Addiction Reports | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=185–193 | date=2015 | pmid=26500834 | pmc=4610999 | doi=10.1007/s40429-015-0057-8}}</ref>
====Cyberbullying====
{{Main|Cyberbullying}}
Cyberbullying, bullying or harassment using social media or other electronic means, has been shown to have effects on mental health. Victims may have lower self-esteem, increased [[suicidal ideation]], decreased motivation for usual hobbies, and a variety of emotional responses, including being scared, frustrated, angry, anxious or depressed. These victims may also begin to distance themselves from friends and family members.<ref name="patchin1">{{bull}}{{cite journal| vauthors = Hinduja S, Patchin JW |year=2008|title=Cyberbullying: An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Related to Offending and Victimization | journal=[[Deviant Behavior (journal)|Deviant Behavior]]|volume=29|issue=2|pages=129–156|doi=10.1080/01639620701457816|s2cid=144024729}}<br />{{bull}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Hinduja S, Patchin JW | title = Offline consequences of online victimization: School violence and delinquency. | journal = [[Journal of School Violence]] | date = October 2007 | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 89–112 | doi = 10.1300/J202v06n03_06 | s2cid = 143016237 }}<br />{{bull}}{{cite book|title=Bullying beyond the schoolyard: Preventing and responding to cyberbullying| vauthors = Hinduja S, Patchin JW |publisher=[[Corwin Press]]|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4129-6689-4|location=Thousand Oaks, CA}}<br />{{bull}}{{cite journal|vauthors=Hinduja S, Patchin JW|year=2006|title=Bullies move beyond the schoolyard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying|journal=[[Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice]]|volume=4|issue=2|pages=148–169|doi=10.1177/1541204006286288|s2cid=145357837}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Nixon |first=Charisse L |date=2014-08-01 |title=Current perspectives: the impact of cyberbullying on adolescent health |journal=Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics |volume=5 |pages=143–158 |doi=10.2147/AHMT.S36456 |doi-access=free |issn=1179-318X |pmc=4126576 |pmid=25177157}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Effects of Cyberbullying |url=https://socialmediavictims.org/cyberbullying/effects/ |access-date=2024-01-01 |website=Social Media Victims Law Center |language=en-US}}</ref>
According to the EU Kids Online project, the incidence of cyberbullying across seven European countries in children aged {{nowrap|8–16}} increased from 8% to 12% between 2010 and 2014. Similar increases were shown in the United States and Brazil.<ref>{{cite book|title=Ending the torment : tackling bullying from the schoolyard to cyberspace|last1=Almuneef|first1=Maha|last2=Anton-Erxleben|first2=Katharina|last3=Burton|first3=Patrick|date=14 November 2016|publisher=United Nations Publications|others=United Nations. Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children|isbn=978-92-1-101344-3|location=New York|pages=116|oclc=982286456}}</ref>
====Media multitasking====
{{Main|Media multitasking}}
Concurrent use of multiple digital media streams, commonly known as media multitasking, has been shown to be associated with depressive symptoms, social anxiety, [[impulsivity]], [[sensation seeking]], lower perceived social success and neuroticism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Uncapher MR, Lin L, Rosen LD, Kirkorian HL, Baron NS, Bailey K, Cantor J, Strayer DL, Parsons TD, Wagner AD | title = Media Multitasking and Cognitive, Psychological, Neural, and Learning Differences | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 140 | issue = Suppl 2 | pages = S62–S66 | date = November 2017 | pmid = 29093034 | pmc = 5658797 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2016-1758D }}</ref> A 2018 review found that while the literature is sparse and inconclusive, overall, heavy media multitaskers also have poorer performance in several cognitive domains.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Uncapher MR, Wagner AD | title = Minds and brains of media multitaskers: Current findings and future directions | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 115 | issue = 40 | pages = 9889–9896 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 30275312 | pmc = 6176627 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1611612115 | bibcode = 2018PNAS..115.9889U | doi-access = free }}</ref> One of the authors commented that the data does not "unambiguously show that media multitasking causes a change in attention and memory", therefore it is possible to argue that it is inefficient to multitask on digital media.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://scopeblog.stanford.edu/2018/10/29/how-does-media-multitasking-affect-the-mind/|title=How does media multitasking affect the mind?|last=Huber|first=Jennifer|date=29 October 2018|website=Scope|language=en-US|access-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531120815/https://scopeblog.stanford.edu/2018/10/29/how-does-media-multitasking-affect-the-mind/|archive-date=31 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
====Distracted road use====
{{Main|Mobile phones and driving safety|Smartphones and pedestrian safety}}
{{See also|Distracted driving|Human multitasking|Texting while driving}}
In March 2023, ''[[Accident Analysis & Prevention]]'' published a systematic review of 47 samples across 45 studies investigating associations between problematic mobile phone use and road safety outcomes (including 32 samples of [[Driving|drivers]], 9 samples of [[pedestrian]]s, 5 samples with road use type unspecified, and 1 sample of [[Motorcycling|motorcyclists]] and [[Cycling|bicyclists]]) that found that problematic mobile phone use was associated with greater risk of simultaneous mobile phone use and road use and risk of [[Traffic collision|vehicle collision]]s and [[Transport accident|pedestrian collisions]] or [[Falling (accident)|falls]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rahmillah|first1=Fety Ilma|last2=Tariq|first2=Amina|last3=King|first3=Mark|last4=Oviedo-Trespalacios|first4=Oscar|year=2023|title=Is distraction on the road associated with maladaptive mobile phone use? A systematic review|journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention|publisher=Elsevier|volume=181|page=106900|doi=10.1016/j.aap.2022.106900|pmid=36580764 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
====Noise-induced hearing loss====
{{See also|Tinnitus|Occupational hearing loss}}
{{Excerpt|Noise-induced hearing loss|Video game sound levels}}
===Assessment and treatment===
Rigorous, evidence-based assessment of problematic digital media use is yet to be comprehensively established. This is due partially to a lack of consensus around the various constructs and lack of standardization of treatments.<ref name=":11">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zajac K, Ginley MK, Chang R, Petry NM | title = Treatments for Internet gaming disorder and Internet addiction: A systematic review | journal = [[Psychology of Addictive Behaviors]] | volume = 31 | issue = 8 | pages = 979–994 | date = December 2017 | pmid = 28921996 | pmc = 5714660 | doi = 10.1037/adb0000315}}</ref> The [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] (AAP) has developed a Family Media Plan, intending to help parents assess and structure their family's use of electronic devices and media more safely. It recommends limiting entertainment screen time to two hours or less per day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.healthychildren.org/English/family-life/Media/Pages/How-to-Make-a-Family-Media-Use-Plan.aspx|title=How to Make a Family Media Use Plan|website=HealthyChildren.org|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606111436/https://www.healthychildren.org/English/family-life/Media/Pages/How-to-Make-a-Family-Media-Use-Plan.aspx|archive-date=6 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Korioth|first=Trisha|date=12 December 2018|title=Family Media Plan helps parents set boundaries for kids|url=http://www.aappublications.org/news/2016/10/21/MediaParents102116|journal=AAP News|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109155630/http://www.aappublications.org/news/2016/10/21/MediaParents102116|archive-date=9 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Canadian Paediatric Society]] produced a similar guideline. Ferguson, a psychologist, has criticised these and other national guidelines for not being evidence-based.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ferguson|first1=Christopher J.|last2=Beresin|first2=Eugene |date=1 June 2017|title=Social science's curious war with pop culture and how it was lost: The media violence debate and the risks it holds for social science|journal=[[Preventive Medicine (journal)|Preventive Medicine]]|volume=99|pages=69–76|doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.02.009|pmid=28212816|issn=0091-7435}}</ref> Other experts, cited in a 2017 [[UNICEF]] Office of Research literature review, have recommended addressing potential underlying problems rather than arbitrarily enforcing screen time limits.<ref name=":12" />
Different methodologies for assessing pathological internet use have been developed, mostly self-report questionnaires, but none have been universally recognised as a gold standard.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Shaw M, Black DW | s2cid=1699090 | title=Internet addiction: definition, assessment, epidemiology and clinical management | journal=[[CNS Drugs (journal)|CNS Drugs]] | volume=22 | issue=5 | pages=353–365 | date=2008 | pmid=18399706 | doi=10.2165/00023210-200822050-00001}}</ref> For gaming disorder, both the American Psychiatric Association<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Petry NM, Rehbein F, Gentile DA, Lemmens JS, Rumpf HJ, Mößle T, Bischof G, Tao R, Fung DS, Borges G, Auriacombe M, González Ibáñez A, Tam P, O'Brien CP | title=An international consensus for assessing Internet gaming disorder using the new DSM-5 approach | journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] | volume=109 | issue=9 | pages=1399–1406 | date=September 2014 | pmid=24456155 | doi=10.1111/add.12457}}</ref> and the World Health Organization (through the ICD-11)<ref name=":1" /> have released [[Medical diagnosis#Diagnostic criteria|diagnostic criteria]].
There is some limited evidence of the effectiveness of [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] and family-based interventions for treatment. In [[Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trials]], medications have not been shown to be effective.<ref name=":11" /> A 2016 study of 901&nbsp;adolescents suggested [[mindfulness]] may assist in preventing and treating problematic internet use.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Gámez-Guadix | first1=Manuel | last2=Calvete | first2=Esther | s2cid=148514937 | date=1 December 2016 | title=Assessing the Relationship between Mindful Awareness and Problematic Internet Use among Adolescents | journal=[[Mindfulness (journal)|Mindfulness]] | volume=7 | issue=6 | pages=1281–1288 | doi=10.1007/s12671-016-0566-0}}</ref> A 2019 UK parliamentary report deemed parental engagement, awareness and support to be essential in developing "digital resilience" for young people, and to identify and manage the risks of harm online.<ref name=":13" /> Treatment centres have proliferated in some countries, and China and South Korea have treated digital dependence as a public health crisis, opening 300 and 190&nbsp;centres nationwide, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Sharma MK, Palanichamy TS|date=February 2018|title=Psychosocial interventions for technological addictions|journal=[[Indian Journal of Psychiatry]]|volume=60|issue=Suppl 4|pages=S541–S545|pmc=5844169|pmid=29540928|url=http://www.indianjpsychiatry.org/text.asp?2018/60/8/541/224697|doi=10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_40_18|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=16 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016200453/http://www.indianjpsychiatry.org/text.asp%3F2018/60/8/541/224697|url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> Other countries have also opened treatment centres.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Kuss DJ, Griffiths MD | title=Online social networking and addiction&nbsp;– a review of the psychological literature | journal=[[International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health]] | volume=8 | issue=9 | pages=3528–3552 | date=September 2011 | pmid=22016701 | pmc=3194102 | doi=10.3390/ijerph8093528| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Romano M, Osborne LA, Truzoli R, Reed P | title=Differential psychological impact of Internet exposure on Internet addicts | journal=[[PLOS One]] | volume=8 | issue=2 | pages=e55162 | date=7 February 2013 | pmid=23408958 | pmc=3567114 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0055162 | bibcode=2013PLoSO...855162R| doi-access=free }}</ref>
NGOs, support and advocacy groups provide resources to people overusing digital media, with or without codified diagnoses,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.additudemag.com/social-media-addiction-with-adhd/|title=Hooked on Social Media? Help From Adults with ADHD|date=23 November 2016|website=ADDitude|publisher=[[ADDitude Magazine]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215065917/https://www.additudemag.com/social-media-addiction-with-adhd/|archive-date=15 December 2018|url-status=live|access-date=13 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://directory.additudemag.com/|title=ADHD and Learning Disabilities Directory: ADD Coaches, Organizers, Doctors, Schools, Camps|website=directory.additudemag.com|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109204811/https://directory.additudemag.com/|archive-date=9 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> including the [[American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adhdaustralia.org.au/resources-online/|title=Resources Online|website=ADHD Australia|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109195622/https://www.adhdaustralia.org.au/resources-online/|archive-date=9 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aacap.org/aacap/families_and_youth/resource_centers/adhd_resource_center/Home.aspx|title=ADHD Resource Center|website=www.aacap.org|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109204937/https://www.aacap.org/aacap/families_and_youth/resource_centers/adhd_resource_center/Home.aspx|archive-date=9 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
A 2022 study outlines the mechanisms by which media-transmitted stressors affect mental well-being. Authors suggest a common denominator related to problems with the media's construction of reality is increased uncertainty, which leads to defensive responses and [[chronic stress]] in predisposed individuals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kesner |first1=Ladislav |last2=Horáček |first2=Jiří |date=2022 |title=Global Adversities, the Media, and Mental Health |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=12 |page=809239 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2021.809239 |pmid=35082704 |pmc=8785246 |issn=1664-0640|doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Associated psychiatric disorders==
===ADHD===
{{Main|Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder}}
In April 2018, the ''[[International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health]]'' published a systematic review of 24 studies researching associations between internet gaming disorder (IGD) and various psychopathologies that found an 85% correlation between IGD and ADHD.<ref name="IJERPH 2018">{{cite journal|last1=González-Bueso|first1=Vega|last2=Santamaría|first2=Juan José|last3=Fernández|first3=Daniel|last4=Merino|first4=Laura|last5=Montero|first5=Elena|last6=Ribas|first6=Joan|year=2018|title=Association between Internet Gaming Disorder or Pathological Video-Game Use and Comorbid Psychopathology: A Comprehensive Review|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|publisher=MDPI|volume=15|issue=4|page=668|doi=10.3390/ijerph15040668|doi-access=free |pmid=29614059 |pmc=5923710 }}</ref> In October 2018, ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS USA]]'' published a systematic review of four decades of research on the relationship between children and adolescents' screen media use and ADHD-related behaviours and concluded that a statistically small relationship between children's media use and ADHD-related behaviours exists.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Beyens|first1=Ine|last2=Valkenburg|first2=Patti M.|last3=Piotrowski|first3=Jessica Taylor|title=Screen media use and ADHD-related behaviors: Four decades of research|date=2 October 2018|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS USA]]|publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]]|volume=115|issue=40|pages=9875–9881|doi=10.1073/pnas.1611611114|pmid=30275318|pmc=6176582|bibcode=2018PNAS..115.9875B |doi-access=free}}</ref> In November 2018, ''Cyberpsychology'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 5 studies that found evidence for a relationship between problematic smartphone use and [[impulsivity]] traits.<ref name="Cyberpsychology 2018">{{cite journal|last1=de Francisco Carvalho|first1=Lucas|last2=Sette|first2=Catarina Possenti|last3=Ferrari|first3=Bárbara Letícia|year=2018|title=Problematic smartphone use relationship with pathological personality traits: Systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace|publisher=Masaryk University|volume=12|issue=3|page=5|doi=10.5817/CP2018-3-5}}</ref> In October 2020, the ''[[Journal of Behavioral Addictions]]'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 40 studies with 33,650 post-secondary student subjects that found a weak-to-moderate positive association between mobile phone addiction and impulsivity.<ref name="JBA 2020">{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Ying|last2=Li|first2=Guangxiao|last3=Liu|first3=Li|last4=Wu|first4=Hui|year=2020|title=Correlations between mobile phone addiction and anxiety, depression, impulsivity, and poor sleep quality among college students: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Behavioral Addictions|publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó|volume=9|issue=3|pages=551–571|doi=10.1556/2006.2020.00057|pmid=32903205 |pmc=8943681 }}</ref> In January 2021, the ''[[Journal of Psychiatric Research]]'' published a systematic review of 29 studies including 56,650 subjects that found that ADHD symptoms were consistently associated with gaming disorder and more frequent associations between inattention and gaming disorder than other ADHD scales.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dullur|first1=Pravin|last2=Krishnan|first2=Vijay|last3=Diaz|first3=Antonio Mendoza|year=2021|title=A systematic review on the intersection of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and gaming disorder|journal=Journal of Psychiatric Research|publisher=Elsevier|volume=133|pages=212–222|doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.12.026|pmid=33360866 |s2cid=229687229 }}</ref>
In July 2021, ''[[Frontiers Media|Frontiers in Psychiatry]]'' published a meta-analysis reviewing 40 [[voxel-based morphometry]] studies and 59 [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] studies comparing subjects with IGD or ADHD to control groups that found that IGD and ADHD subjects had disorder-differentiating structural [[Neuroimaging|neuroimage]] alterations in the [[putamen]] and [[orbitofrontal cortex]] (OFC) respectively, and functional alterations in the [[precuneus]] for IGD subjects and in the [[Reward system|rewards circuit]] (including the OFC, the [[anterior cingulate cortex]], and [[striatum]]) for both IGD and ADHD subjects.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gao|first1=Xinyu|last2=Zhang|first2=Mengzhe|last3=Yang|first3=Zhengui|last4=Wen|first4=Mengmeng|last5=Huang|first5=Huiyu|last6=Zheng|first6=Ruiping|last7=Wang|first7=Weijian|last8=Wei|first8=Yarui|last9=Cheng|first9=Jingliang|last10=Han|first10=Shaoqiang|last11=Zhang|first11=Yong|year=2021|title=Structural and Functional Brain Abnormalities in Internet Gaming Disorder and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Comparative Meta-Analysis|journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry|publisher=Frontiers Media|volume=12|page=679437|doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2021.679437|doi-access=free |pmid=34276447 |pmc=8281314 }}</ref> In March 2022, ''[[JAMA Psychiatry]]'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 87 studies with 159,425 subjects 12 years of age or younger that found a small but statistically significant correlation between screen time and ADHD symptoms in children.<ref name="JAMA Psychiatry 2022">{{cite journal|last1=Eirich|first1=Rachel|last2=McArthur|first2=Brae Anne|last3=Anhorn|first3=Ciana|last4=McGuinness|first4=Claire|last5=Christakis|first5=Dimitri A.|last6=Madigan|first6=Sheri|year=2022|title=Association of Screen Time With Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior Problems in Children 12 Years or Younger: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|publisher=American Medical Association|volume=79|issue=5|pages=393–405|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.0155|pmid=35293954 |pmc=8928099 }}</ref> In April 2022, ''[[Developmental Neuropsychology (journal)|Developmental Neuropsychology]]'' published a systematic review of 11 studies where the data from all but one study suggested that heightened screen time for children is associated with attention problems.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=Renata Maria Silva|last2=Mendes|first2=Camila Guimarães|last3=Miranda|first3=Débora Marques|last4=Romano-Silva|first4=Marco Aurélio|year=2022|title=The Association between Screen Time and Attention in Children: A Systematic Review|journal=Developmental Neuropsychology|publisher=Routledge|volume=47|issue=4|pages=175–192 |doi=10.1080/87565641.2022.2064863|pmid=35430923 |s2cid=248228233 }}</ref> In July 2022, the ''Journal of Behavioral Addictions'' published a meta-analysis of 14 studies comprising 2,488 subjects aged 6 to 18 years that found significantly more severe problematic internet use in subjects diagnosed with ADHD to control groups.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Werling|first1=Anna Maria|last2=Kuzhippallil|first2=Sajiv|last3=Emery|first3=Sophie|last4=Walitza|first4=Susanne|last5=Drechsler|first5=Renate|year=2022|title=Problematic use of digital media in children and adolescents with a diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder compared to controls. A meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Behavioral Addictions|publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó|volume=11|issue=2|pages=305–325|doi=10.1556/2006.2022.00007|pmid=35567763 |pmc=9295226 }}</ref>
In December 2022, ''[[European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry]]'' published a systematic literature review of 28 longitudinal studies published from 2011 through 2021 of associations between digital media use by children and adolescents and later ADHD symptoms and found reciprocal associations between digital media use and ADHD symptoms (i.e. that subjects with ADHD symptoms were more likely to develop problematic digital media use and that increased digital media use was associated with increased subsequent severity of ADHD symptoms).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Thorell|first1=Lisa B.|last2=Burén|first2=Jonas|last3=Wiman|first3=Johanna Ström|last4=Sandberg|first4=David|last5=Nutley|first5=Sissela B.|year=2022|title=Longitudinal associations between digital media use and ADHD symptoms in children and adolescents: a systematic literature review|journal=European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry|volume=33 |issue=8 |pages=2503–2526 |publisher=Springer Science+Business Media|doi=10.1007/s00787-022-02130-3|pmid=36562860 |doi-access=free|pmc=11272698 }}</ref> In May 2023, ''[[Reviews on Environmental Health]]'' published a meta-analysis of 9 studies with 81,234 child subjects that found a positive correlation between screen time and ADHD risk in children and that higher amounts of screen time in childhood may significantly contribute to the development of ADHD.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Hezuo|last2=Chen|first2=Xiaorong|last3=Huang|first3=Minhui|last4=Yu|first4=Xiaomin|last5=Gan|first5=Ye|last6=Wang|first6=Ji|last7=Chen|first7=Qiujin|last8=Nie|first8=Zhipeng|last9=Ge|first9=Haijing|year=2023|title=Screen time and childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analysis|journal=Reviews on Environmental Health|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/reveh-2022-0262|pmid=37163581 |s2cid=258591184 }}</ref> In December 2023, the ''Journal of Psychiatric Research'' published a meta-analysis of 24 studies with 18,859 subjects with a mean age of 18.4 years that found significant associations between ADHD and problematic internet use,<ref name="Journal of Psychiatric Research 2023">{{cite journal|last1=Augner|first1=Christoph|last2=Vlasak|first2=Thomas|last3=Barth|first3=Alfred|year=2023|title=The relationship between problematic internet use and attention deficit, hyperactivity and impulsivity: A meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Psychiatric Research|publisher=Elsevier|volume=168|pages=1–12|doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.10.032|pmid=37866293 |s2cid=264190691 }}</ref> while ''[[Clinical Psychology Review]]'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 48 studies examining associations between ADHD and gaming disorder that found a statistically significant association between the disorders.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Koncz|first1=Patrik|last2=Demetrovics|first2=Zsolt|last3=Takacs|first3=Zsofia K.|last4=Griffiths|first4=Mark D.|last5=Nagy|first5=Tamás|last6=Király|first6=Orsolya|year=2023|title=The emerging evidence on the association between symptoms of ADHD and gaming disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|publisher=Elsevier|volume=106|pages=102343|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2023.102343|pmid=37883910 |hdl=20.500.11820/91f22260-b579-4f0b-9e81-adc063f27e9e|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
===Anxiety===
{{main|Generalized anxiety disorder|Social anxiety disorder}}In April 2018, the ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'' published a systematic review of 24 studies researching associations between internet gaming disorder (IGD) and various psychopathologies that found a 92% correlation between IGD and anxiety and a 75% correlation between IGD and social anxiety.<ref name="IJERPH 2018" /> In August 2018, ''Wiley Stress & Health'' published a meta-analysis of 39 studies comprising 21,736 subjects that found a small-to-medium association between smartphone use and anxiety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vahedi|first1=Zahra|last2=Saiphoo|first2=Alyssa|year=2018|title=The association between smartphone use, stress, and anxiety: A meta-analytic review|journal=Stress & Health|publisher=Wiley|volume=34|issue=3|pages=347–358|doi=10.1002/smi.2805|pmid=29673047 }}</ref>
In December 2018, ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'' published a systematic review of 9 studies published after 2014 investigating associations between problematic social networking sites (SNS) use and comorbid psychiatric disorders that found a positive association between problematic SNS use and anxiety.<ref name="Frontiers in Psychiatry 2018">{{cite journal|last1=Hussain|first1=Zaheer|last2=Griffiths|first2=Mark D.|year=2018|title=Problematic Social Networking Site Use and Comorbid Psychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Review of Recent Large-Scale Studies|journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry|publisher=Frontiers Media|volume=9|page=686|doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00686|doi-access=free |pmid=30618866 |pmc=6302102 }}</ref> In March 2019, the ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth'' published a systematic review of 13 studies comprising 21,231 adolescent subjects aged 13 to 18 years that found that social media screen time, both active and passive social media use, the amount of personal information uploaded, and social media addictive behaviors all correlated with anxiety.<ref name="IJAY 2019">{{cite journal|last1=Keles|first1=Betul|last2=McCrae|first2=Niall|last3=Grealish|first3=Annmarie|year=2019|title=A systematic review: the influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents|journal=International Journal of Adolescence and Youth|publisher=Taylor & Francis|volume=25|issue=1|pages=79–93|doi=10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851}}</ref> In February 2020, ''Psychiatry Research'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 14 studies that found positive associations between problematic smartphone use and anxiety and positive associations between higher levels of problematic smartphone use and elevated risk of anxiety,<ref name="Psychiatry Research 2020" /> while ''[[Frontiers in Psychology]]'' published a systematic review of 10 studies of adolescent or young adult subjects in [[China]] that concluded that the research reviewed mostly established an association between social networks use disorder and anxiety among Chinese adolescents and young adults.<ref name="Frontiers in Psychology 2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hussain|first1=Zaheer|last2=Wegmann|first2=Elisa|last3=Yang|first3=Haibo|last4=Montag|first4=Christian|year=2020|title=Social Networks Use Disorder and Associations With Depression and Anxiety Symptoms: A Systematic Review of Recent Research in China|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|publisher=Frontiers Media|volume=11|page=211|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00211|doi-access=free |pmid=32153455 |pmc=7046800 }}</ref>
In April 2020, ''[[BMC Public Health]]'' published a systematic review of 70 cross-sectional and longitudinal studies investigating moderating factors for associations for screen-based sedentary behaviors and anxiety symptoms among youth that found that while screen types was the most consistent factor, the body of evidence for anxiety symptoms was more limited than for depression symptoms.<ref name="BMC Public Health 2020">{{cite journal|last1=Zink|first1=Jennifer|last2=Belcher|first2=Britni R.|last3=Imm|first3=Kellie|last4=Leventhal|first4=Adam M.|year=2020|title=The relationship between screen-based sedentary behaviors and symptoms of depression and anxiety in youth: a systematic review of moderating variables|journal=[[BMC Public Health]]|publisher=BioMed Central|volume=20|issue=1 |page=472|doi=10.1186/s12889-020-08572-1|doi-access=free |pmid=32272906 |pmc=7147040 }}</ref> In October 2020, the ''Journal of Behavioral Addictions'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 40 studies with 33,650 post-secondary student subjects that found a weak-to-moderate positive association between mobile phone addiction and anxiety.<ref name="JBA 2020" /> In November 2020, ''[[Child and Adolescent Mental Health]]'' published a systematic review of research published between January 2005 and March 2019 on associations between SNS use and anxiety symptoms in subjects between ages of 5 to 18 years that found that increased SNS screen time or frequency of SNS use and higher levels of investment (i.e. personal information added to SNS accounts) were significantly associated with higher levels of anxiety symptoms.<ref name="CAMH 2020">{{cite journal|last1=Piteo|first1=Elena Marie|last2=Ward|first2=Kelly|year=2020|title=Review: Social networking sites and associations with depressive and anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents – a systematic review|journal=Child and Adolescent Mental Health|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|volume=25|issue=4|pages=201–216|doi=10.1111/camh.12373|pmid=33118256 }}</ref>
In January 2021, ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'' published a systematic review of 44 studies investigating social media use and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence that concluded that the research reviewed established a direct association between levels of anxiety, social media addiction behaviors, and nomophobia, longitudinal associations between social media use and increased anxiety, that fear of missing out and nomophobia are associated with severity of Facebook usage, and suggested that fear of missing out may trigger social media addiction and that nomophobia appears to mediate social media addiction.<ref name="Frontiers in Psychiatry 2021">{{cite journal|last1=Cataldo|first1=Ilaria|last2=Lepri|first2=Bruno|last3=Neoh|first3=Michelle Jin Yee|last4=Esposito|first4=Gianluca|year=2021|title=Social Media Usage and Development of Psychiatric Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence: A Review|journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry|publisher=Frontiers Media|volume=11|doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2020.508595|doi-access=free |pmid=33519535 |pmc=7838524 }}</ref> In March 2021, ''Computers in Human Behavior Reports'' published a systematic review of 52 studies published before May 2020 that found that social anxiety was associated with problematic social media use and that socially anxious persons used social media to seek social support possibly to compensate for a lack of offline social support.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=O'Day|first1=Emily B.|last2=Heimberg|first2=Richard G.|year=2021|title=Social media use, social anxiety, and loneliness: A systematic review|journal=Computers in Human Behavior Reports|publisher=Elsevier|volume=3|page=100070|doi=10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100070|doi-access=free}}</ref> In June 2021, ''Clinical Psychology Review'' published a systematic review of 35 longitudinal studies published before August 2020 that found that evidence for longitudinal associations between screen time and anxiety among young people was lacking.<ref name="CPR 2021">{{cite journal|last1=Tang|first1=Samantha|last2=Werner-Seidler|first2=Aliza|last3=Torok|first3=Michelle|last4=Mackinnon|first4=Andrew J.|last5=Christensen|first5=Helen|year=2021|title=The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|publisher=Elsevier|volume=86|page=102021|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102021|pmid=33798997 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In August 2021, a meta-analysis was presented at the 2021 International Conference on Intelligent Medicine and Health of articles published before January 2011 that found evidence for a negative impact of social media on anxiety.<ref name="ICIMH 2021">{{cite book|last1=Ma|first1=Junyu|chapter=A Meta-Analysis of Social Media Usage with Stress, Anxiety, and Depression |year=2022|title=Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Intelligent Medicine and Health|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|volume=2021|pages=125–129|isbn=978-1-4503-8590-9|doi=10.1145/3484377.3487041}}</ref>
In January 2022, ''The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context'' published a meta-analysis of 13 cross-sectional studies comprising 7,348 subjects that found a statistically significant correlation between cybervictimization and anxiety with a moderate-to-large effect size.<ref name="EJPALC 2022">{{cite journal|last1=Molero|first1=María M.|last2=Martos|first2=África|last3=Barragán|first3=Ana B.|last4=Pérez-Fuentes|first4=María C.|last5=Gázquez|first5=José J.|year=2022|title=Anxiety and Depression from Cybervictimization in Adolescents: A Metaanalysis and Meta-regression Study|journal=The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context|publisher=Madrid Regional Association of Psychology|volume=14|issue=1|pages=42–50|doi=10.5093/ejpalc2022a5|doi-access=free}}</ref> In March 2022, ''JAMA Psychiatry'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 87 studies with 159,425 subjects 12 years of age or younger that found a small but statistically significant correlation between screen time and anxiety in children,<ref name="JAMA Psychiatry 2022" /> while ''[[Bentham Science Publishers|Adolescent Psychiatry]]'' published a systematic review of research published from June 2010 through June 2020 studying associations between social media use and anxiety among adolescent subjects aged 13 to 18 years that established that 78.3% of studies reviewed reported positive associations between social media use and anxiety.<ref name="Adolescent Psychiatry 2022">{{cite journal|last1=Damodar|first1=Sreedevi|last2=Lokemoen|first2=Cidney|last3=Gurusamy|first3=Vikram|last4=Takhi|first4=Manpreet|last5=Bishev|first5=Daniel|last6=Parrill|first6=Allison|last7=Deviney|first7=Melissa|last8=Person|first8=Ulziibat|last9=Korie|first9=Ijendu|last10=Branch|first10=Romain|year=2022|title=Trending: A Systematic Review of Social Media Use's Influence on Adolescent Anxiety and Depression|journal=Adolescent Psychiatry|publisher=Bentham Science Publishers|volume=12|issue=1|pages=11–22|doi=10.2174/2210676612666220225122720}}</ref> In April 2022, researchers in the [[Stanford University School of Humanities and Sciences|Department of Communication]] at [[Stanford University]] performed a meta-analysis of 226 studies comprising 275,728 subjects that found a small but positive association between social media use and anxiety,<ref name="SSRN 4053961">{{cite web|last1=Hancock|first1=Jeff|last2=Liu|first2=Sunny Xun|last3=Luo|first3=Mufan|last4=Mieczkowski|first4=Hannah|year=2022|title=Psychological Well-Being and Social Media Use: A Meta-Analysis of Associations between Social Media Use and Depression, Anxiety, Loneliness, Eudaimonic, Hedonic and Social Well-Being|ssrn=4053961|doi=10.2139/ssrn.4053961|url=https://deliverypdf.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=190081025071009117094004126023066121042037029042091050024117024086002123092082000075126060062111031022046113097083121107015103049015010026004068090119097092069080108023077048127108006016087078101004088126020105023127105124027015018117003125116127122026&EXT=pdf&INDEX=TRUE}}</ref> while ''JMIR Mental Health'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 18 studies comprising 9,269 adolescent and young adult subjects that found a moderate but statistically significant association between problematic social media use and anxiety.<ref name="JMIR Mental Health 2022">{{cite journal|last1=Shannon|first1=Holly|last2=Bush|first2=Katie|last3=Villeneuve|first3=Paul|last4=Hellemans|first4=Kim|last5=Guimond|first5=Synthia|year=2022|title=Problematic Social Media Use in Adolescents and Young Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=JMIR Mental Health|publisher=JMIR Publications|volume=9|issue=4|page=e33450|doi=10.2196/33450|doi-access=free |pmid=35436240 |pmc=9052033 }}</ref>
In May 2022, ''Computers in Human Behavior'' published a meta-analysis of 82 studies comprising 48,880 subjects that found a significant positive association between social anxiety and mobile phone addiction.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ran|first1=Guangming|last2=Li|first2=Jun|last3=Zhang|first3=Qi|last4=Niu|first4=Xiang|year=2022|title=The association between social anxiety and mobile phone addiction: A three-level meta-analysis|journal=Computers in Human Behavior|publisher=Elsevier|volume=130|page=107198|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2022.107198}}</ref> In August 2022, the ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 studies comprising 8,077 subjects that established a significant association between binge-watching and anxiety.<ref name="IJERPH 2022">{{cite journal|last1=Alimoradi|first1=Zainab|last2=Jafari|first2=Elahe|last3=Potenza|first3=Marc N.|last4=Lin|first4=Chung-Ying|last5=Wu|first5=Chien-Yi|last6=Pakpour|first6=Amir H.|year=2022|title=Binge-Watching and Mental Health Problems: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|publisher=MDPI|volume=19|issue=15|page=9707|doi=10.3390/ijerph19159707|doi-access=free |pmid=35955069 |pmc=9368441 }}</ref> In November 2022, ''[[Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking]]'' published a systematic review of 1,747 articles on problematic social media use that found a strong bidirectional relationship between social media use and anxiety.<ref name="CBSN 2022">{{cite journal|last1=Lopes|first1=Lucas Silva|last2=Valentini|first2=João Pedro|last3=Monteiro|first3=Thomas Hagemann|last4=de Freitas Costacurta|first4=Marcelo Cunha|last5=Soares|first5=Luiza Oliveira Nicastro|last6=Telfar-Barnard|first6=Lucy|last7=Nunes|first7=Paula Villela|year=2022|title=Problematic Social Media Use and Its Relationship with Depression or Anxiety: A Systematic Review|journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking|publisher=Mary Ann Liebert|volume=25|issue=11|pages=691–702|doi=10.1089/cyber.2021.0300|pmid=36219756 }}</ref> In March 2023, the ''[[Journal of Public Health]]'' published a meta-analysis of 27 studies published after 2014 comprising 120,895 subjects that found a moderate and robust association between problematic smartphone use and anxiety.<ref name="JPH 2023">{{cite journal|last1=Augner|first1=Christoph|last2=Vlasak|first2=Thomas|last3=Aichhorn|first3=Wolfgang|last4=Barth|first4=Alfred|year=2023|title=The association between problematic smartphone use and symptoms of anxiety and depression—a meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Public Health|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=45|issue=1|pages=193–201|doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdab350|pmid=34585243 }}</ref> In July 2023, ''Healthcare'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 studies that established correlation coefficients of 0.31 and 0.39 between nomophobia and anxiety and nomophobia and smartphone addiction respectively.<ref name="MPDI Healthcare 2023" />
In September 2023, ''Frontiers in Public Health'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 37 studies comprising 36,013 subjects aged 14 to 24 years that found a positive and statistically significant association between problematic internet use and social anxiety,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ding|first1=Haiyang|last2=Cao|first2=Bing|last3=Sun|first3=Qixuan|year=2023|title=The association between problematic internet use and social anxiety within adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Frontiers in Public Health|publisher=Frontiers Media|volume=11|doi=10.3389/fpubh.2023.1275723|doi-access=free |pmid=37841708 |pmc=10570444 }}</ref> while ''[[British Journal of Psychiatry|BJPsych Open]]'' published a systematic review of 140 studies published from 2000 through 2020 found that social media use for more than 3 hours per day and passive browsing was associated with increased anxiety.<ref name="BJPsych Open 2023">{{cite journal|last1=Hilty|first1=Donald M.|last2=Stubbe|first2=Dorothy|last3=McKean|first3=Alastair J.|last4=Hoffman|first4=Pamela E.|last5=Zalpuri|first5=Isheeta|last6=Myint|first6=Myo T.|last7=Joshi|first7=Shashank V.|last8=Pakyurek|first8=Murat|last9=Li|first9=Su-Ting T.|year=2023|title=A scoping review of social media in child, adolescents and young adults: research findings in depression, anxiety and other clinical challenges|journal=BJPsych Open|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=9|issue=5|page=e152|doi=10.1192/bjo.2023.523|pmid=37563766 |pmc=10594088 }}</ref> In January 2024, the ''[[Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication]]'' published a meta-analysis of 141 studies comprising 145,394 subjects that found that active social media use was associated with greater symptoms of anxiety and passive social media use was associated with greater symptoms of social anxiety.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Godard|first1=Rebecca|last2=Holtzman|first2=Susan|year=2024|title=Are active and passive social media use related to mental health, wellbeing, and social support outcomes? A meta-analysis of 141 studies|journal=Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=29|issue=1|doi=10.1093/jcmc/zmad055}}</ref> In February 2024, ''Addictive Behaviors'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 53 studies comprising 59,928 subjects that found that problematic social media use and social anxiety are highly and positively correlated,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wu|first1=Wenfeng|last2=Huang|first2=Liangrong|last3=Yang|first3=Fang|year=2024|title=Social anxiety and problematic social media use: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Addictive Behaviors|publisher=Elsevier|volume=153|page=107995|doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.107995|pmid=38401423 }}</ref> while ''The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery'' published a systematic review of 15 studies researching associations between problematic social media use and anxiety in subjects from the [[Middle East and North Africa]] (including 4 studies with subjects exclusively between the ages of 12 and 19 years) that established that most studies found a significant association.<ref name="EJNPN 2024">{{cite journal|last1=Abbouyi|first1=Samira|last2=Bouazza|first2=Samira|last3=El Kinany|first3=Soukaina|last4=El Rhazi|first4=Karima|last5=Zarrouq|first5=Btissame|year=2024|title=Depression and anxiety and its association with problematic social media use in the MENA region: a systematic review|journal=The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery|publisher=Springer|volume=60|page=15|doi=10.1186/s41983-024-00793-0|doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Autism===
{{Main|Autism}}
In September 2018, the ''Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders'' published a systematic review of 47 studies published from 2005 to 2016 that concluded that associations between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and screen time was inconclusive.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stiller|first1=Anja|last2=Mößle|first2=Thomas|year=2018|title=Media Use Among Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder: a Systematic Review|journal=Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders|publisher=Springer|volume=5|issue=3 |pages=227–246|doi=10.1007/s40489-018-0135-7|s2cid=256395870 }}</ref> In May 2019, the ''[[Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics]]'' published a systematic review of 16 studies that found that children and adolescents with ASD are exposed to more screen time than typically developing peers and that the exposure starts at a younger age.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Slobodin|first1=Ortal|last2=Heffler|first2=Karen Frankel|last3=Davidovitch|first3=Michael|year=2019|title=Screen Media and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Literature Review|journal=Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|volume=40|issue=4|pages=303–311|doi=10.1097/DBP.0000000000000654|pmid=30908423 |s2cid=85516383 }}</ref> In April 2021, ''[[Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders]]'' published a systematic review of 12 studies of video game addiction in ASD subjects that found that children, adolescents, and adults with ASD are at greater risk of video game addiction than those without ASD, and that the data from the studies suggested that internal and external factors (sex, attention and oppositional behavior problems, social aspects, access and time spent playing video games, parental rules, and game genre) were significant predictors of video game addiction in ASD subjects.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Craig|first1=Francesco|last2=Tenuta|first2=Flaviana|last3=De Giacomo|first3=Andrea|last4=Trabacca|first4=Antonio|last5=Costabile|first5=Angela|year=2021|title=A systematic review of problematic video-game use in people with Autism Spectrum Disorders|journal=Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders|publisher=Elsevier|volume=82|pages=101726|doi=10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101726|s2cid=233601150 }}</ref> In March 2022, the ''Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders'' published a systematic review of 21 studies investigating associations between ASD, problematic internet use, and gaming disorder where the majority of the studies found positive associations between the disorders.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=Alayna|last2=Koronczai|first2=Beatrix|last3=Király|first3=Orsolya|last4=Griffiths|first4=Mark D.|last5=Mannion|first5=Arlene|last6=Leader|first6=Geraldine|last7=Demetrovics|first7=Zsolt|year=2021|title=Autism, Problematic Internet Use and Gaming Disorder: A Systematic Review|journal=Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders|publisher=Springer|volume=9|pages=120–140|doi=10.1007/s40489-021-00243-0|hdl=10379/16762|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
In August 2022, the ''International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction'' published a review of 15 studies that found that high rates of video game use in boys and young males with ASD was predominantly explained by video game addiction, but also concluded that greater video game use could be a function of ASD restricted interest and that video game addiction and ASD restricted interest could have an interactive relationship.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Coutelle|first1=Romain|last2=Weiner|first2=Luisa|last3=Paasche|first3=Cecilia|last4=Pottelette|first4=Julien|last5=Bertschy|first5=Gilles|last6=Schröder|first6=Carmen M.|last7=Lalanne|first7=Laurence|title=Autism Spectrum Disorder and Video Games: Restricted Interests or Addiction?|journal=International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction|date=2022 |publisher=Springer|volume=20|issue=4 |pages=2243–2264|doi=10.1007/s11469-021-00511-4|s2cid=232145871 }}</ref> In December 2022, the ''Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders'' published a systematic review of 10 studies researching the prevalence of problematic internet use with ASD that found that ASD subjects had more symptoms of problematic internet use than control group subjects, had higher screen time online and an earlier age of first-time use of the internet, and also greater symptoms of depression and ADHD.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Normand|first1=Claude L.|last2=Fisher|first2=Marisa H.|last3=Simonato|first3=Isabelle|last4=Fecteau|first4=Stéphanie-M.|last5=Poulin|first5=Marie-Hélène|year=2021|title=A Systematic Review of Problematic Internet Use in Children, Adolescents, and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder|journal=Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders|publisher=Springer|volume=9|issue=4 |pages=507–520|doi=10.1007/s40489-021-00270-x|s2cid=236314346 }}</ref> In July 2023, ''[[Cureus]]'' published a systematic review of 11 studies that concluded that earlier and longer screen time exposure for children was associated with higher probability of a child "developing" ASD.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sarfraz|first1=Saba|last2=Shlaghya|first2=Gandhala|last3=Narayana|first3=Sri Harsha|last4=Mushtaq|first4=Ujala|last5=Ameen|first5=Basim Shaman|last6=Nie|first6=Chuhao|last7=Nechi|first7=Daniel|last8=Mazhar|first8=Iqra J.|last9=Yasir|first9=Mohamed|last10=Franchini|first10=Ana P. Arcia|year=2023|title=Early Screen-Time Exposure and Its Association With Risk of Developing Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review|journal=Cureus|publisher=Springer Nature|volume=15|issue=7|pages=e42292|doi=10.7759/cureus.42292|doi-access=free |pmid=37614255 |pmc=10442849 }}</ref> In December 2023, ''[[JAMA Network Open]]'' published a meta-analysis of 46 studies comprising 562,131 subjects that concluded that while screen time may be a developmental cause of ASD in childhood, associations between ASD and screen time were not statistically significant when accounting for [[publication bias]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ophir|first1=Yaakov|last2=Rosenberg|first2=Hananel|last3=Tikochinski|first3=Refael|last4=Dalyot|first4=Shani|last5=Lipshits-Braziler|first5=Yuliya|year=2023|title=Screen Time and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=JAMA Network Open|publisher=American Medical Association|volume=6|issue=12|pages=e2346775 |doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.46775|pmid=38064216 |pmc=10709772 }}</ref>
===Bipolar disorder===
{{main|Bipolar disorder}}
In November 2018, ''Cyberpsychology'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 5 studies that found evidence for a relationship between problematic smartphone use and impulsivity traits.<ref name="Cyberpsychology 2018" /> In October 2020, the ''Journal of Behavioral Addictions'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 40 studies with 33,650 post-secondary student subjects that found that a weak-to-moderate positive association between mobile phone addiction and impulsivity.<ref name="JBA 2020" />
In April 2021, a meta-analysis of 3 studies comprising 9,142 subjects was presented at the International Conference on Big Data and Informatization Education that found that problematic internet use is a risk factor for bipolar disorder.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pan|first1=Xinyi|last2=Wang|first2=Ruochen|chapter=Is Problematic Internet use a risk factor for bipolar disorder—Evidence from Meta-Analysis |year=2021|title=2021 2nd International Conference on Big Data and Informatization Education (ICBDIE)|publisher=Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|volume=2021|pages=540–544|isbn=978-1-6654-3870-4|doi=10.1109/ICBDIE52740.2021.00129}}</ref> In December 2023, the ''Journal of Psychiatric Research'' published a meta-analysis of 24 studies with 18,859 subjects with a mean age of 18.4 years that found significant associations between problematic internet use and impulsivity.<ref name="Journal of Psychiatric Research 2023" />
===Depression===
{{main|Major depressive disorder}}
In December 2018, ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'' published a systematic review of 9 studies published after 2014 investigating associations between problematic SNS use and comorbid psychiatric disorders that found a positive association between problematic SNS use and depression.<ref name="Frontiers in Psychiatry 2018" /> In March 2019, the ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth'' published a systematic review of 13 studies comprising 21,231 adolescent subjects aged 13 to 18 years that found that social media screen time, both active and passive social media use, the amount of personal information uploaded, and social media addictive behaviors all correlated with depression.<ref name="IJAY 2019" /> In April 2019, the ''Journal of Affective Disorders'' published a meta-analysis assessing associations between SNS use and higher levels of depression that found that greater SNS screen time and frequency of checking SNS accounts had small but statistically significant associations with higher levels of depression, that greater general [[Social comparison theory|social comparisons]] on SNS had a small to moderate association, and greater upward social comparisons on SNS had a moderate association.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yoon|first1=Sunkyung|last2=Kleinman|first2=Mary|last3=Mertz|first3=Jessica|last4=Brannick|first4=Michael|year=2019|title=Is social network site usage related to depression? A meta-analysis of Facebook–depression relations|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|publisher=Elsevier|volume=248|pages=65–72|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2019.01.026|pmid=30711871 }}</ref> In November 2019, ''BMC Public Health'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 12 cross-sectional studies and 7 longitudinal studies that found that screen time-based sedentary behavior is associated with depression risk.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Xiao|last2=Li|first2=Yuexuan|last3=Fan|first3=Haoliang|year=2019|title=The associations between screen time-based sedentary behavior and depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=BMC Public Health|publisher=BioMed Central|volume=19|issue=1 |page=1524|doi=10.1186/s12889-019-7904-9|doi-access=free |pmid=31727052 |pmc=6857327 }}</ref>
In January 2020, ''[[Translational Psychiatry]]'' published a meta-analysis of 12 prospective studies comprising 128,553 subjects that found that while sedentary behavior and depression risk had a significant positive association, television viewing and other mentally passive sedentary behaviors were positively associated with depression risk but computer use and other mentally active sedentary behaviors were not.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=Yuchai|last2=Li|first2=Liqing|last3=Gan|first3=Yong|last4=Wang|first4=Chao|last5=Jiang|first5=Heng|last6=Cao|first6=Shiyi|last7=Lu|first7=Zuxun|year=2020|title=Sedentary behaviors and risk of depression: a meta-analysis of prospective studies|journal=Translational Psychiatry|publisher=Nature Portfolio|volume=10|issue=1 |page=26|doi=10.1038/s41398-020-0715-z|pmid=32066686 |pmc=7026102 }}</ref> In February 2020, ''Psychiatry Research'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 14 studies that found positive associations between problematic smartphone use and depression and positive associations between higher levels of problematic smartphone use and elevated risk of depression.<ref name="Psychiatry Research 2020" /> Also in February 2020, ''Frontiers in Psychology'' published a systematic review of 10 studies of adolescent or young adult subjects in China that concluded that the research reviewed mostly established an association between social networks use disorder and depression among Chinese adolescents and young adults.<ref name="Frontiers in Psychology 2020" /> In March 2020, the ''Review of General Psychology'' published a meta-analysis that found a small association between social networking service (SNS) use and self-reported depression.<ref name="RGP 2020" /> In April 2020, ''BMC Public Health'' published a systematic review of 70 cross-sectional and longitudinal studies investigating moderating factors for associations for screen-based sedentary behaviors and depression symptoms among youth that found that the most consistent factor was for screen type since television viewing was not as strongly associated with depression symptoms as other screen types.<ref name="BMC Public Health 2020" />
In August 2020, the ''Journal of Medical Internet Research'' published an umbrella review of 7 systematic reviews on research investigating associations between depression and use of mobile technologies and social media by adolescents that concluded that while mobile technology and social media may promote social support, excess social comparison and personal involvement (i.e. increased exposure in general, exposure to specific content that promotes depressive symptoms, and the degree of personal information posted on social media) could be associated with symptoms of depression.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Arias-de la Torre|first1=Jorge|last2=Puigdomenech|first2=Elisa|last3=García|first3=Xavier|last4=Valderas|first4=Jose M.|last5=Eiroa-Orosa|first5=Francisco Jose|last6=Fernández-Villa|first6=Tania|last7=Molina|first7=Antonio J.|last8=Martín|first8=Vicente|last9=Serrano-Blanco|first9=Antoni|last10=Alonso|first10=Jordi|last11=Espallargues|first11=Mireia|year=2020|title=Relationship Between Depression and the Use of Mobile Technologies and Social Media Among Adolescents: Umbrella Review|journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research|publisher=JMIR Publications|volume=22|issue=8|page=e16388|doi=10.2196/16388|doi-access=free |pmid=32663157 |pmc=7481866 }}</ref> In October 2020, the ''Journal of Affective Disorders'' published a meta-analysis of 12 studies with subjects aged 11 to 18 years that found a small but statistically significant positive correlation between social media use and depressive symptoms among adolescents,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ivie|first1=Elizabeth J.|last2=Pettitt|first2=Adam|last3=Moses|first3=Louis J.|last4=Allen|first4=Nicholas B.|year=2020|title=A meta-analysis of the association between adolescent social media use and depressive symptoms|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|publisher=Elsevier|volume=275|pages=165–174|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2020.06.014|pmid=32734903 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/23076725 }}</ref> while the ''Journal of Behavioral Addictions'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 40 studies with 33,650 post-secondary student subjects that found a weak-to-moderate positive association between mobile phone addiction and depression.<ref name="JBA 2020" /> In November 2020, ''Child and Adolescent Mental Health'' published a systematic review of research published between January 2005 and March 2019 on associations between SNS use and depression in subjects between ages of 5 to 18 years that found that increased SNS screen time or frequency of SNS use and problematic and addictive SNS use were significantly associated with higher levels of depression symptoms.<ref name="CAMH 2020" />
In January 2021, ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'' published a systematic review of 44 studies investigating social media use and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence that concluded that passive social media use (e.g. browsing other user photos or scrolling through comments or news feeds) and depression are bidirectionally associated and that problematic social media use and depressive symptoms are mediated by social comparisons.<ref name="Frontiers in Psychiatry 2021" /> In February 2021, ''Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology'' published a meta-analysis of 62 studies comprising 451,229 subjects that found SNS screen time and SNS use intensity to have weak but statistically significant associations with depression symptoms, while problematic SNS use was found to have a moderate association with depression symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cunningham|first1=Simone|last2=Hudson|first2=Chloe C.|last3=Harkness|first3=Kate|year=2021|title=Social Media and Depression Symptoms: a Meta-Analysis|journal=Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology|publisher=Springer|volume=49|issue=2 |pages=241–253|doi=10.1007/s10802-020-00715-7|pmid=33404948 }}</ref> In March 2021, ''[[Youth & Society]]'' published a systematic review of 9 studies that found an association between SNS use and adolescent subjective well-being including mood, but that the results over whether the association was positive or negative were mixed.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Webster|first1=Deborah|last2=Dunne|first2=Laura|last3=Hunter|first3=Ruth|year=2021|title=Association Between Social Networks and Subjective Well-Being in Adolescents: A Systematic Review|journal=Youth & Society|volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=175–210 |publisher=Sage Publishing|doi=10.1177/0044118X20919589}}</ref> In April 2021, the ''Journal of Affective Disorders'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 92 studies comprising 15,148 subjects across 25 countries investigating associations between depression and internet gaming disorder found that one-third of the IGD subjects had been diagnosed with depression and major severe depressive symptoms were found in IGD subjects globally without a formal diagnosis in comparison to the general population.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ostinelli|first1=Edoardo G.|last2=Zangani|first2=Caroline|last3=Giordano|first3=Barbara|last4=Maestri|first4=Davide|last5=Gambini|first5=Orsola|last6=D'Agostino|first6=Armando|last7=Furukawa|first7=Toshi A.|last8=Purgato|first8=Marianna|year=2021|title=Depressive symptoms and depression in individuals with internet gaming disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|publisher=Elsevier|volume=284|pages=136–142|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2021.02.014|pmid=33592432 |hdl=2434/848082 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
In May 2021, ''Current Psychology'' published a meta-analysis of 55 studies comprising 80,533 subjects that found a small but positive and statistically significant association between SNS use and self-reported depression symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vahedi|first1=Zahra|last2=Zannella|first2=Lesley|year=2021|title=The association between self-reported depressive symptoms and the use of social networking sites (SNS): A meta-analysis|journal=Current Psychology|publisher=Springer|volume=40|issue=5 |pages=2174–2189|doi=10.1007/s12144-019-0150-6}}</ref> In June 2021, ''Clinical Psychology Review'' published a systematic review of 35 longitudinal studies published before August 2020 that found that an association between screen time and subsequent depressive symptoms among young people was small and varied by device type and use.<ref name="CPR 2021" /> In July 2021, ''Translational Medicine Communications'' published a systematic review of 9 studies published between October 2010 and December 2018 with [[Instagram]] user subjects between the ages of 19 and 35 years that found an association between Instagram use and depression symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Adeyanju|first1=Gbadebo Collins|last2=Solfa|first2=Ron Patrick|last3=Tran|first3=Thuy Linh|last4=Wohlfarth|first4=Sophia|last5=Büttner|first5=Jonas|last6=Osobajo|first6=Oluyomi A.|last7=Otitoju|first7=Afolabi|year=2021|title=Behavioural symptoms of mental health disorder such as depression among young people using Instagram: a systematic review|journal=Translational Medicine Communications|publisher=Springer|volume=6|page=15|doi=10.1186/s41231-021-00092-3|doi-access=free }}</ref> In January 2022, ''The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context'' published a meta-analysis of 13 cross-sectional studies comprising 7,348 subjects that found a statistically significant correlation between cybervictimization and depression with a moderate-to-large effect size.<ref name="EJPALC 2022" /> In February 2022, the ''[[International Journal of Social Psychiatry]]'' published a meta-analysis of 131 studies comprising 244,676 subjects that found a moderate mean correlation between problematic social media use and depression.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=Chiungjung|year=2022|title=A meta-analysis of the problematic social media use and mental health|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|publisher=Sage Publishing|volume=68|issue=1|pages=12–33|doi=10.1177/0020764020978434|pmid=33295241 }}</ref>
In March 2022, ''Computers in Human Behavior'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 531 cross-sectional or longitudinal studies with subjects aged 10 to 24 years that found a small bidirectional association between online media use and depressive symptoms and that the effect size did not differ between general internet use, smartphone use, social media use, or online gaming, but also found that studies that measured online media use with media addiction scales rather than by screen time found significantly greater associations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shin|first1=Myoungju|last2=Juventin|first2=Marcel|last3=Chu|first3=Joanna Ting Wai|last4=Manor|first4=Yoni|last5=Kemps|first5=Eva|year=2022|title=Online media consumption and depression in young people: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Computers in Human Behavior|publisher=Elsevier|volume=128|page=107129|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2021.107129}}</ref> Also in March 2022, ''JAMA Psychiatry'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 87 studies with 159,425 subjects 12 years of age or younger that found a small but statistically significant correlation between screen time and depression in children,<ref name="JAMA Psychiatry 2022" /> while ''Adolescent Psychiatry'' published a systematic review of research published from June 2010 through June 2020 studying associations between social media use and depression among adolescent subjects aged 13 to 18 years that established that 82.6% of studies reviewed reported positive associations between social media use and depression.<ref name="Adolescent Psychiatry 2022" /> In April 2022, the ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'' published a meta-analysis of 21 cross-sectional studies and 5 longitudinal studies comprising 55,340 adolescent subjects that found that social media screen time had a linear dose–response association with depression risk among adolescents and that depression risk increased by 13% for each additional hour of social media screen time.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Mingli|last2=Kamper-DeMarco|first2=Kimberly E.|last3=Zhang|first3=Jie|last4=Xiao|first4=Jia|last5=Dong|first5=Daifeng|last6=Xue|first6=Peng|year=2022|title=Time Spent on Social Media and Risk of Depression in Adolescents: A Dose–Response Meta-Analysis|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|publisher=MDPI|volume=19|issue=9|page=5164|doi=10.3390/ijerph19095164|doi-access=free |pmid=35564559 |pmc=9103874 }}</ref>
Also in April 2022, researchers in the Department of Communication at Stanford University performed a meta-analysis of 226 studies comprising 275,728 subjects that found a small but positive association between social media use and depression,<ref name="SSRN 4053961" /> while ''JMIR Mental Health'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 18 studies comprising 9,269 adolescent and young adult subjects that found a moderate but statistically significant association between problematic social media use and depression.<ref name="JMIR Mental Health 2022" /> In August 2022, the ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 studies comprising 8,077 subjects that established a significant association between binge-watching and depression and a stronger association between binge-watching and depression was found during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] than pre-pandemic.<ref name="IJERPH 2022" /> In November 2022, ''[[Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking]]'' published a systematic review of 1,747 articles on problematic social media use that found a strong bidirectional relationship between social media use and depression.<ref name="CBSN 2022" /> In December 2022, ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'' published a meta-analysis of 18 cohort studies comprising 241,398 subjects that found that screen time is a predictor of depressive symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Liqing|last2=Zhang|first2=Qi|last3=Zhu|first3=Liyong|last4=Zeng|first4=Guohua|last5=Huang|first5=Hongwei|last6=Zhuge|first6=Jian|last7=Kuang|first7=Xiaorui|last8=Yang|first8=Sule|last9=Yang|first9=Di|last10=Chen|first10=Zhensheng|last11=Gan|first11=Yong|last12=Lu|first12=Zuxun|last13=Wu|first13=Chunmei|year=2022|title=Screen time and depression risk: A meta-analysis of cohort studies|journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry|publisher=Frontiers Media|volume=13|page=1058572|doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1058572|doi-access=free |pmid=36620668 |pmc=9815119 }}</ref> In March 2023, the ''Journal of Public Health'' published a meta-analysis of 27 studies published after 2014 comprising 120,895 subjects that found a moderate and robust association between problematic smartphone use and depression.<ref name="JPH 2023" />
In April 2023, ''[[Trauma, Violence, & Abuse]]'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 17 studies comprising 79,202 adolescent subjects between the ages of 10 and 19 years that found that depression was three times more common among cyberbullying victims than control groups.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tran|first1=Huong Giang Nguyen|last2=Thai|first2=Truc Thanh|last3=Dang|first3=Ngan Thien Thi|last4=Vo|first4=Duy Kim|last5=Duong|first5=Mai Huynh Thi|year=2023|title=Cyber-Victimization and Its Effect on Depression in Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse|publisher=Sage Publishing|volume=24|issue=2|pages=1124–1139|doi=10.1177/15248380211050597|pmid=34689637 }}</ref> In July 2023, ''Current Psychology'' published a meta-analysis of 38 studies comprising 14,935 subjects in [[Turkey]] that found a small but positive association between problematic social media use and depression.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yigiter|first1=Mahmut Sami|last2=Demir|first2=Seda|last3=Dogan|first3=Nuri|year=2023|title=The Relationship Between Problematic Social Media Use and Depression: A Meta-Analysis Study|journal=Current Psychology|volume=43 |issue=9 |pages=7936–7951 |publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/s12144-023-04972-9}}</ref> In September 2023, ''[[Clinical Psychological Science]]'' published a [[Preregistration (science)|preregistered]] review and meta-analysis of 34 articles published between 2018 and 2020 studying associations between adolescent depression and social media use to identify the proportion of samples taken from the [[Global North and Global South]], and found that more than 70% examined Global North populations and that associations in the Global North were positive and significant while associations in the Global South were [[Null result|null]] and non-significant.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ghai|first1=Sakshi|last2=Fassi|first2=Luisa|last3=Awadh|first3=Faisal|last4=Orben|first4=Amy|author-link4=Amy Orben|year=2023|title=Lack of Sample Diversity in Research on Adolescent Depression and Social Media Use: A Scoping Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=Clinical Psychological Science|publisher=Sage Publishing|volume=11|issue=5|pages=759–772|doi=10.1177/21677026221114859|pmid=37694229 |pmc=10491482 }}</ref> In September 2023, ''[[British Journal of Psychiatry|BJPsych Open]]'' published a systematic review of 140 studies published from 2000 through 2020 that found that social media use for more than 3 hours per day and passive browsing was associated with increased depression in children, adolescents, and young adults.<ref name="BJPsych Open 2023" /> In February 2024, ''The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery'' published a systematic review of 15 studies researching associations between problematic social media use and depression in subjects from the Middle East and North Africa (including 4 studies with subjects exclusively between the ages of 12 and 19 years) that established that most studies found a significant association.<ref name="EJNPN 2024" />
===Insomnia===
{{Main|Insomnia}}
In August 2018, ''Sleep Science and Practice'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 19 studies comprising 253,904 adolescent subjects that found that excessive technology use had a strong and consistent association with reduced sleep duration and prolonged [[sleep onset latency]] for adolescents 14 years of age or older.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mei|first1=Xi|last2=Zhou|first2=Qi|last3=Li|first3=Xingxing|last4=Jing|first4=Pan|last5=Wang|first5=Xiaojia|last6=Hu|first6=Zhenyu|year=2018|title=Sleep problems in excessive technology use among adolescent: a systemic review and meta-analysis|journal=Sleep Science and Practice|publisher=Springer|volume=2|issue=9|doi=10.1186/s41606-018-0028-9|doi-access=free }}</ref> Also in August 2018, ''Sleep Science'' published a systematic review of 12 studies investigating associations between exposure to video games, sleep outcomes, and post-sleep cognitive abilities that found the data present in the studies indicated associations between a reduction in sleep duration, increased sleep onset latency, modifications to [[rapid eye movement sleep]] and [[slow-wave sleep]], increased sleepiness and self-perceived [[fatigue]], and impaired post-sleep [[attention span]] and [[verbal memory]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Peracchia|first1=Sara|last2=Curcio|first2=Giuseppe|year=2018|title=Exposure to video games: effects on sleep and on post-sleep cognitive abilities. A sistematic review of experimental evidences|journal=Sleep Science|publisher=Thieme Medical Publishers|volume=11|issue=4|pages=302–314|pmc=6361300|pmid=30746049|doi=10.5935/1984-0063.20180046}}</ref> In October 2019, ''Sleep Medicine Reviews'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 23 studies comprising 35,684 subjects that found a statistically significant [[odds ratio]] for sleep problems and reduced sleep duration for subjects with internet addiction.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Alimoradi|first1=Zainab|last2=Lin|first2=Chung-Ying|last3=Broström|first3=Anders|last4=Bülow|first4=Pia H.|last5=Bajalan|first5=Zahra|last6=Griffiths|first6=Mark D.|last7=Ohayon|first7=Maurice M.|last8=Pakpour|first8=Amir H.|year=2019|title=Internet addiction and sleep problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Sleep Medicine Reviews|publisher=Elsevier|volume=47|pages=51–61|doi=10.1016/j.smrv.2019.06.004|pmid=31336284 |s2cid=198193864 }}</ref> In February 2020, ''[[Psychiatry Research]]'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 14 studies that found positive associations between problematic smartphone use and poor sleep quality and between higher levels of problematic smartphone use and elevated risk of poor sleep quality.<ref name="Psychiatry Research 2020">{{cite journal|last1=Jiaxin|first1=Yang|last2=Xi|first2=Fu|last3=Xiaoli|first3=Liao|last4=Yamin|first4=Li |year=2020|title=Association of problematic smartphone use with poor sleep quality, depression, and anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Psychiatry Research|publisher=Elsevier|volume=284|page=112686|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112686|pmid=31757638 |s2cid=207974088 }}</ref>
Also in February 2020, ''Sleep Medicine Reviews'' published a systematic review of 31 studies examining associations between screen time and sleep outcomes in children younger than 5 years and found that screen time is associated with poorer sleep outcomes for children under the age of 5, with meta-analysis only confirming poor sleep outcomes among children under 2 years.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Janssen|first1=Xanne|last2=Martin|first2=Anne|last3=Hughes|first3=Adrienne R.|last4=Hill|first4=Catherine M.|last5=Kotronoulas|first5=Grigorios|last6=Hesketh|first6=Kathryn R.|year=2020|title=Associations of screen time, sedentary time and physical activity with sleep in under 5s: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=[[Sleep Medicine Reviews]]|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|volume=49|issue=101226|page=101226|doi=10.1016/j.smrv.2019.101226|pmid=31778942|pmc=7034412}}</ref> In March 2020, ''[[Developmental Review]]'' published a systematic review of 9 studies that found a weak-to-moderate association between sleep quantity and quality and problematic smartphone use among adolescents.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mac Cárthaigh|first1=Saoirse|last2=Griffin|first2=Claire|last3=Perry|first3=John|year=2020|title=The relationship between sleep and problematic smartphone use among adolescents: A systematic review|journal=Developmental Review|publisher=Elsevier|volume=55|page=100897|doi=10.1016/j.dr.2020.100897|s2cid=213952365 }}</ref> In October 2020, the ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 80 studies that found that greater screen time was associated with shorter sleep duration among toddlers and preschoolers,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Chao|last2=Cheng|first2=Gang|last3=Sha|first3=Tingting|last4=Cheng|first4=Wenwei|last5=Yan|first5=Yan|year=2020|title=The Relationships between Screen Use and Health Indicators among Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|publisher=MDPI|volume=17|issue=19|pages=7324|doi=10.3390/ijerph17197324|doi-access=free |pmid=33036443 |pmc=7579161 }}</ref> while the ''Journal of Behavioral Addictions'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 40 studies with 33,650 post-secondary student subjects that found a weak-to-moderate positive association between mobile phone addiction and poor sleep quality.<ref name="JBA 2020" /> In April 2021, ''Sleep Medicine Reviews'' published a systematic review of 36 cross-sectional studies and 6 longitudinal studies that found that 24 of the cross-sectional studies and 5 of the longitudinal studies established significant associations between more frequent social media use and poor sleep outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Alonzo|first1=Rea|last2=Hussain|first2=Junayd|last3=Stranges|first3=Saverio|last4=Anderson|first4=Kelly K.|year=2021|title=Interplay between social media use, sleep quality, and mental health in youth: A systematic review|journal=Sleep Medicine Reviews|publisher=Elsevier|volume=56|page=101414|doi=10.1016/j.smrv.2020.101414|pmid=33385767 |s2cid=230107960 |url=https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/context/epidempub/article/1069/viewcontent/Manuscript___Sleep_Medicine_Reviews_FINAL.pdf }}</ref>
In June 2021, ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 34 studies comprising 51,901 subjects that established significant associations between problematic gaming and sleep duration, poor sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, and other sleep problems.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kristensen|first1=Joakim H.|last2=Pallesen|first2=Ståle|last3=King|first3=Daniel L.|last4=Hysing|first4=Mari|last5=Erevik|first5=Eilin K.|year=2021|title=Problematic Gaming and Sleep: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry|publisher=Frontiers Media|volume=12|page=675237|doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2021.675237|doi-access=free |pmid=34163386 |pmc=8216490 }}</ref> In September 2021, ''[[BMC Public Health]]'' published a systematic review of 49 studies investigating associations between electronic media use and various sleep outcomes among children and adolescents 15 years of age or younger that found a strong association with sleep duration and stronger evidence for an association with sleep duration between the ages of 6 and 15 years than for 5 years of age or younger, while evidence for associations between electronic media use with other sleep outcomes was more inconclusive.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lund|first1=Lisbeth|last2=Sølvhøj|first2=Ida Nielsen|last3=Danielsen|first3=Dina|last4=Andersen|first4=Susan|year=2021|title=Electronic media use and sleep in children and adolescents in western countries: a systematic review|journal=BMC Public Health|publisher=BioMed Central|volume=21|issue=1 |page=1598|doi=10.1186/s12889-021-11640-9|doi-access=free |pmid=34587944 |pmc=8482627 }}</ref> In December 2021, ''[[Frontiers Media|Frontiers in Neuroscience]]'' published a systematic review of 12 studies published from January 2000 to April 2020 that found that adult subjects with higher gaming addiction scores were more likely to have shorter sleep quantity, poorer sleep quality, delayed sleep timing, and greater daytime sleepiness and insomnia scores than subjects with lower gaming addiction scores and non-gamer subjects.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kemp|first1=Chadley|last2=Pienaar|first2=Paula R.|last3=Rosslee|first3=Dominique T.|last4=Lipinska|first4=Gosia|last5=Roden|first5=Laura C.|last6=Rae|first6=Dale E.|year=2021|title=Sleep in Habitual Adult Video Gamers: A Systematic Review|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|publisher=Frontiers Media|volume=15|page=781351|doi=10.3389/fnins.2021.781351|doi-access=free |pmid=35095395 |pmc=8797142 }}</ref> In January 2022, ''[[Early Childhood Research Quarterly]]'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 26 studies that found a weak but statistically significant association with increased smartphone and tablet computer use and poorer sleep in early childhood.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mallawaarachchi|first1=Sumudu R.|last2=Anglim|first2=Jeromy|last3=Hooley|first3=Merrilyn|last4=Horwood|first4=Sharon|year=2022|title=Associations of smartphone and tablet use in early childhood with psychosocial, cognitive and sleep factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Early Childhood Research Quarterly|publisher=Elsevier|volume=60|pages=13–33|doi=10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.12.008}}</ref>
In May 2022, the ''[[Journal of Affective Disorders]]'' published a meta-analysis of 29 studies comprising 20,041 subjects that found a weak-to-moderate association between mobile phone addiction and sleep disorder and that adolescents with mobile phone addiction were at higher risk of developing sleep disorder.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Jianghui|last2=Zhang|first2=Xueqing|last3=Zhang|first3=Kexin|last4=Lu|first4=Xiaoyan|last5=Yuan|first5=Guojing|last6=Yang|first6=Huayu|last7=Guo|first7=Haiyun|last8=Zhu|first8=Zhihui|last9=Wang|first9=Tianli|last10=Hao|first10=Jiahu|last11=Sun|first11=Ying|last12=Su|first12=Puyu|last13=Yang|first13=Linsheng|last14=Zhang|first14=Zhihua|year=2022|title=An updated of meta-analysis on the relationship between mobile phone addiction and sleep disorder|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|publisher=Elsevier|volume=305|pages=94–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2022.02.008|pmid=35149136 |s2cid=246738576 }}</ref> In August 2022, the ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 studies comprising 8,077 subjects that established a significant association between binge-watching and sleep problems and a stronger association between binge-watching and sleep problems was found during the COVID-19 pandemic than pre-pandemic.<ref name="IJERPH 2022" /> In October 2022, ''Reports in Public Health'' published a systematic review of 23 studies that found that excessive use of digital screens by adolescents was associated with poor sleep quality, nighttime awakenings, long sleep latency, and daytime sleepiness.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=da Silva|first1=Sérgio Soares|last2=da Silveira|first2=Mariana Araújo Coutinho|last3=de Almeida|first3=Híttalo Carlos Rodrigues|last4=do Nascimento|first4=Marcela Carla Pereira|last5=Dos Santos|first5=Marcos André Moura|last6=Heimer|first6=Mônica Vilela|year=2022|title=Use of digital screens by adolescents and association on sleep quality: a systematic review|journal=Reports in Public Health|publisher=Sérgio Arouca National School of Public Health|volume=38|issue=10|page=e00300721|pmid=36259788|doi=10.1590/0102-311XEN300721|doi-access=free}}</ref> In December 2022, ''Sleep Epidemiology'' published a systematic review of 18 studies investigating associations between sleep problems and screen time during [[COVID-19 lockdowns]] that found that the increased screen time during the lockdowns negatively impacted sleep duration, sleep quality, sleep onset latency, and wake time.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Drumheller|first1=Kathryn|last2=Fan|first2=Chia-Wei|year=2022|title=Unprecedented times and uncertain connections: A systematic review examining sleep problems and screentime during the COVID-19 pandemic|journal=Sleep Epidemiology|publisher=Elsevier|volume=2|page=100029|doi=10.1016/j.sleepe.2022.100029|pmid=35692715 |pmc=9076584 }}</ref> In March 2023, the ''[[Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine]]'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 17 studies comprising 36,485 subjects that found that smartphone overuse was closely associated with self-reported poor sleep quality, [[sleep deprivation]], and prolonged sleep latency.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chu|first1=Yoora|last2=Oh|first2=Yeongbiehn|last3=Gwon|first3=Minseong|last4=Hwang|first4=Seokhyun|last5=Jeong|first5=Hyeokjun|last6=Kim|first6=Hyun-Woo|last7=Kim|first7=Kihun|last8=Kim|first8=Yun Hak|year=2023|title=Dose-response analysis of smartphone usage and self-reported sleep quality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies|journal=Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine|publisher=American Academy of Sleep Medicine|volume=19|issue=3|pages=621–630 |doi=10.5664/jcsm.10392|pmid=36546366 |pmc=9978438 }}</ref>
In April 2023, ''Sleep Medicine Reviews'' published a systematic review of 42 studies that found digital media use to be associated with shorter sleep duration and poorer sleep quality and bedtime or nighttime use with poor sleep outcomes, but only found associations for general screen use, mobile phone use, computer and internet use, internet, and social media and not for television, game console, and tablet use.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brautsch|first1=Louise AS.|last2=Lund|first2=Lisbeth|last3=Andersen|first3=Martin M.|last4=Jennum|first4=Poul J.|last5=Folker|first5=Anna P.|last6=Andersen|first6=Susan|year=2023|title=Digital media use and sleep in late adolescence and young adulthood: A systematic review|journal=Sleep Medicine Reviews|publisher=Elsevier|volume=68|page=101742|doi=10.1016/j.smrv.2022.101742|pmid=36638702 }}</ref> In July 2023, ''[[List of MDPI academic journals|Healthcare]]'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 studies that established a correlation coefficient of 0.56 between nomophobia and insomnia.<ref name="MPDI Healthcare 2023">{{cite journal|last1=Daraj|first1=Lateefa Rashed|last2=AlGhareeb|first2=Muneera|last3=Almutawa|first3=Yaser Mansoor|last4=Trabelsi|first4=Khaled|last5=Jahrami|first5=Haitham|year=2023|title=Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Correlation Coefficients between Nomophobia and Anxiety, Smartphone Addiction, and Insomnia Symptoms|journal=Healthcare|publisher=MDPI|volume=11|issue=14|page=2066|doi=10.3390/healthcare11142066|doi-access=free |pmid=37510507 |pmc=10380081 }}</ref> In September 2023, ''[[PLOS One]]'' published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 studies of smartphone addiction and sleep among medical students found that 57% of subjects had poor sleep and 39% of subjects had smartphone addiction with a correlation index of 0.3,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Leow|first1=Mabel Qi He|last2=Chiang|first2=Joelle|last3=Chua|first3=Tiffany Jia Xuan|last4=Wang|first4=Sean|last5=Tan|first5=Ngiap Chuan|year=2023|title=The relationship between smartphone addiction and sleep among medical students: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=e0290724 |publisher=PLOS|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0290724|doi-access=free |pmid=37713408 |pmc=10503710 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1890724L }}</ref> while ''[[Computers in Human Behavior]]'' published a meta-analysis of 23 longitudinal studies comprising 116,431 adolescent subjects that found that adolescent screen time with computers, smartphones, social media, and television are positively associated with negative impacts on sleep health later in life.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pagano|first1=Maria|last2=Bacaro|first2=Valeria|last3=Crocetti|first3=Elisabetta |year=2023|title="Using digital media or sleeping … that is the question". A meta-analysis on digital media use and unhealthy sleep in adolescence|journal=Computers in Human Behavior|publisher=Elsevier|volume=146|page=107813|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2023.107813|hdl=11585/950006|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
===Narcissism===
{{Main|Narcissistic personality disorder}}
In April 2018, a meta-analysis published in the ''[[Journal of Personality]]'' found that the positive correlation between grandiose narcissism and social networking site (SNS) usage was replicated across platforms (including Facebook and Twitter).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gnambs|first1=Timo|last2=Appel|first2=Markus|title=Narcissism and Social Networking Behavior: A Meta-Analysis|year=2018|journal=[[Journal of Personality]]|volume=86|issue=2|pages=200–212|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|pmid=28170106|doi=10.1111/jopy.12305}}</ref> In July 2018, a meta-analysis published in ''Psychology of Popular Media'' found that [[Narcissistic personality disorder#Types|grandiose narcissism]] positively correlated with time spent on social media, frequency of status updates, number of friends or followers, and frequency of posting [[Selfie|self-portrait digital photographs]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McCain|first1=Jessica L.|last2=Campbell|first2=W. Keith|title=Narcissism and Social Media Use: A Meta-Analytic Review|year=2018|journal=Psychology of Popular Media Culture|volume=7|issue=3|pages=308–327|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]|doi=10.1037/ppm0000137|s2cid=152057114|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305766785|access-date=9 June 2020|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020044406/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305766785_Narcissism_and_Social_Media_Use_A_Meta-Analytic_Review|url-status=live}}</ref> In March 2020, the ''[[Review of General Psychology]]'' published a meta-analysis that found a small-to-moderate association between SNS use and narcissism.<ref name="RGP 2020">{{cite journal|last1=Appel|first1=Markus|last2=Marker|first2=Caroline|last3=Gnambs|first3=Timo|year=2020|title=Are Social Media Ruining Our Lives? A Review of Meta-Analytic Evidence|journal=Review of General Psychology|publisher=American Psychological Association|volume=24|issue=1|pages=60–74|doi=10.1177/1089268019880891}}</ref> In June 2020, ''[[Addictive Behaviors]]'' published a [[systematic review]] finding a consistent, positive, and significant correlation between grandiose narcissism and problematic social media use.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Casale|first1=Silvia|last2=Banchi|first2=Vanessa|title=Narcissism and problematic social media use: A systematic literature review|year=2020|journal=[[Addictive Behaviors|Addictive Behaviors Reports]]|volume=11|page=100252|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|doi=10.1016/j.abrep.2020.100252|pmid=32467841|pmc=7244927|doi-access=free}}</ref>
===OCD===
{{main|Obsessive–compulsive disorder}}
In April 2018, the ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'' published a systematic review of 24 studies researching associations between internet gaming disorder (IGD) and various psychopathologies that found a significant correlation between IGD and obsessive–compulsive disorder symptoms in 3 of 4 studies.<ref name="IJERPH 2018" />
==Mental health benefits==
{{See also|Video game controversies#Positive effects of video games}}
[[File:Digital media use.jpg|thumb|Smartphones and other digital devices are ubiquitous in many societies.]]Individuals with mental illness can develop social connections over social media, that may foster a sense of social inclusion in online communities.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":16" /> People with mental illness may share personal stories in a perceived safer space, as well as gaining peer support for developing coping strategies.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":16" />
Research published in 2024 investigated the impact of 'labels' on  mental health. The participants received indications through labels whether specific webpages were likely to make them feel better or worse. The labeling system influenced participants' preferences and helped them evaluate the best choices when presented with relevant information. The results suggested that digital labels can be a useful tool to encourage healthy behaviors and improving behaviour, demonstrating the potential of technology to improve mental health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kelly |first=Christopher A. |last2=Sharot |first2=Tali |author-link2=Tali Sharot |date=21 November 2024 |title=Web-browsing patterns reflect and shape mood and mental health |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-024-02065-6 |journal=[[Nature Human Behaviour]] |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41562-024-02065-6 |eissn=2397-3374 |via=Nature |doi-access=free}}</ref>
People with mental illness are likely to report avoiding stigma and gaining further insight into their mental health condition by using social media. This comes with the risk of unhealthy influences, misinformation, and delayed access to traditional mental health outlets.<ref name=":18" />
Furthermore, in children, the educational benefits of digital media use are well established.<ref name=":18" /> For example, screen-based programs can help increase both independent and collaborative learning. A variety of quality apps and software can also decrease learning gaps and increase skill in certain educational subjects.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ponti |first=Michelle |date=5 September 2019 |title=Digital media: Promoting healthy screen use in school-aged children and adolescents | journal = [[Paediatrics & Child Health]] |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=402–408 |doi=10.1093/pch/pxz095 |pmid=31528113 |pmc=6736327 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Critchlow |first=Nathan |title=Health and well-being in the digital society |journal=Social Determinants of Health |doi=10.2307/j.ctt22p7kj8.14 |language=en |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Other disciplines==
===Digital anthropology===
[[Daniel Miller (anthropologist)|Daniel Miller]] from [[University College London]] has contributed to the study of [[digital anthropology]], especially ethnographic research on the use and consequences of social media and smartphones as part of the everyday life of ordinary people around the world. He notes the effects of social media are very specific to individual locations and cultures. He contends "a layperson might dismiss these stories as superficial. But the anthropologist takes them seriously, empathetically exploring each use of digital technologies in terms of the wider social and cultural context."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/the-anthropology-of-social-media/|title=The Anthropology of Social Media| vauthors = Miller D |website=Scientific American Blog Network|access-date=13 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215070144/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/the-anthropology-of-social-media/|archive-date=15 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
Digital anthropology is a developing field which studies the relationship between humans and digital-era technology. It aims to consider arguments in terms of ethical and societal scopes, rather than simply observing technological changes.<ref name="Miller_2018">{{cite encyclopedia| vauthors = Miller D | date=28 August 2018|title=Digital Anthropology|url=http://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/digital-anthropology|encyclopedia=[[Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology]]|doi=10.29164/18digital |access-date=7 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230030108/http://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/digital-anthropology|archive-date=30 December 2018|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref> Brian Solis, a digital analyst and anthropologist, stated in 2018, "we've become digital addicts: it's time to take control of technology and not let tech control us".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/@briansolis/breaking-digital-facades-its-time-to-take-tech-back-c7af059dfd51|title=We've Become Digital Addicts: It's Time to Take Control of Technology and Not Let Tech Control Us| vauthors = Solis B |date=28 March 2018|website=Medium|access-date=6 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230130551/https://medium.com/@briansolis/breaking-digital-facades-its-time-to-take-tech-back-c7af059dfd51|archive-date=30 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Digital sociology===
A 2012 cross-sectional sociological study in Turkey showed differences in patterns of internet use that related to levels of religiosity in 2,698&nbsp;subjects. With increasing religiosity, negative attitudes towards internet use increased. Highly religious people showed different motivations for internet use, predominantly searching for information.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Sanaktekin OH |date=20 December 2011|title=The Effects of Religiosity on Internet Consumption|journal=[[Information, Communication & Society]]|volume=16|issue=10|pages=1553–1573|doi=10.1080/1369118x.2012.722663|s2cid=143260457 }}</ref> A study of 1,296&nbsp;Malaysian adolescent students found an inverse relationship between religiosity and internet addiction tendency in females, but not males.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Charlton JP, Soh PC, Ang PH, Chew KW |date=1 December 2013|title=Religiosity, Adolescent Internet Usage Motives and Addiction|journal=[[Information, Communication & Society]]|volume=16|issue=10|pages=1619–1638|doi=10.1080/1369118X.2012.735251|s2cid=142545433|issn=1369-118X}}</ref>
A 2018 review published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' considered that young people may have different experiences online, depending on their socio-economic background, noting lower-income youths may spend up to three hours more per day using digital devices, compared to higher-income youths.<ref name="OdgersSmartphones"/> They theorized that lower-income youths, who are already vulnerable to mental illness, may be more passive in their online engagements, being more susceptible to negative feedback online, with difficulty self-regulating their digital media use. It concluded that this may be a new form of [[digital divide]] between at-risk young people and other young people, pre-existing risks of mental illness becoming amplified among the already vulnerable population.<ref name="OdgersSmartphones">{{cite journal|vauthors=Odgers C|date=February 2018|title=Smartphones are bad for some teens, not all|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=554|issue=7693|pages=432–434|doi=10.1038/d41586-018-02109-8|pmc=6121807|pmid=29469108|bibcode=2018Natur.554..432O}}</ref>
===Neuroscience===
A 2018 neuroscientific review published in ''Nature'' found the density of the [[amygdala]], a [[List of regions in the human brain|brain region]] involved in emotional processing, is related to the size of both offline and online social networks in adolescents. They considered that this and other evidence "suggests an important interplay between actual social experiences, both offline and online, and [[brain development]]". The authors postulated that social media may have benefits, namely social connections with other people, as well as managing impressions people have of other people such as "reputation building, impression management, and online self-presentation". It identified "adolescence [as] a tipping point in development for how social media can influence their self-concept and expectations of self and others", and called for further study into the neuroscience behind digital media use and brain development in adolescence.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Crone EA, Konijn EA|date=February 2018|title=Media use and brain development during adolescence|journal=[[Nature Communications]]|volume=9|issue=1|pages=588|bibcode=2018NatCo...9..588C|doi=10.1038/s41467-018-03126-x|pmc=5821838|pmid=29467362}}</ref> Although brain-imaging [[Modality (human–computer interaction)|modalities]] are under study, neuroscientific findings in individual studies often [[Replication crisis|fail to be replicated]] in future studies, similar to other behavioural addictions; as of 2017, the exact biological or neural processes that could lead to excessive digital media use are unknown.<ref name=":12" />
==Impact on cognition==
There is research and development about the cognitive impacts of [[smartphone]]s and digital technology. A group reported that, contrary to widespread belief, scientific evidence does not show that these technologies harm biological cognitive abilities and that they instead only change predominant ways of [[cognition]] – such as a reduced need to remember facts or conduct mathematical calculations by pen and paper outside contemporary schools. However, some activities – like reading novels – that require long focused attention-spans and do not feature ongoing rewarding stimulation may become more challenging in general.<ref>{{cite news |title=Smart technology is not making us dumber: study |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-07-smart-technology-dumber.html |access-date=14 August 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=14 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814133410/https://phys.org/news/2021-07-smart-technology-dumber.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cecutti |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Chemero |first2=Anthony |last3=Lee |first3=Spike W. S. |title=Technology may change cognition without necessarily harming it |journal=Nature Human Behaviour |date=1 July 2021 |volume=5 |issue=8 |pages=973–975 |doi=10.1038/s41562-021-01162-0 |pmid=34211150 |s2cid=235709853 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352906266 |access-date=14 August 2021 |language=en |issn=2397-3374 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020044426/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352906266_Technology_may_change_cognition_without_necessarily_harming_it |url-status=live }}</ref> How extensive online media usage impacts cognitive development in youth is under investigation<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Firth |first1=Joseph |last2=Torous |first2=John |last3=Stubbs |first3=Brendon |last4=Firth |first4=Josh A. |last5=Steiner |first5=Genevieve Z. |last6=Smith |first6=Lee |last7=Alvarez-Jimenez |first7=Mario |last8=Gleeson |first8=John |last9=Vancampfort |first9=Davy |last10=Armitage |first10=Christopher J. |last11=Sarris |first11=Jerome |title=The "online brain": how the Internet may be changing our cognition |journal=World Psychiatry |date=2019 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=119–129 |doi=10.1002/wps.20617 |pmid=31059635 |pmc=6502424 |language=en |issn=2051-5545}}</ref> and impacts may substantially vary by the way and which technologies are being used – such as which and how digital media platforms are being used – and how these are designed. Impacts may vary to a degree such studies have not yet taken into account and may be modulatable by the design, choice and use of technologies and platforms, including by the users themselves.
[[File:Study about change in intelligence in children 9–12 from screen time watching, screen time Socializing, screen time gaming.webp|thumb|Measured results of the study]]
A study suggests that in [[Child development|children]] aged 8–12 during two years, time [[video game|digital gaming]] or watching digital videos can be positively correlated with [[Cognitive development|measures intelligence]], albeit correlations with overall [[screen time]] (including social media, socializing and TV) were not investigated and 'time gaming' did not differentiate between categories of video games (e.g. shares of games' platform and [[List of video game genres|genre]]), and digital videos did not differentiate between categories of videos.<ref>{{cite news |title=Video games can boost children's intelligence: study |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2022-05-video-games-boost-children-intelligence.html |access-date=24 June 2022 |work=[[Karolinska Institutet]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sauce |first1=Bruno |last2=Liebherr |first2=Magnus |last3=Judd |first3=Nicholas |last4=Klingberg |first4=Torkel |title=The impact of digital media on children's intelligence while controlling for genetic differences in cognition and socioeconomic background |journal=Scientific Reports |date=11 May 2022 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=7720 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-11341-2 |pmid=35545630 |pmc=9095723 |bibcode=2022NatSR..12.7720S |language=en |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>
==Impact on social life==
Worldwide [[Adolescent health|adolescent]] [[loneliness]] in contemporary schools and depression increased substantially after 2012 and a study found this to be associated with [[smartphone]] access and [[Internet#usage|Internet use]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Teens around the world are lonelier than a decade ago. The reason may be smartphones. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/social-issues/teens-loneliness-smart-phones/2021/07/20/cde8c866-e84e-11eb-8950-d73b3e93ff7f_story.html |access-date=14 August 2021 |newspaper=Washington Post |archive-date=3 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803201249/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/social-issues/teens-loneliness-smart-phones/2021/07/20/cde8c866-e84e-11eb-8950-d73b3e93ff7f_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Worldwide increases in adolescent loneliness |journal=Journal of Adolescence |date=20 July 2021 |doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.06.006 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140197121000853 |language=en |issn=0140-1971 |last1=Twenge |first1=Jean M. |last2=Haidt |first2=Jonathan |last3=Blake |first3=Andrew B. |last4=McAllister |first4=Cooper |last5=Lemon |first5=Hannah |last6=Le Roy |first6=Astrid |volume=93 |pages=257–269 |pmid=34294429 |s2cid=236197751 |access-date=23 August 2021 |archive-date=14 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814132539/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140197121000853 |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Mitigation==
===Industry===
Several technology firms have implemented changes intending to mitigate the adverse effects of excessive use of their platforms.
In December 2017, Facebook admitted passive consumption of social media could be harmful to mental health, although they said active engagement can have a positive effect. In January 2018, the platform made major changes to increase user engagement.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/dec/15/facebook-mental-health-psychology-social-media | title=Facebook admits it poses mental health risk – but says using site more can help | newspaper=[[The Guardian]] | first=Sam | last=Levin | date=15 December 2017 | access-date=15 January 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114215007/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/dec/15/facebook-mental-health-psychology-social-media | archive-date=14 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> In January 2019, Facebook's then head of global affairs, [[Nick Clegg]], responding to [[Criticism of Facebook|criticisms of Facebook]] and mental health concerns, stated they would do "whatever it takes to make this environment safer online especially for youngsters". Facebook admitted "heavy responsibilities" to the global community, and invited regulation by governments.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-47036000|title=Can Nick Clegg help Facebook grow up?|work=[[BBC News]]|date=28 January 2019|last1=Rajan|first1=Amol|access-date=27 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228010950/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-47036000|archive-date=28 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2018 [[Facebook]] and Instagram announced new tools that they asserted may assist with overuse of their products.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thenextweb.com/facebook/2018/08/01/social-media-addiction-facebook-instagram/|title=Facebook and Instagram officially announce new tools to fight social media addiction|last=Booth|first=Callum|date=1 August 2018|website=The Next Web|access-date=19 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404172134/https://thenextweb.com/facebook/2018/08/01/social-media-addiction-facebook-instagram/|archive-date=4 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019, Instagram, which has been investigated specifically in one study in terms of addiction,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Kircaburun K, Griffiths MD | title=Instagram addiction and the Big Five of personality: The mediating role of self-liking | journal=Journal of Behavioral Addictions | volume=7 | issue=1 | pages=158–170 | date=March 2018 | pmid=29461086 | pmc=6035031 | doi=10.1556/2006.7.2018.15}}</ref> began testing a platform change in Canada to hide the number of "likes" and views that photos and videos received in an effort to create a "less pressurised" environment.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/05/01/heres-why-instagram-is-going-hide-your-likes/?noredirect=on|title=Here's why Instagram is going to hide your 'likes'|last=Shaban|first=Hamza|date=1 May 2019|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=1 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505203314/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/05/01/heres-why-instagram-is-going-hide-your-likes/?noredirect=on|archive-date=5 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> It then continued this trial in Australia, Italy, Ireland, Japan, Brazil and New Zealand<ref>{{cite news|url=https://au.news.yahoo.com/instagram-hides-likes-more-users-072428027--spt.html|title=Instagram hides 'likes' from more users|last=Robertson|first=Holly|date=18 July 2019|work=[[Yahoo! News]]|access-date=11 August 2019|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811051943/https://au.news.yahoo.com/instagram-hides-likes-more-users-072428027--spt.html|archive-date=11 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> before extending the experiment globally in November of that year. The platform also developed artificial intelligence to counter cyberbullying.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://time.com/5619999/instagram-mosseri-bullying-artificial-intelligence/|title=Inside Instagram's War on Bullying|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|last=Steinmetz|first=Katy|date=8 July 2018|language=en|access-date=7 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728050232/https://time.com/5619999/instagram-mosseri-bullying-artificial-intelligence/|archive-date=28 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2018, [[Alphabet Inc.]] released an update for [[Android (operating system)|Android]] smartphones, including a dashboard app enabling users to set timers on application use.<ref name=":6">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/may/10/google-phone-addiction-app|title=Google wants to cure our phone addiction. How about that for irony? {{!}} Matt Haig|last=Haig|first=Matt|date=10 May 2018|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=10 January 2019|issn=0261-3077|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111054937/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/may/10/google-phone-addiction-app|archive-date=11 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Apple Inc.]] purchased a third-party application and then incorporated it in [[iOS 12]] to measure "screen time".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-use-screen-time-ios-12/|title=How to Use Apple's Screen Time Controls on iOS 12|last=Ceres|first=Pia|date=25 September 2018|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|access-date=13 December 2018|issn=1059-1028|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217111918/https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-use-screen-time-ios-12/|archive-date=17 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Journalists have questioned the functionality of these products for users and parents, as well as the companies' motivations for introducing them.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{cite web | first=Sonja | last=Haller | url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/allthemoms/2018/08/27/apples-screen-time-default-let-kids-access-explicit-movies-and-books/1111575002/ | title=Warning: Apple's new Screen Time could allow your child to watch NC-17 movies | website=[[USA Today]] | date=27 August 2018 | access-date=10 January 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110184947/https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/allthemoms/2018/08/27/apples-screen-time-default-let-kids-access-explicit-movies-and-books/1111575002/ | archive-date=10 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Alphabet has also invested in a mental health specialist, Quartet, which uses machine learning to collaborate and coordinate digital delivery of mental health care.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/google-invests-mental-health-specialist-quartet-expand-machine-learning-team|title=Google invests in mental health specialist Quartet to expand machine learning team|date=4 January 2018|website=Healthcare IT News|language=en|access-date=2019-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191005190813/https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/google-invests-mental-health-specialist-quartet-expand-machine-learning-team|archive-date=5 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
Two activist investors in Apple Inc voiced concerns in 2018 about the content and amount of time spent by youth. They called on Apple Inc. to act before regulators and consumers potentially force them to do so.<ref>{{cite web | first=David | last=Benoit | date=7 January 2018 | title=iPhones and Children Are a Toxic Pair, Say Two Big Apple Investors | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/iphones-and-children-are-a-toxic-pair-say-two-big-apple-investors-1515358834 | website=WSJ.com | access-date=8 January 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108194744/https://www.wsj.com/articles/iphones-and-children-are-a-toxic-pair-say-two-big-apple-investors-1515358834 | archive-date=8 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Apple Inc. responded that they have, "always looked out for kids, and [they] work hard to create powerful products that inspire, entertain, and educate children while also helping parents protect them online". The firm is planning new features that they asserted may allow them to play a pioneering role in regard to young people's health.<ref>{{cite web |last=Musil |first=Steven |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/apple-vows-new-parental-controls-amid-child-addiction-fears/ |title=Apple vows new parental controls amid child addiction fears |website=CNET |access-date=9 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109162625/https://www.cnet.com/news/apple-vows-new-parental-controls-amid-child-addiction-fears/ |archive-date=9 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
===Public sector===
In China, Japan, South Korea and the United States, governmental efforts have been enacted to address issues relating to digital media use and mental health.
[[Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China|China's Ministry of Culture]] has enacted several public health efforts from as early as 2006 to address gaming and internet-related disorders. In 2007, an "Online Game Anti-Addiction System" was implemented for minors, restricting their use to 3 hours or less per day. The ministry also proposed a "Comprehensive Prevention Program Plan for Minors' Online Gaming Addiction" in 2013, to promulgate research, particularly on diagnostic methods and interventions.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal | vauthors=King DL, Delfabbro PH, Doh YY, Wu AM, Kuss DJ, Pallesen S, Mentzoni R, Carragher N, Sakuma H | title=Policy and Prevention Approaches for Disordered and Hazardous Gaming and Internet Use: an International Perspective | journal=Prevention Science | volume=19 | issue=2 | pages=233–249 | date=February 2018 | pmid=28677089 | doi=10.1007/s11121-017-0813-1 | s2cid=28853252 | url=http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/31235/1/PubSub8799_490a_Kuss.pdf | access-date=29 September 2019 | archive-date=20 October 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020044355/http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/31235/1/PubSub8799_490a_Kuss.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China|China's Ministry of Education]] in 2018 announced that new regulations would be introduced to further limit the amount of time spent by minors in online games.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-45432863|title=State data to limit China child gamers|date=6 September 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=18 September 2019|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002094115/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-45432863|archive-date=2 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nikopartners.com/a-new-notice-from-chinas-ministry-of-education-and-its-impact-on-games/|title=A new notice from China's Ministry of Education, and its impact on games|website=Niko|date=30 August 2018 |publisher=Niko Partners|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920155802/https://nikopartners.com/a-new-notice-from-chinas-ministry-of-education-and-its-impact-on-games/|archive-date=20 September 2019|access-date=18 September 2019}}</ref> In response, [[Tencent]], the owner of WeChat and the world's largest video game publisher, restricted the amount of time that children could spend playing one of its online games, to one hour per day for children 12 and under, and two hours per day for children aged {{nowrap|13–18}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/tencent-age-restrictions-identity-verification-china-video-games-2018-11|title=Video game addiction has sparked a culture war in China – and it's having huge repercussions for the world's biggest video game maker|last=Webb|first=Kevin|date=7 November 2018|website=Business Insider Australia|language=en|access-date=18 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920155801/https://www.businessinsider.com.au/tencent-age-restrictions-identity-verification-china-video-games-2018-11|archive-date=20 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Effective 2 September 2023, those under the age of 18 can no longer access the Internet on their mobile device between 10 pm and 6 am without parental bypass. Smartphone usage is similarly capped by default at 40 minutes a day for children younger than eight and at two hours for 16- and 17-year-olds.<ref name=":9">{{cite news|title=Chinese youth to have smartphone, internet use curbed|date=2 August 2023|work=Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/chinese-youth-to-have-smartphone-internet-use-curbed/articleshow/102363377.cms}}</ref>
Japan's [[Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications]] coordinates Japanese public health efforts in relation to problematic internet use and gaming disorder. Legislatively, the Act on Development of an Environment that Provides Safe and Secure Internet Use for Young People was enacted in 2008, to promote public awareness campaigns, and support NGOs to teach young people safe internet use skills.<ref name=":8" />
South Korea has eight government ministries responsible for public health efforts in relation to internet and gaming disorders. A review article published in ''[[Prevention Science]]'' in 2018 stated that the "region is unique in that its government has been at the forefront of prevention efforts, particularly in contrast to the United States, Western Europe, and Oceania."<ref name=":8" /> Efforts are coordinated by the [[Ministry of Science and ICT]], and include awareness campaigns, educational interventions, youth counseling centres, and promoting healthy online culture.<ref name=":8" />
In May 2023, the [[Vivek Murthy| United States' Surgeon general]] took the rare measure of issuing an advisory on Social media and mental health.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/sg-youth-mental-health-social-media-advisory.pdf |title= Social Media and Youth Mental Health |publisher=[[United States Department of Health and Human Services]] |access-date=2 January 2024 |date=May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/25/learning/does-social-media-harm-young-peoples-mental-health.html | title=Does Social Media Harm Young People's Mental Health?| newspaper=[[The New York Times]] | first=Natalie | last=Proulx | date=25 May 2023 | access-date=2 January 2024 }}</ref> In October, 41 U.S. states commenced legal proceedings against [[Meta Platforms|Meta]]. This included the [[State attorney general|attorneys general]] of 33 states filing a combined lawsuit over concerns about the addictive nature of Instagram and its impact on the mental health of young people.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/oct/24/instagram-lawsuit-meta-sued-teen-mental-health-us | title=Meta sued by 33 states over claims youth mental health endangered by Instagram | newspaper=[[The Guardian]] | first=Kari | last=Paul | date=24 October 2024 | access-date=2 January 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Owen Dyer| title=Meta is sued by 41 US states for driving children's addiction to social media and hiding the harms| journal=[[BMJ]] | volume=383 | page=2518 | date=October 2023 | doi=10.1136/bmj.p2518 | pmid=37903513| s2cid=264555773}}</ref> In November 2024, Australia passed the world's first ban on social media for  under-16s. <ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c89vjj0lxx9o| title=Australia approves social media ban on under-16s | newspaper=[[BBC]] | first=Hannah| last=Ritchie | date=28 November 2024 | access-date=2 December 2024 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.ft.com/content/88a2a616-2370-41c4-9c0d-7c1112236dc8| title=Australia’s social media ban is as big a TikTok threat as US  | newspaper=[[Financial Times]] | first=June| last=Yoon | date=30 November 2024 | access-date=2 December 2024 }}</ref>
==Digital mental health care==
[[File:Wellmind NHS Mental Health App.jpg|thumb|"Wellmind", a United Kingdom [[National Health Service]] smartphone application | alt= Photograph of a screen from the "Wellmind" smartphone application]]
Digital technologies have also provided opportunities for [[Use of technology in treatment of mental disorders|delivery of mental health care online]]; benefits have been found with [[Computerized CBT|computerized cognitive behavioral therapy]] for depression and anxiety.<ref name=":14">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bakker D, Kazantzis N, Rickwood D, Rickard N | title = Mental Health Smartphone Apps: Review and Evidence-Based Recommendations for Future Developments | journal = [[Journal of Medical Internet Research|JMIR Mental Health]] | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = e7 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26932350 | pmc = 4795320 | doi = 10.2196/mental.4984 | doi-access = free }}</ref>   Mindfulness based online intervention has been shown to have small to moderate benefits on mental health. The greatest [[effect size]] was found for the reduction of [[psychological stress]]. Benefits were also found regarding depression, anxiety, and well-being.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Spijkerman MP, Pots WT, Bohlmeijer ET | title = Effectiveness of online mindfulness-based interventions in improving mental health: A review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials | journal = [[Clinical Psychology Review]] | volume = 45 | pages = 102–114 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 27111302 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2016.03.009 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Tiitto |first=Markus |date=2019-01-01 |title=THERAPEUTIC VIDEO GAMES AND THE SIMULATION OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTION DEFICITS IN ADHD |url=https://uknowledge.uky.edu/pharmacy_etds/101 |journal=Theses and Dissertations--Pharmacy |doi=10.13023/etd.2019.284}}</ref>
''[[The Lancet]]'' commission on global mental health and sustainability report from 2018 evaluated both benefits and harms of technology. It considered the roles of technologies in mental health, particularly in public education; patient screening; treatment; training and supervision; and system improvement.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Patel V, Saxena S, Lund C, Thornicroft G, Baingana F, Bolton P, Chisholm D, Collins PY, Cooper JL, Eaton J, Herrman H, Herzallah MM, Huang Y, Jordans MJ, Kleinman A, Medina-Mora ME, Morgan E, Niaz U, Omigbodun O, Prince M, Rahman A, Saraceno B, Sarkar BK, De Silva M, Singh I, Stein DJ, Sunkel C, UnÜtzer J | title = The Lancet Commission on global mental health and sustainable development | language = en | journal = [[The Lancet]] | volume = 392 | issue = 10157 | pages = 1553–1598 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 30314863 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31612-X | s2cid = 52976414 | url = https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31612-X/abstract | access-date = 17 January 2019 | archive-date = 20 October 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211020044414/https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31612-X/fulltext | url-status = live }}</ref> A study in 2019 published in Front Psychiatry in the National Center for Biotechnology Information states that despite proliferation of many mental health apps there has been no "equivalent proliferation of scientific evidence for their effectiveness."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Marshall JM, Dunstan DA, Bartik W | title = The Digital Psychiatrist: In Search of Evidence-Based Apps for Anxiety and Depression | language = en | journal = Front Psychiatry | volume = 10 | issue = 831 | date = 5 November 2019 | pages = 831 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00831 | pmid = 31803083 | pmc = 6872533 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Steve Blumenfield and Jeff Levin-Scherz, writing in the [[Harvard Business Review]], claim that "most published studies show telephonic mental health care is as effective as in-person care in treating depression, anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorder." The also cite a 2020 study done with the Veterans Administration as evidence of this as well.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Blumenfield S, Levin-Scherz J | title = Digital Tools Are Revolutionizing Mental Health Care in the U.S. | language = en | journal = Harvard Business Review | date = 3 December 2020 | url = https://hbr.org/2020/12/digital-tools-are-revolutionizing-mental-health-care-in-the-u-s | access-date = 28 December 2020 | archive-date = 25 December 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201225172930/https://hbr.org/2020/12/digital-tools-are-revolutionizing-mental-health-care-in-the-u-s | url-status = live }}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Evolutionary psychiatry]]
*[[Instagram#Scientific studies|Instagram]]
*[[Screen time]]
*[[Social aspects of television]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin|}}
* {{cite book|title=Irresistible : the rise of addictive technology and the business of keeping us hooked|last=Alter|first=Adam|year=2017|isbn=978-0-7352-2284-7|location=New York|oclc=990286417|publisher=[[Penguin Press]]}}
* {{cite book|title=Are we all addicts now? : digital dependence|publisher=[[Liverpool University Press]]|others=Beales, Katriona, MacDonald, Fiona|isbn=978-1-78694-081-0|location=Liverpool|oclc=988053669|last1=Bartlett|first1=Vanessa|last2=Bowden-Jones|first2=Henrietta|year=2017}}
* {{cite book|title=Internet addiction in children and adolescents : risk factors, assessment, and treatment|last1=Young|first1=Kimberly|last2=de Abreu|first2=Cristiano Nabuco|isbn=978-0-8261-3373-1|location=New York|oclc=988278461|publisher=[[Springer Publishing Company]]|year=2017}}
* {{cite book|last=Haidt|first=Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan Haidt|year=2024|title=The Anxious Generation: How the Great Rewiring of Childhood Is Causing an Epidemic of Mental Illness|title-link=The Anxious Generation|publisher=Penguin Press|isbn=978-0-593-65503-0}}
* {{cite report|year=2024|title=Social Media and Adolescent Health: NASEM Consensus Study Report|place=Washington, DC|publisher=The National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/27396|isbn=978-0-309-71316-0|url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/27396/social-media-and-adolescent-health|access-date=May 9, 2024 | veditors = Galea S, Buckley GJ, Wojtowicz A }}
{{refend}}
* Woods, H. C., & Scott, H. (2016). #Sleepyteens: Social media use in adolescence is associated with poor sleep quality, anxiety, depression and low self‐esteem. Journal of Adolescence, 51(1), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.05.008
* Jones, A., Hook, M., Podduturi, P., McKeen, H., Beitzell, E., & Liss, M. (2022). Mindfulness as a mediator in the relationship between social media engagement and depression in young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111284
* White-Gosselin, C.-É., & Poulin, F. (2022). Associations between young adults' social media addiction, relationship quality with parents, and internalizing problems: A path analysis model. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000326
* Hammad, M. A., & Alqarni, T. M. (2021). Psychosocial effects of social media on the Saudi society during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic: A cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 16(3). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248811
==External links==
{{Wikinews|New American Psychological Association guidelines: Parents should advise teenagers on social media use, impose restrictions}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* ''[https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lifelearning/courses/anthropology-social-media-why-we-post Anthropology of Social Media: Why We Post]'', [[University College London]], Free online five-week course, asking "What are the consequences of social media?"
* ''[https://docs.google.com/document/d/1w-HOfseF2wF9YIpXwUUtP65-olnkPyWcgF5BiAtBEy0/edit Social Media Use and Mental Health: A Review]'' – ongoing review curated by [[Jean Twenge]] & [[Jonathan Haidt]].
{{Addiction}}
{{Digital media use and mental health}}
{{Evolutionary psychology}}
{{Media and human factors}}
[[Category:Digital media use and mental health| ]]
[[Category:Cultural anthropology]]
[[Category:Cyberspace]]
[[Category:Technology in society]]
[[Category:Child and adolescent psychiatry]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]
[[Category:Mental health]]