View source for End user

{{Short description|Regular user of a product}}
{{redirect|End-user}}
[[File:Nurses in a nurses' station, USA 1987.jpg|thumb|right|Nurses as information systems end users]]
In product development, an '''end user''' (sometimes '''end-user'''){{Efn|When used as an adjective, ''end-user'' is generally [[wikt:hyphenated compound|hyphenated]]; when used as a noun, ''end user'' is [[wikt:open compound|left unhyphenated]]. Thus, "good end-user experience" versus "good experience to the end user".}} is a person who ultimately uses or is intended to ultimately use a product.<ref>{{cite book | year = 2003 | title = Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms | series = [[Barron's Educational Series|Barron's]] Business Guides | edition = 8 | location = [[Hauppauge, New York]] | publisher = [[Barron's Educational Series]] | page = 171 | isbn = 978-0764121661 | oclc = 50480181 | quote = the person ultimately intended to use a product}}</ref><ref name="FOLDOC">{{cite web | url = http://foldoc.org/end-user | title = FOLDOC entry for "end-user" | last1 = Howe | first1 = Denis | date = 1997-03-29 | website = foldoc.org | location = [[London]] | access-date = 2015-06-28 | quote = The person who uses a computer application, as opposed to those who developed or it.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/22/8541 | title = U.S. Code § 8541 - Definitions | last1 = Legal Information Institute | website = www.law.cornell.edu | publisher = [[Cornell Law School]] | location = [[Ithaca, New York]] | access-date = 2015-06-28 | quote = The term "end-user", with respect to a good, service, or technology, means the person that receives and ultimately uses the good, service, or technology.}}</ref> The end user stands in contrast to users who support or maintain the product,<ref>{{cite book | last1 = [[Federal Information Processing Standards|FIPS]] Task Group on Database Management System Standards | year = 1979 | title = Recommendations for Database Management System Standards | location = [[Washington, D.C.]] | publisher = [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|National Bureau of Standards]] | page = 58 | oclc = 6862471 | quote = The end users are persons who perform the application functions. End users include "parametric" and generalized function users, but they are not system support personnel.}}</ref> such as [[sysop]]s, [[system administrator]]s, database administrators,<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Shepherd | first1 = John C. | year = 1990 | title = Database Management: Theory and Application | location = [[Homewood, Illinois]] | publisher = Irwin Professional Publishing | page = 20 | isbn = 978-0256078299 | oclc = 20491157}}</ref> [[information technology]] (IT) experts, software professionals, and computer technicians. End users typically do not possess the technical understanding or skill of the product designers,<ref>{{cite book | last1 = O'Neil | first1 = Patrick | year = 1994 | title = Database Principles Programming Performance | url = https://archive.org/details/databaseprincipl0000onei | url-access = registration | location = [[San Francisco]] | publisher = [[Morgan Kaufmann Publishers]] | pages = [https://archive.org/details/databaseprincipl0000onei/page/4 4–5] | isbn = 978-1558602199 | oclc = 30777731 | quote = One of the most important features of a DBMS is that relatively inexperienced users, called ''end users'', are empowered to retrieve information from the database. The user poses a ''query'' at the terminal keyboard, requesting the database system to display the answer on a terminal screen or on a printed sheet.}}</ref> a fact easily overlooked and forgotten by designers: leading to features creating low customer satisfaction.<ref name="FOLDOC" /> In information technology, end users are not [[customer]]s in the usual sense—they are typically employees of the customer.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Chrissis | first1 = Mary Beth | last2 = Konrad | first2 = Mike | last3 = Shrum | first3 = Sandy | year = 2011 | title = CMMI for Development: Guidelines for Process Integration and Product Improvement | url = https://archive.org/details/cmmifordevelopme00chri | url-access = limited | location = [[Upper Saddle River, New Jersey]] | publisher = [[Addison-Wesley]] | page = [https://archive.org/details/cmmifordevelopme00chri/page/n607 581] | isbn = 9780321711502 | oclc = 884168009 | quote = A party that ultimately uses a delivered product or that receives the benefit of a delivered service. (See also "customer".) End users may or may not also be customers (who can establish and accept agreements or authorize payments).}}</ref> For example, if a large [[retail]] corporation buys a software package for its employees to use, even though the large retail corporation was the ''customer'' that purchased the software, the end users are the employees of the company, who will use the software at work.
==Context==
End users are one of the three major factors contributing to the complexity of [[Information Systems|managing information systems]]. The end user's position has changed from a position in the 1950s (where end users did not interact with the [[Mainframe computer|mainframe]]; computer experts programmed and ran the mainframe) to one in the 2010s where the end user collaborates with and advises the [[management information system]] and Information Technology department about his or her needs regarding the system or product. This raises new questions, such as: Who manages each resource?, What is the role of the [[Management information system|MIS Department]]? and  What is the optimal relationship between the end-user and the MIS Department?<ref>{{Cite book|title = Introduction to Information Systems. Supporting and Transforming Businesses|last1 = Rainer Jr.|first1 = R. Kelly|publisher = Wiley|year = 2014|isbn = 978-1-118-67436-9|pages = 12–13|edition = Fifth|last2 = Prince|first2 = Brad|last3 = Cegielski|first3 = Casey}}</ref>
==Empowerment==
The concept of end-user first surfaced in the late 1980s and has since then raised many debates. One challenge was the goal to give both the user more freedom, by adding advanced features and functions (for more advanced users) and adding more constraints (to prevent a neophyte user from accidentally erasing an entire company's database).<ref>{{Cite journal|title = User Empowerment or Family Self-Reliance? The Family Group Conference Model|jstor = 23714792|journal = The British Journal of Social Work|date = 1998-02-01|pages = 107–128|volume = 28|issue = 1|first = CAROL|last = LUPTON|doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjsw.a011302}}</ref>  This phenomenon appeared as a consequence of  [[consumerization]] of computer products and software. In the 1960s and 1970s, computer users were generally programming experts and [[computer scientist]]s. However, in the 1980s, and especially in the mid-to-late 1990s and the early 2000s, everyday, regular people began using computer devices and software for personal and work use. IT specialists needed to cope with this trend in various ways. In the 2010s, users now want to have more control over the systems they operate, to solve their own problems, and be able to customize the systems to suit their needs. The apparent drawbacks were the risk of corruption of the systems and data the users had control of, due to their lack of knowledge on how to properly operate the computer/software at an advanced level.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Can IT Cope With Empowered End-Users?|url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/ciocentral/2010/12/07/can-it-cope-with-empowered-end-users/|website = Forbes|access-date = 2015-11-03}}</ref>
For companies to appeal to the user, it took primary care to accommodate and think of end-users in their new products, software launches, and updates. A partnership needed to be formed between the programmer-developers and the everyday end users so both parties could maximize the use of the products effectively.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{ProQuest|199819277}} |last1=Kappelman |first1=Leon A |last2=Guynes |first2=Carl Stephen |title=End-user training & empowerment |journal=Journal of Systems Management |location=Cleveland |volume=46 |issue=5 |date=1995 |pages=36}}</ref> A major example of the public's effects on end user's requirements were the public libraries. They have been affected by new technologies in many ways, ranging from the digitalization of their card catalog, the shift to [[e-book]]s, [[e-journal]]s, and offering online services. Libraries have had to undergo many changes in order to cope,<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Success factors for the future of information centres, commercial and public libraries: a study from Germany|journal = Interlending & Document Supply|pages = 183–188|volume = 38|issue = 3|doi = 10.1108/02641611011072387|first1 = Ragna|last1 = Seidler-de Alwis|first2 = Simone|last2 = Fühles-Ubach|year = 2010}}</ref> including training existing librarians in [[Web 2.0]] and [[database]] skills, to hiring IT and software experts.
==End user documentation==
{{About|section=yes|generic system users materials|consumable guides to software|Software user documentation}}
[[File:Pravetz 8d with manual.png|thumb|1980s-era personal computer with end-user documentation]]
[[File:120625-F-UZ487-014 (7567150378).jpg|thumb|right|NATO official and Afghan colonel going through end-user documentation to transfer control of barracks to the Afghan army in 2009]]
The aim of end user [[Documentation Centre of Austrian Resistance|documentation]] (e.g., manuals and guidebooks for products) is to help the user understand certain aspects of the systems and to provide all the answers in one place.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = 10 Examples of Great End User Documentation|url = http://blog.screensteps.com/10-examples-of-great-end-user-documentation|website = blog.screensteps.com|access-date = 2015-11-03}}{{self-published inline|date=December 2022}}</ref> A lot of documentation is available for users to help them understand and properly use a certain product or service. Due to the fact that the information available is usually very vast, inconsistent or ambiguous (e.g., a user manual with hundreds of pages, including guidance on using advanced features), many users suffer from an [[information overload]]. Therefore, they become unable to take the right course of action. This needs to be kept in mind when developing products and services and the necessary documentation for them.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Information Overload: An International Challenge to Professional Engineers and Technical Communicators|publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|date = 2012-01-01|isbn = 9781118360491|pages = 1–12|doi = 10.1002/9781118360491.ch1|first1 = Judith B.|last1 = Strother|first2 = Jan M.|last2 = Ulijn|first3 = Zohra|last3 = Fazal|editor-first = Judith B.|editor-last = Strother|editor-first2 = Jan M.|editor-last2 = Ulijn|editor-first3 = Zohra|editor-last3 = Fazal}}</ref>
Well-written documentation is needed for a user to reference. Some key aspects of such a documentation are:<ref name=":0" />
* Specific titles and subtitles for subsections to aid the reader in finding sections
* Use of videos, annotated [[screenshot]]s, text and links to help the reader understand how to use the device or program
* Structured provision of information, which goes from the most basic instructions, written in plain language, without specialist [[jargon]] or [[acronym]]s, progressing to the information that intermediate or advanced users will need (these sections can include jargon and acronyms, but each new term should be defined or spelled out upon its first use)
* Easy to search the help guide, find information and access information
* Clear end results are described to the reader (e.g., "When the program is installed properly, an icon will appear in the left-hand corner of your screen and the [[LED]] will turn on...")
* Detailed, numbered steps, to enable users with a range of proficiency levels (from novice to advanced) to go step-by-step to install, use and [[troubleshoot]] the product or service
* Unique [[Uniform Resource Locator]] (URLs) so that the user can go to the product website to find additional help and resources.
At times users do not refer to the documentation available to them due to various reasons, ranging from finding the manual too large or due to not understanding the jargon and acronyms it contains. In other cases, the users may find that the manual makes too many assumptions about a user having pre-existing knowledge of computers and software, and thus the directions may skip over these initial steps (from the users' point of view). Thus, frustrated user may report false problems because of their inability to understand the software or computer hardware. This in turn causes the company to focus on perceived problems instead of focusing on the actual problems of the software.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title = End-user documentation|last = Wilkinson|first = Paul Johnston|publisher = Durham theses, Durham University.|year = 2003|pages = 2–6|url = http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/3134| type=Doctoral }}</ref>
==Security==
{{see also|User (computing)}}
In the 2010s, there is a lot of emphasis on user's security and privacy. With the increasing role that computers are playing in people's lives, people are carrying [[laptop]]s and [[smartphone]]s with them and using them for scheduling appointments, making online purchases using credit cards and searching for information. These activities can potentially be observed by companies, governments or individuals, which can lead to breaches of privacy, [[identity theft]], by, [[blackmailing]] and other serious concerns. As well, many businesses, ranging from [[small business]] [[startup company|startups]] to huge corporations are using computers and software to design, manufacture, market and sell their products and services, and businesses also use computers and software in their [[back office]] processes (e.g., [[human resources]], [[payroll]], etc.). As such, it is important for people and organizations to need know that the information and data they are storing, using, or sending over computer networks or storing on computer systems is secure.
However, developers of software and hardware are faced with many challenges in developing a system that can be both [[user friendly]], accessible 24/7 on almost any device and be truly secure. Security leaks happen, even to individuals and organizations that have security measures in place to protect their data and information (e.g., [[firewall (computing)|firewall]]s, [[encryption]], [[strong password]]s). The complexities of creating such a secure system come from the fact that the behaviour of humans is not always rational or predictable. Even in a very-well secured computer system, a malicious individual can telephone a worker and pretend to be a [[private investigator]] working for the software company, and ask for the individual's password, a dishonest process called [[phishing]]. As well, even with a well-secured system, if a worker decides to put the company's electronic files on a USB drive to take them home to work on them over the weekend (against many companies' policies), and then loses this USB drive, the company's data may be compromised. Therefore, developers need to make systems that are intuitive to the user in order to have [[information security]] and system security.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Analysis of end user security behaviors|journal = Computers & Security|date = 2005-03-01|pages = 124–133|volume = 24|issue = 2|doi = 10.1016/j.cose.2004.07.001|first1 = Jeffrey M.|last1 = Stanton|first2 = Kathryn R.|last2 = Stam|first3 = Paul|last3 = Mastrangelo|first4 = Jeffrey|last4 = Jolton}}</ref>
Another key step to end user security is informing the people and employees about the security threats and what they can do to avoid them or protect themselves and the organization. Clearly underlining, the capabilities and risks makes users more aware and informed whilst they are using the products.
Some situations that could put the user at risk are:
* Auto-logon as administrator options
* Auto-fill options, in which a computer or program remembers a user's personal information and [[HTTP cookie]]s
* Opening [[E-mail spam|junk]] emails of suspicious emails and/or opening/running attachments or computer files contained in these
* Email can be monitored by third parties, especially when using Wi-Fi connections
* Unsecure [[Wi-Fi]] or use of a public Wi-Fi network at a coffee shop or hotel
* Weak [[password]]s (using a person's own name, own birthdate, name or birthdate of children, or easy-to-guess passwords such as "1234")
* Malicious programs such as viruses
Even if the security measures in place are strong, the choices the user makes and his/her behavior have a major impact on how secure their information really is. Therefore, an informed user is one who can protect and achieve the best security out of the system they use.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.cs.hmc.edu/~mike/public_html/courses/security/s06/projects/ben.pdf|title = End user security|date = 2007|access-date = 2015-11-04|website = Computer Security|publisher = Harvey Mudd College|last = Tribelhorn|first = Ben}}</ref> Because of the importance of end-user security and the impact it can have on organizations the UK government set out a guidance for the public sector, to help [[civil servant]]s learn how to be more security aware when using government networks and computers. While this is targeted to a certain sector, this type of educational effort can be informative to any type of user. This helps developers meet security norms and end users be aware of the risks involved.<ref>{{Cite web|title = End User Devices Security Guidance: Introduction – GOV.UK|url = https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/end-user-devices-security-guidance-introduction/end-user-devices-security-guidance-introduction|website = www.gov.uk|access-date = 2015-11-04}}</ref>
Reimers and Andersson have conducted a number of studies on end-user security habits and found that the same type of repeated education/training in security best practices can have a marked effect on the perception of compliance with good end-user network security habits, especially concerning malware and ransomware.<ref>K. Reimers, D. Andersson (2017) POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION NETWORK SECURITY: THE END USER CHALLENGE AND EVOLVING THREATS, ICERI2017 Proceedings, pp. 1787–1796.</ref>
==Law==
In [[end-user license agreement]]s, the end user is distinguished from the value-added reseller, who installs the software or the organization that purchases and manages the software.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://thelawdictionary.org/end-user | title = What is END USER? | website = thelawdictionary.org | publisher = Black's Law Dictionary | access-date = 2015-06-28| date = 2012-10-19 }}</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2023|reason=Source does not mention end-user license agreements or resellers explicitly.}}
Certain American defense-related products and information require export approval from the United States Government under the [[International Traffic in Arms Regulations]] and [[Export Administration Regulations]].<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.pmddtc.state.gov/reports/documents/defense_trade_overview_2006.pdf | title = Defense trade controls overview | website = www.pmddtc.state.gov | publisher = [[United States Department of State]] | location = [[Washington, D.C.]] | access-date = 2015-06-28}}</ref>  In order to obtain a license to export, the exporter must specify both the end user and the end use for undertaking an [[end-user certificate]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.pmddtc.state.gov/licensing/documents/DSP_83.pdf | title = Nontransfer and use certificate | website = www.pmddtc.state.gov | publisher = [[United States Department of State]] | location = [[Washington, D.C.]] | access-date = 2015-06-28 | archive-date = 2018-10-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181027061605/https://www.pmddtc.state.gov/licensing/documents/DSP_83.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref>
In the UK, there exist documents that accompany licenses for products named in the end user undertaking statements.{{clarify|date=December 2023}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frequently asked questions on End-User Undertakings {{!}} Find Laws, Legal Information, News & Solicitors |url=http://findlaw.co.uk/law/small_business/international_trade_small_business/exporting/licences/4793.html |website=Findlaw UK |access-date=2015-11-04 |language=en-UK |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033634/http://findlaw.co.uk/law/small_business/international_trade_small_business/exporting/licences/4793.html |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>
==See also==
* [[End-user computing]]
* [[End-user development]]
* [[Voice of the customer]]
* [[User guide]]
==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*{{Citation |last1=Ward |first1=Sandra N. |title=Teaching University Student End-Users about Online Searching |date=2019-12-06 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429346101-3 |work=Serving End-Users in Sci-Tech Libraries |pages=17–32 |access-date=2023-12-23 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-34610-1 |last2=Osegueda |first2=Laura M.|doi=10.4324/9780429346101-3 }}
[[Category:Computing terminology]]
[[Category:Export and import control]]
[[Category:Consumer]]