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[[Image:Jupiter Tonans.jpg|thumb|''Iuppiter Tonans'', possibly reflecting the cult image of the temple of [[Jupiter Tonans]] ([[Museo del Prado|Prado]])]]
The numerous '''epithets of Jupiter''' indicate the importance and variety of the god's functions in [[Religion in ancient Rome|ancient Roman religion]].
==Capitoline cult==
Jupiter's most ancient attested forms of [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] are those of the state. The most important of his sanctuaries in Rome were located on the [[Capitoline Hill]] ''(Mons Capitolinus)'', earlier ''Tarpeius''. The Mount had two peaks, each devoted to acts of cult related to Jupiter. The northern and higher peak was the citadel ''([[Arx (Roman)|arx]]).'' On the ''arx'' was located the observation place of the [[augurs]] (the ''[[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#auguraculum|auguraculum]])'', to which the monthly procession of the ''sacra Idulia'' was directed.<ref>Wissowa p. 108 citing Varro LL V 47and Festus p. 290 M. s.v. Idulia.</ref> On the southern peak was the most ancient sanctuary of the god, traditionally said to have been built by [[Romulus]]: this was the [[Temple of Jupiter Feretrius]], which was restored by [[Augustus]]. The god here had no image and was represented by the sacred flintstone (''silex'').<ref>Wissowa p. 108 citing Paulus p. 92 M.; Servius ''Ad Aeneidem'' VIII 641.</ref> The most ancient known rites, those of the ''[[spolia opima]]'' and of the [[fetials]], connect Jupiter with [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] and [[Quirinus]], and are dedicated to ''Iuppiter Feretrius'' or ''[[Iuppiter Lapis]]''.<ref>Wissowa p. 108 citing Festus p. 189 M. s.v. lapis; Polybius ''Historiae'' III 25, 6. According to Wissowa and Dumézil, ''Iuppiter Lapis'' seems to be inseparable from ''Iuppiter Feretrius'', in whose tiny shrine on the Capitol the ''silex'' was lodged.</ref> From this earliest period, the concept of the [[sky god]] encompassed the ethical and political domain.
==Lightning and rain==
''Juppiter Tonans'' ("Thundering Jove") was the aspect (''numen'') of Jupiter venerated in the [[Temple of Jupiter Tonans|Temple of Juppiter Tonans]], which was vowed in 26 BCE by [[Augustus]] and dedicated in 22 on the [[Capitoline Hill]]; the Emperor had narrowly escaped being struck by lightning during the campaign in [[Cantabria]].<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Vita Augusti'' 29.91, etc. See Samuel Ball Platner and Thomas Ashby, ''A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome,'' (London: Oxford University Press) 1929. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Aedes_Jovis_Tonantis.html On-line text])</ref> An old temple in the [[Campus Martius]] had long been dedicated to Juppiter Fulgens. The original [[cult image]] installed in the sanctuary by its founder was by [[Leochares]],<ref>According to [[Pliny's Natural History]], 39.79</ref> a Greek sculptor of the 4th century BCE. The sculpture at the [[Prado]] is considered to be a late 1st-century replacement commissioned by [[Domitian]]. The Baroque-era restoration of the arms gives Jupiter a baton-like scepter in his raised hand.
Among Jupiter's most ancient epithets is ''Lucetius'', interpreted as referring to light ''(lux, lucis)'', specifically sunlight, by ancient and some modern scholars such as Wissowa.<ref>G. Wissowa p. 100.</ref> The ''[[Carmen Saliare]]'', however, indicates that it refers to lightning.<ref>G. Dumezil ARR It. tr. Milan 1977 p. 167. The ''carmen Saliare'' has: "cume tonas Leucesie prai ted tremonti/ quot tibi etinei deis cum tonarem" ("When you thunder, oh God of light, they tremble before you! All gods beneath you have heard you thunder!")</ref> To the same atmospheric complex belongs the epithet ''Elicius'': while the ancient erudites thought it was connected to lightning, it is in fact related to the opening of the reservoirs of rain, as is testified by the ceremony of the ''Nudipedalia'', meant to propitiate rainfall and devoted to Jupiter.<ref>Petronius ''Satyricon'' 44.</ref> and the ritual of the ''[[lapis manalis]]'', the stone which was brought into the city through the [[Porta Capena]] and carried around in times of drought, which was named ''Aquaelicium''.<ref>Paulus  s. v. p. 94 L 2nd; p. 2  M; Tertullian ''Apologeticum'' 40.</ref>
Other early epithets connected with the atmospheric quality of Jupiter are ''Pluvius'', ''Imbricius'', ''Tempestas'', ''Tonitrualis'', ''tempestatium divinarum potens'', ''Serenator'', ''Serenus''<ref>Apuleius ''DeMundo'' 37; cf. ''Iuppiter Serenus'' CIL VI 431, 433,; XI  6312;  ''Iuppiter Pluvialis'' CIL XI 324.</ref><ref>''Iuppiter Serenus'' has been recognized as an ''interpretatio'' of the Phocean god Ζευς Ούριος: F. Cenerini above  p. 104 citing Giancarlo Susini "Iuppiter Serenus e altri dei" in ''Epigraphica'' '''33''' 1971 p. 175-177.</ref> and, referring to lightning, ''Fulgur'',<ref>Vitruvius I 2, 5; CIL I 2nd  p. 331: sanctuary in the Campus Martius, dedicated on October 7 according to calendaries.</ref> ''Fulgur Fulmen'',<ref>CIL XII 1807.</ref> later (as [[nomen agentis]]) ''Fulgurator'', ''Fulminator''.<ref>CIL VI 377; III 821, 1596, 1677, 3593, 3594, 6342  cited by Wissowa above p. 107.</ref> The high antiquity of the cult is testified by the neuter form ''Fulgur'' and the use of the term for the ''bidental'', the lightning well dug on the spot hit by a lightning bolt.<ref>Festus s. v. provorsum fulgur p. 229 M: "...; itaque Iovi Fulguri et Summano fit, quod diurna Iovis nocturna Summani fulgura habentur." as cited by Wissowa above p. 107.</ref>
[[File:Jupiter bronze Luxembourg MNHA.jpg|thumb|A bronze statue of Jupiter, from the territory of the [[Treveri]]]]
==Agriculture and war==
A group of epithets has been interpreted by Wissowa (and his followers) as a reflection of the agricultural or warring nature of the god, some of which are also in the list of eleven preserved by [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]].<ref>Augustine ''De civitate Dei'' (hereafter CD) VII 11. ''Pecunia'' is tentatively included in this group by Wissowa above p. 105 n.  4. Cfr. Augustine CD VII 11 end and 12.</ref><ref>''Frugifer'' CIL XII 336. Apuleius ''De Mundo'' 37.</ref> The agricultural ones include ''Opitulus'', ''Almus'', ''Ruminus'', ''Frugifer'', ''Farreus'', ''Pecunia'', ''Dapalis'',<ref>Cato ''De Agri Cultura'' 132; Paulus s. v. p. 51 M.</ref> ''Epulo''.<ref>CIL VI 3696.</ref> Augustine gives an explanation of the ones he lists which should reflect [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]]'s: ''Opitulus'' because he brings ''opem'' (means, relief) to the needy, ''Almus'' because he nourishes everything, ''Ruminus'' because he nourishes the living beings by breastfeeding them, ''Pecunia'' because everything belongs to him.<ref>Wissowa above  p. 105  n. 4 understands ''Pecunia'' as protector and increaser of the flock.</ref>
Dumézil maintains the cult usage of these epithets is not documented and that the epithet ''Ruminus'', as Wissowa and Latte remarked, may not have the meaning given by Augustine but it should be understood as part of a series including ''Rumina'', ''Ruminalis ficus'', ''Iuppiter Ruminus'', which bears the name of Rome itself with an Etruscan vocalism preserved in inscriptions, series that would be preserved in the sacred language (cf. ''Rumach'' Etruscan for Roman). However many scholars have argued that the name of Rome, ''Ruma'', meant in fact woman's breast.<ref>Bruno Migliorini s.v. Roma in ''Enciclopedia Italiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti'' vol. XXIX p. 589; A. W. Schlegel ''Sämtliche Werke'' Leipzig 1847 XII p. 488; F. Kort ''Römische Geschichte'' Heidelberg 1843 p.32-3.</ref> [[Diva Rumina]], as Augustine testifies in the cited passage, was the goddess of suckling babies: she was venerated near the ''ficus ruminalis'' and was offered only libations of milk.<ref>N. G. L. Hammond & H. H. Scullard (Eds.) ''The Oxford Classical Dictionary'' Oxford 1970 s. v. p. 940.</ref> Here moreover Augustine cites the verses devoted to Jupiter by [[Quintus Valerius Soranus]], while hypothesising ''Iuno'' (more adept in his view as a breastfeeder), i. e. Rumina instead of Ruminus, might be nothing else than ''Iuppiter'': ''Iuppiter omnipotens regum rerumque deumque Progenitor genetrixque deum...''.
In Dumézil's opinion ''Farreus'' should be understood as related to the rite of the ''confarreatio'' the most sacred form of marriage, the name of which is due to the spelt cake eaten by the spouses, rather than surmising an agricultural quality of the god: the epithet means the god was the guarantor of the effects of the ceremony, to which the presence of his flamen is necessary and that he can interrupt with a clap of thunder.<ref>Servius IV 339.</ref>
The epithet ''Dapalis'' is on the other hand connected to a rite described by Cato and mentioned by Festus.<ref>Cato ''De Agri Cultura'' 132; Festus s. v. daps, dapalis, dapaticum p. 177-8 L 2nd.</ref> Before the sowing of autumn or spring the peasant offered a banquet of roast beef and a cup of wine to Jupiter; it is natural that on such occasions he would entreat the god who has power over the weather, however Cato's prayer is one of sheer offer and no request. The language suggests another attitude: Jupiter is invited to a banquet which is supposedly abundant and magnificent. The god is honoured as ''summus''. The peasant may hope he shall receive a benefit, but he does not say it. This interpretation finds support in the analogous urban ceremony of the ''epulum Iovis'', from which the god derives the epithet of ''Epulo'' and which was a magnificent feast accompanied by flutes.<ref>''Epulo'' CIL VI 3696.</ref>
Epithets related to warring are, in Wissowa's view, ''Iuppiter Feretrius'', ''Iuppiter Stator'', ''Iuppiter Victor'' and ''Iuppiter Invictus''.<ref>Wissowa above p. 105-108.</ref> ''Feretrius'' would be connected with war by the rite of the first type of ''[[spolia opima]]'' which is in fact a dedication to the god of the arms of the defeated king of the enemy that happens whenever he has been killed by the king of Rome or his equivalent authority. Here too Dumézil notes the dedication has to do with being regal and not with war, since the rite is in fact the offer of the arms of a king by a king: a proof of such an assumption is provided by the fact that the arms of an enemy king captured by an officer or a common soldier were dedicated to Mars and Quirinus respectively.
''Iuppiter Stator'' was first attributed by tradition to Romulus, who pledged to build a [[Temple of Jupiter Stator (8th century BC)|temple]] in his honor in exchange for his almighty help at a critical moment in the final [[Battle of the Lacus Curtius|battle]] of the war with [[Titus Tatius|King Titus Tatius]] of the [[Sabines]].<ref>Livy I 12, 4-6.</ref><ref>Plutarch, ''[[Parallel Lives|Life of Romulus]]'' ch.8 pg.7</ref> Dumézil opines the action of Jupiter is not that of a god of war who wins through fighting: Jupiter acts by causing an inexplicable change in the morale of the fighters of the two sides. The same feature can be detected also in the certainly historical record of the battle of the third Samnite War in 294 BC, in which consul [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]] vowed a temple to ''Iuppiter Stator'' if "Jupiter will stop the rout of the Roman army and if afterwards the Samnite legions shall be victoriously massacred...It looked as if the gods themselves had taken side with Romans, so much easily did the Roman arms succeed in prevailing...".<ref>Livy X 36, 11.</ref><ref>Dumézil above It. tr. p. 174-5.</ref> in a similar manner one can explain the epithet ''Victor'', whose cult was founded in 295 BC on the battlefield of [[Sentinum]] by [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges (consul 292 BC)|Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges]] and who received another vow again in 293 by consul [[Lucius Papirius Cursor]] before a battle against the Samnite ''legio linteata''. Here too the religious meaning of the vow is in both cases an appeal to the supreme god by the Roman chief at a time when as a chief he needs divine help from the supreme god, even though for different reasons: Fabius had remained the only political and military responsible of the Roman State after the ''devotio'' of [[Publius Decius Mus]], Papirius had to face an enemy who had acted with impious rites and vows; that is, was religiously reprehensible.<ref>Livy X 29, 12-17; ''nefando sacro, mixta hominum pecudumqur caedes'', "by an impious rite, a mixed slaughter of people and flock" 39, 16; 42, 6-7.</ref>
More recently, Dario Sabbatucci has given a different interpretation of the meaning of ''Stator'' within the frame of his structuralist and dialectic vision of Roman calendar, identifying oppositions, tensions and equilibria: January is the month of [[Janus]], at the beginning of the year, in the uncertain time of winter (the most ancient calendar had only ten months, from March to December). In this month Janus deifies kingship and defies Jupiter. Moreover January sees also the presence of [[Veiovis]] who appears as an anti-Jupiter, of [[Carmenta]] who is the goddess of birth and like Janus has two opposed faces, ''Prorsa'' and ''Postvorta'' (also named [[Antevorta]] and [[Antevorta|Porrima]]), of [[Iuturna]], who as a gushing spring evokes the process of coming into being from non-being as the god of passage and change does. In this period the preeminence of Janus needs compensating on the Ides through the action of Jupiter ''Stator'', who plays the role of anti-Janus, that is, of moderator of the action of Janus.<ref>Dario Sabbatucci above, as summarized in the review by Robert Turcan above p. 70.</ref>
{{anchor|Jupiter Casius|Jupiter Heliopolitanus|Heliopolitan Jupiter}}<!--linked-->
==List of epithets==
Unless otherwise noted, the alphabetical list of epithets listed below are those compiled by Carl Thulin for the 1890 ''[[Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft|Paulys Real Encyclopädie]]''. The abbreviation ''O.M.'' stands for ''Optimus Maximus'', one of the most common epithets for Jupiter.
[[File:Tempio di Giove Anxur (Terracina).jpg|thumb|Temple of Jupiter Anxur in Terracina]]
* Adventus O. M. (arrival, birth)
* Aetetus O. M.
* Almus
* Amaranus
* [[Anxurus]] ("of Anxur, now [[Terracina]]")
* {{Not a typo|Appenninus}} ("of the Apennines")
* Arcanus (protector of the ''arca'', arcane: at Praeneste)
* Balmarcodes O. M.
* Beellefarus
* Bronton (thundering)
* Cacunus
* Caelestis O. M. (Heavenly)
* Caelus O. M.
* Capitolinus O. M. ("of the Capitol")
* Casius ("of [[Jebel Aqra|Mount Casius]]", the modern [[Jebel Aqra]]; a form of [[Baʿal Zephon]])
* Ciminius (of Mount Ciminus, now [[Mount Cimino]])
* Clitumnus (of river Clitumnus)
* Cohortalis O. M.
* Conservator ("preserver")
* Culminalis O. M.
* Cultor ("cultivator")
* Custos ("protector, warden")
* Damascenus O. M. ("of [[Damascus]]")
* Dapalis (from ''daps'': dinner, banquet)
* Defensor O. M.
* Depulsor O. M.
* Depulsorius O. M.
* Dianus
[[File:Jupiter Dolichenus Louvre AO7446.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Jupiter Dolichenus]], [[Louvre]]]]
* [[Jupiter Dolichenus|Dolichenus]] ("of [[Teshub|Dolichus]]"; equivalent to the ancient [[Teshub]] of the [[Hittites]])
* Domesticus
* Diovis
* Elicius (who sends forth, elicits)
* Epulo (who gives or takes part in banquets)
* Exsuperantissimus O. M.
* Fagutalis (of the Fagutal: the god had a temple near an old oak there)
* Farreus (from the [[confarreatio]], according to Wissowa and Dumézil.)
* [[Feretrius]] (who is carried around or whom spoils are carried to on a frame or litter)
* Fidius (fusion with [[Dius Fidius]])
* Flagius (worshipped at [[Cuma (Italy)|Cuma]])
* Frugifer (who bears fruits)
* Fulgur
* Fulgurator
* Fulmen
* Fulminator
* Grabovius (in the [[Iguvine Tables]]: who is carried around on a ceremonial litter, from Etruscan ''crapis'' ceremonial litter)
* Hammon O. M. (worshipped in the oasis of [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]])
* [[Heliopolitanus]] ("of [[Heliopolis Syriaca]]", modern [[Baalbek]]; a form of [[Baʿal]])
* Hercius
* Hospes (hospitable or friendly). Mentioned by [[Ovid]] in [[Metamorphoses]], Book 10, line 224. Guardian of hospitality, equivalent to Zeus Xeinios<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=%22Iuppiter+Hospes%22|title="Iuppiter Hospes" - Google Search|website=www.google.com|accessdate=8 July 2023}}</ref>
* Imbricitor (who soaks in rainwater)
* Impulsor
* Indiges (later the divine identification of [[Aeneas]])
* Inventor
* Invictus
* Iurarius (of oaths)
* Iutor (benefictor, beneficent)
* Iuventas
* Lapis (flintstone: the f. sends sparkles similar to lightning)
* [[Iuppiter Latiaris|Latiaris]]
* Liber (who is free, or who frees, also the semen)
* Liberator
* Libertas
* Lucetius (shining, for his lightningbolts)
* Maius (majestic, great) at Tusculum
* Maleciabrudes
* Monitor O. M. (leader, warner)
* Nundinarius (patron of the [[nundinae]])
* Obsequens (agreeable, complacent)
* Opitulator or Opitulus (reliever)
* Optimus Maximus (O. M.)
* Paganicus
* Pantheus
* Patronus
* Pecunia
* Pistor (baker)
* Pluvialis (of the rains)
* Poeninus
* Praedator
* Praestes (present, protector) at Tibur
* Praestabilis
* Praestitus
* Propagator O. M.
* Propugnator
* Puer (child)
* Purgator (purifier)
* Purpurio O. M.
* Quirinus (fusion with [[Quirinus]])
* Rector (who rules)
* Redux
* Restitutor
* Ruminus (who breastfeeds)
* Salutaris O. M.
* Savazios (fusion with [[Sabazios|Sabatius]])
* Sempiternus
* Serapis (fusion with [[Serapis]])
* Serenator (who clears the sky)
* Serenus ("clear, serene, calm; happy")
* Servator O. M. ("saviour, preserver, observer")
* Sospes ("saviour")
* Stator
* Striganus
* Succellus (fusion with [[Celts|Celtic]] god [[Sucellus|Succellus]])
* Summanus
* Tempestas
* Terminus
* Territor (who scares)
* Tifatinus (of [[Mount Tifata]] near [[Capua]])
* Tigillus (beam of the universe)
* Tonans (thundering)
* Tonitrator (who generates thunder)
* Tutator (warden)
* Valens (strong, sound, effective)
* Versor (who overthrows or who pours rain)
* Vesuvius (worshipped at [[Capua]])
* Viminus (of the [[Viminal Hill]] place in which the god had a temple)
* Vindex (protector, defensor)
* Vircilinus
==Epithets from Augustine==
[[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] names eleven epithets of Jupiter in his work ''[[The City of God|De civitate Dei]]'':<ref>Augustine, ''De Civitate dei'' VII 11-12; translation of Virginia.edu, with some alterations.</ref>
* Victor: he who conquers all things.
* Invictus: he who is conquered by none.
* Opitulus: he who brings help to the needy.
* Impulsor: he who has the power of impelling.
* Stator: he who has the power of establishing, instituting, founding.
* Centumpeda: he who has the power of rendering stable, lasting.
* Supinalis: he who has the power of throwing on the back.
* Tigillus: he who holds together, supports the world.
* Almus: he who nourishes all things.
* Ruminus: he who nourishes all animals.
* Pecunia: he to whom everything belongs.
==Jupiter outside Rome==
===Iuppiter Latiaris===
The cult of ''Iuppiter Latiaris'' was the most ancient known cult of the god: it was practiced since very remote times on the top of the ''Mons Albanus'' on which the god was venerated as the high protector of the Latin League, which was under the hegemony of Alba Longa.
After the destruction of Alba by king Tullus Hostilius the cult was forsaken. The god manifested his discontent through the prodigy of a rain of stones: the commission sent by the senate to inquire into it was also greeted by a rain of stones and heard a loud voice from the grove on the summit of the mount requiring the Albans to perform the religious service to the god according to the rites of their country. In consequence of this event the Romans instituted a festival of nine days (''nundinae'').  However a plague ensued: in the end Tullus Hostilius himself was affected and lastly killed by the god with a lightning bolt.<ref>Livy I 31 1-8.</ref> The festival was reestablished on its primitive site by the last Roman king Tarquin the Proud under the leadership of Rome.
The ''[[feriae Latinae]]'', or ''[[Latiar]]'' as they were known originally,<ref>Macrobius  I 16.</ref> were the common festival (''panegyris'') of the so-called Priscan Latins<ref>Festus s.v. prisci Latini p. : "the Latin towns that existed before the foundation of Rome".</ref> and of the Albans.<ref>L. Schmitz  in W. Smith  ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'' London 1875 s. v. Feriae p. 529.</ref> Their restoration aimed at grounding Roman hegemony in this ancestral religious tradition of the Latins. The original cult was reinstated unchanged as is testified by some archaic features of the ritual: the exclusion of wine from the sacrifice<ref>Cicero ''De Divinatione''  I 18; Dionysius Hal.  AR  IV  49, 3; Festus p. 212 L l. 30 f.;'' Scholiasta Bobiensis ad Ciceronis pro Plancio'' 23.</ref> the offers of milk and cheese and the ritual use of rocking among the games. Rocking is one of the most ancient rites mimicking ascent to heaven and is very widespread. At the ''Latiar'' the rocking took place on a tree and the winner was of course the one who had swung the highest. This rite was said to have been instituted by the Albans to commemorate the disappearance of king [[Latinus]], in battle against [[Mezentius]] the king of [[Caere]]: the rite symbolized a search for him both on earth and in heaven. The rocking as well as the customary drinking of milk was also considered to commemorate and ritually reinstate infancy.<ref>Festus s.v. oscillantes p. 194 M; C. A. Lobeck ''Aglaophamus sive de theologiae mysticae Graecorum causis libri tres'' Königsberg 1829 p. 585.</ref> The Romans in the last form of the rite brought the sacrificial ox from Rome and every participant was bestowed a portion of the meat, rite known as ''carnem petere''.<ref>Cicero ''Pro Plancio'' 23; Varro LL VI 25; Pliny NH III 69.</ref> Other games were held in every participant borough. In Rome a race of chariots (''quadrigae'') was held starting from the Capitol: the winner drank a liquor made with absinthe.<ref>Pliny XXVII 45.</ref> This competition has been compared to the Vedic rite of the [[vajapeya]]: in it seventeen chariots run a symbolic race which must be won by the king in order to allow him to drink a cup of ''madhu'', i. e. ''soma''.<ref>A. Alföldi ''Early Rome and the Latins'' Ann Arbor 1965  p. 33 n. 6 cited by O. de Cazanove above p. 252.</ref> The feasting lasted for at least four days, possibly six according to [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr|Niebuhr]], one day for each of the six Latin and Alban ''decuriae''.<ref>Wissowa above p. 109; L. Schmitz in ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'' London 1875 s. v. Feriae p. 529: Niebuhr  ''History of Rome'' II p. 35 citing Livy V 42, Plutarch  ''Camillus'' 42.</ref> According to different records 47 or 53 boroughs took part in the festival (the listed names too differ in Pliny NH III 69 and Dionysius of Halicarnassus AR V 61). The ''Latiar'' became an important feature of Roman political life as they were ''[[feriae conceptivae]]'', i. e. their date varied each year: the consuls and the highest magistrates were required to attend shortly after the beginning of the administration. They could not start campaigning before its end and if any part of the games had been neglected or performed improperly the ''Latiar'' had to be wholly repeated. The inscriptions from the imperial age record the festival back to the time of the [[decemvir]]s.<ref>Wissowa p. 110. CIL 2011–2022; XIV 2236–2248.</ref>
Wissowa remarks the inner linkage of the temple of the Mons Albanus with that of the Capitol apparent in the common association with the rite of the [[Roman triumph|triumph]]:<ref>Wissowa above p. 110.</ref> since 231 BC some triumphing commanders had triumphed there first with the same legal features as in Rome.<ref>Livy XLII 21, 7.</ref>
===Iuppiter Arcanus===
''Arcanus'' was the epithet of one of the Jupiters worshipped at [[Praeneste]].<ref>CIL XIV 2852, 2937, 2972. The other is Imperator Maximus: cfr. Jacqueline Champeux.</ref> His theology and cult are strictly connected to that of the ''[[Fortuna]] Primigenia'' worshipped in the famous sanctuary there. He is the protector of the lots ''sortes'' stored in the ''arca'', whence his epithet.<ref>Cf. Paulus s.v. arcanum p. 16 M.</ref> G. Dumézil attempted a purely Indoeuropean interpretation of the theology of Fortuna and of her relationship with Juppiter and Juno,<ref>For an exposition of  Dumézil's interpretation the reader is referred to article [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]].</ref> other scholars see the subcessive accretion of a Greek-Etruscan and then a later Greek influence on Fortuna and the theological structure underlying her relationship to Jupiter, i. .e. earlier the child and then the parent of Fortuna.<ref>[[Jean Gagé]] above p. 39-40;  J. Champeux ''Fortuna. Recherches sur le culte de la Fortune à Rome et dans le monde romain dés  origines à la mort de César. I: Fortune dans la religion archaïque'' Paris 1982 (as reviewed by John Schied, "Religion romaine , religion latine" in ''Revue  d' études latins'' 1985); "Sors Oraculi. Les oracles en Italie sous la République et  l'Empire" in '''MEFRA''' '''102''' 1990 1 p. 283.</ref> Jacqueline Champeaux interprets the boy represented on the ''cista'' of the 3rd century BC from Praeneste, now at the [[Archaeological Museum of Villa Giulia]] in Rome, as Jupiter ''puer''<ref>Cicero ''De Divinatione'' II 85.</ref> and ''arcanus'': the image engraved on it represents a boy sitting in a cave, reading a lot inscribed on a tablet. This might be a mythic illustration of the working of the oracle, in which Jupiter is at one time the child (''puer'') who ritually draws the rods of the lots (here while deciphering one) and their keeper, ''arcanus''.
The ''sortes'' of Praeneste were inscribed on rods of chestnut wood: they had sprung out of earth fully inscribed when a certain Numerius Suffustius cut the earth open with his spade, under the indication of some dreams.<ref>Cicero above I  34; II 85-86.</ref>
A different interpretation of the epithet is directly connected to the word ''arx'', which designates the political, military and religious centre of ancient Italic towns. Thus Iuppiter Arcanus is the god of the ''arx'' of Praeneste. This interpretation is supported by numerous inscriptions found on the area around the local ''arx'', sited on the summit of Monte Ginestro (m. 752), which dominates the town. The wall in ''opus polygonale'' climbed from the town to surround the ''arx'': epigraphs attest the cults of Iuppiter Arcanus<ref>CIL XIV  2852, 2937, 2972, 2981.</ref> and Mars.<ref>CIL XIV 2895, 2918.</ref><ref>Francesco Marcattili ''Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum. Cult Places''
s. v. Arx. Paul Getty foundation 2007 p. 187 ff.</ref>
===Iuppiter Appenninus===
The god was venerated in a sanctuary at the mountain pass between Umbria and Marche now named [[Scheggia Pass]], about eight miles North-East of Iguvium along the [[Via Flaminia]], on Mount Petrara.<ref>''Notiziario degli scavi archeologici'' 1877 p. 120-122; T. Ashby & R. A. L. Fell "The Via Flaminia" in ''Journal of Roman Studies'' XI  1921 p. 125-190 map at p. 178 as cited by J. Champeaux below.</ref> He had a famous oracle there which gave his ''responsa'' by means of ''sortes'' (lots). Its reputation was great during the Empire and it was consulted by emperor [[Aurelian]]. Dedications have been excavated on the place <ref>CIL XI  5803-4.</ref> and in Algeria on the top of a hill near Philippeville.<ref>CIL III 12576 and VIII 7691.</ref><ref>Jacqueline Champeaux "Sors oraculi" in ''MEFRA'' '''102''' 1990 p.  276.</ref> [[Claudian]] mentions the oracle in his description of the travel of [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] from Fanum Fortunae.<ref>Claudian VI consulatu Honorii Augusti 500-514. As cited by J. Champeaux above.</ref>
As was the case for the sanctuary of ''Iuppiter Poeninus'' on the Great St. Bernard, the mountain pass held a religious significance as a point of communication between different geographic areas, a passage to a different and unknown world that required a religious protection for the traveller.
===Other Italic Jupiters===
Jupiter was worshipped also under the epithets of ''Imperator Maximus'' in Praeneste, ''Maius'' in [[Tusculum]],<ref>Macrobius  I 12, 17 who connects him to Roman [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]]; CIL XIV 216; ''Ephemeris Epigraphica''  VII 1276.</ref> ''Praestes'' in [[Tibur]],<ref>CIL 3555; cf. ''Historia Augusta'' Maximinus et Balbinus V 3; in Rome ''Iuppiter Praestitus'' CIL III 4037,  ''Iuppiter praestabilis'' CIL IX 1498 and the ''Lares praestitites''.</ref> ''Indiges'' at [[Lavinium]]<ref>Livy I 2, 6; Pliny NH III 56; Servius ''Aen.'' I 259.</ref> and ''Anxurus'' at [[Anxur]]<ref>Vergil ''Aeneis'' VII 799 and Servius' comment; Porphirius ''ad Horatii satiras'' I 5, 26; CIL X 6483.</ref> (now [[Terracina]]), where he was represented as a young man without beard.
In Umbro-Oscan areas he was ''Iuve Grabovius'' in the Iguvine Tables, ''Iuppiter Cacunus'' (of the top of mountains, cf. Latin ''cacumen'' and ''Iuppiter Culminalis''), ''Iuppiter Liber'' (see section on ''Liber'' above), ''Diuve Regature'' in the [[Table of Agnone]] that Vetter interprets as ''Rigator'',<ref>Emil Vetter ''Handbuch der Italischen Dialekte'' I Heidelberg 1953 n. 147</ref> he who irrigates, and Dumézil as ''Rector'', he who rules and ''Diuve Verehasus'' tentatively rendered by Vetter as ''Vergarius''.
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==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* Georg Wissowa ''religion und Kultus der Römer'' Munich 1912
* Georges Dumézil ''La religione romana arcaica. Edizione e traduzione a cura di Furio Jesi'' Milano 1977 (expanded translation into Italian based on the 2nd edition of ''La religion romaine archaïque'' Paris 1977.
* Jacqueline Champeaux ''Fortuna. Recherches sur le culte de la Fortune à Rome et dans le monde romain dés origines à la mort de César. I: Fortune dans la religion archaïque'' Paris 1982; "Sors Oraculi. Les oracles en Italie sous la République et l'Empire" in ''MEFRA'' '''102''' 1990 1.
[[Category:Epithets of Jupiter| ]]