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{{short description|Beneficial stress}}
The term '''eustress''' means "beneficial [[stress (disambiguation)|stress]]"—either [[psychological stress|psychological]], [[stress (biology)|physical]] (e.g., exercise), or biochemical/radiological ([[hormesis]]).
The word was introduced by [[endocrinologist]] [[Hans Selye]] (1907-1982) in 1976;<ref>
{{cite book
|editor-last1         = Rossi
|editor-first1        = Ana Maria
|editor-last2         = Perrewé
|editor-first2        = Pamela L.
|editor-last3         = Sauter
|editor-first3        = Steven L.
|date                 = 1 March 2006
|chapter              = Eustress and Hope at Work: Accentuating the Positive
|title                = Stress and Quality of Working Life: Current Perspectives in Occupational Health
|url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=LfonDwAAQBAJ
|series               = Stress and Quality of Working Life
|location             = Greenwich, Connecticut
|publisher            = IAP
|page                 = 123
|isbn                 = 9781607527251
|access-date          = 15 March 2023
|quote                = Some authors mentioned positive stress, or eustress, as coined by Selye (1976).
}}
</ref>
he combined the [[Greek language|Greek]] prefix ''[[eu-]]'' meaning "good", and the English word ''stress'', to give the literal meaning "good stress". The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' traces early use of the word (in psychological usage) to 1968.<ref>
{{oed | eustress}} - "The unpleasant, even painful, kind of stress&nbsp;... may be referred to as dys-stress; the pleasant kind&nbsp;... as eustress."
</ref>
Eustress is the positive [[cognitive]] response to [[Stress (psychological)|stress]] that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of fulfilment or other positive feelings. [[Hans Selye]] created the term as a subgroup of [[Stress (biology)|stress]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Szabo |first=Sandor |last2=Tache |first2=Yvette |last3=Somogyi |first3=Arpad |date=2012 |title=The legacy of Hans Selye and the origins of stress research: A retrospective 75 years after his landmark brief "Letter" to the Editor # of Nature |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/10253890.2012.710919 |journal=Stress |language=en |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=472–478 |doi=10.3109/10253890.2012.710919 |issn=1025-3890}}</ref> to differentiate the wide variety of stressors and manifestations of stress.
Eustress is not defined by the stress or type, but rather how one perceives that stressor (e.g., a negative [[threat]] versus a positive challenge). Eustress refers to a positive response one has to a stressor, which can depend on one's current feelings of control, desirability, location, and timing of the stressor. Thus, the suggestion in a book title: ''Eustress and Distress: Neither Good Nor Bad, but Rather the Same?''.   Potential indicators of eustress may include responding to a stressor with a sense of [[meaning of life|meaning]], [[hope]], or [[Organism|vigor]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bienertova‐Vasku |first=Julie |last2=Lenart |first2=Peter |last3=Scheringer |first3=Martin |date=July 2020 |title=Eustress and Distress: Neither Good Nor Bad, but Rather the Same? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bies.201900238 |journal=BioEssays |language=en |volume=42 |issue=7 |doi=10.1002/bies.201900238 |issn=0265-9247|hdl=20.500.11850/412165 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Eustress has also been positively correlated with [[life satisfaction]] and [[well-being]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Sullivan |first=Geraldine |date=2011 |title=The Relationship Between Hope, Eustress, Self-Efficacy, and Life Satisfaction Among Undergraduates |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11205-010-9662-z |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=101 |issue=1 |pages=155–172 |doi=10.1007/s11205-010-9662-z |issn=0303-8300}}</ref>
==Definition==
Eustress occurs when the gap between what one has and what one wants is slightly pushed, but not overwhelmed. The goal is not too far out of reach but is still slightly more than one can handle. This fosters challenge and motivation since the goal is in sight. The function of challenge is to motivate a person toward improvement and a goal.<ref name = "Smith 1991">{{Citation|last = Smith|first = Craig|title = Handbook of Social and Clinical Psychology: The Health Perspective|place = New York, NY| publisher = Pergamon Press|year = 1991|chapter = The Self, Appraisal and Coping|pages = 116–137 }}</ref> Challenge is an opportunity-related emotion that allows people to achieve unmet goals.<ref>{{Citation |last1= Smith| first1= C. A. | last2 = Tong| first2= E. M. W. | last3= Ellsworth| first3= P. C. | year= 2014 |title= The Handbook of Positive Emotions | publisher= Guilford| location= New York, NY|pages= 11–27| chapter = The Differentiation of Positive Emotional Experience as Viewed through the Lens of Appraisal Theory| editor-last1= Tugade| editor-first1= M.| editor-last2 = Shiota| editor-first2= M.|editor-last3 = Kirby| editor-first3= L. D.}}</ref> Eustress is indicated by hope and active engagement.<ref name = "HNC">{{cite journal |last1=Hargrove |first1=M. B. |last2= Nelson|first2=D. L. | last3= Cooper| first3= C. L. |date= 2013 |title= Generating eustress by challenging employees: Helping people savor their work. |journal=  Organizational Dynamics|volume=42 |pages= 61–69 |doi=10.1016/j.orgdyn.2012.12.008}}</ref> Eustress has a significantly positive correlation with life satisfaction and hope.<ref name="O'Sullivan">{{cite journal|last=O'Sullivan|first=Geraldine|date=18 July 2010|title=The Relationship Between Hope, Eustress, Self-Efficacy, and Life Satisfaction Among Undergraduates|journal=Social Indicators Research|volume=101|issue=1|pages=155–172|doi=10.1007/s11205-010-9662-z|s2cid=62790897}}</ref> It is typically assumed that experiencing chronic stress, either in the form of distress or eustress, is negative. However, eustress can instead fuel physiological thriving by positively influencing the underlying biological processes implicated in physical recovery and [[Immunity (medical)|immunity]].<ref name = "ACS">{{cite journal |last1= Achor|first1=S. |last2= Crum|first2=A. J. |last3 = Salovey| first3=P.|s2cid=2332151 |date= 2013 |title= Rethinking Stress: The Role of Mindsets all wrong in Determining the Stress Response |journal= Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume= 104|issue=4 |pages= 716–733 |doi=10.1037/a0031201 |pmid=23437923}}</ref>
==Measurement==
Occupational eustress may be measured on subjective levels such as of quality of life or work life, job pressure, psychological coping resources, complaints, overall stress level, and [[mental health]].<ref name="Fevre">{{cite journal|last=Fevre|first=Mark Le|author2=Kolt, Gregory S.|author3=Matheny, Jonathan|date=1 January 2006|title=Eustress, distress and their interpretation in primary and secondary occupational stress management interventions: which way first?|journal=Journal of Managerial Psychology|volume=21|issue=6|pages=547–565|doi=10.1108/02683940610684391}}</ref>  Other subjective methodological practices have included interviews with focus groups asking about stressors and stress level.<ref name=Gibbons>{{cite journal|last=Gibbons|first=Chris|author2=Martin, D.|author3=Moutray, M.|title=Stress and eustress in nursing students|journal=Journal of Advanced Nursing|year=2008|volume=61|issue=3|pages=282–290|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04497.x|pmid=18197862|s2cid=20417520|url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/stress-and-eustress-in-nursing-students(c16fc099-7360-48e7-ae10-a695f203f14b).html|access-date=2019-08-16|archive-date=2017-07-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702141811/http://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/stress-and-eustress-in-nursing-students(c16fc099-7360-48e7-ae10-a695f203f14b).html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In one study participants were asked to remember a past stressful event and then answer questionnaires on coping skills, job well-being, and appraisal of the situation (viewing the stressful event as a challenge or a threat).<ref name= McGowan>{{cite journal|last=McGowan|first=Jennifer|author2=Gardner, D. |author3=Fletcher, R. |title=Positive and Negative Affective Outcomes of Occupational Stress|journal=New Zealand Journal of Psychology|date=July 2006|volume=35|issue=2|pages=92–98}}</ref> Common subjective methodologies were incorporated in a holistic stress model created in 2007 to acknowledge the importance of eustress, particularly in the workplace.<ref name= Cohen>{{cite book|title=Handbook of stress, coping, and health : implications for nursing research, theory, and practice|year=2012|publisher=SAGE Publications|location=Thousand Oaks|isbn=9781412999298|page=624|author1=Cohen, J. A.|author2=Tarule, J. M.|author3=Rambur, B. A.|author4=Vallett, C.|edition=2nd|editor=Virginia Hill Rice|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofstress0002unse|url-access=registration}}</ref> This model uses hope, positive affect, meaningfulness, and manageability as a measure of eustress, and negative psychological states, negative affect, anxiety, and anger as a measure of distress. Objective measures have also been used and include blood pressure rate, muscle tension, and absenteeism rates.<ref name=Fevre /> Further physiological research has looked for neuroendocrine changes as a result of eustress and distress. Research has shown that [[catecholamines]] change rapidly to pleasurable stimuli.<ref name=Rose>{{cite book|title=Work stress: health care systems in the workplace|year=1987|publisher=Praeger|location=New York|isbn=978-0275923297|pages=130–147|author=Rose, R. M.|editor1=J. C. Quick |editor2=R. S. Bhagat |editor3=J. E. Dalton |editor4=J. D. Quick }}</ref> Studies have demonstrated that eustress and distress produce different responses in the neuroendocrine system, particularly dependent on the amount of personal control one feels over a stressor.<ref name=Frankenhauser>{{cite book|title=Biobehavioral Bases of Coronary Heart Disease|year=1983|publisher=Plenum Press|location=New York|pages=91–105|author=Frankenhauser, M.|editor1=T. M. Dembroski |editor2=T. H. Schmidt |editor3=G. Blumchen }}</ref>
==Compared with distress==
[[File:HebbianYerkesDodson.svg|thumb|350x350px|Yerkes–Dodson curve for a difficult task]]
Distress is the most commonly referred to type of stress, having negative implications, whereas eustress is usually related to desirable events in a person's life.<ref name="Selye">{{cite book|title=Stress without distress|url=https://archive.org/details/stresswithoutdis00sely|url-access=registration|last=Selye|first=Hans|publisher=J.B. Lippincott Company|year=1974|location=Philadelphia|page=[https://archive.org/details/stresswithoutdis00sely/page/171 171]|isbn=9780397010264 }}</ref> Selye first differentiated the two in an article he wrote in 1975.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Selye |title=Confusion and controversy in the stress field| year=1975| volume = 1| pages=37–44|journal=Journal of Human Stress |doi=10.1080/0097840X.1975.9940406 |issue=2 |pmid=1235113}}</ref> In this article Selye argued that persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation should be known as distress, and may lead to anxiety, withdrawal, and depressive behavior. In contrast, if stress enhances one's functioning it may be considered eustress. Both can be equally taxing on the body, and are cumulative in nature, depending on a person's way of adapting to the stressor that caused it.<ref name="Nelson">{{cite book|title=Eustress: An Elusive Construct an Engaging Pursuit|author1=D. L. Nelson|author2=B. L. Simmons|publisher=Elsevier Jai|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7623-1057-9|editor1=P. L. Perrewé|edition=First|location=Oxford, UK|editor2=D. C. Ganster}}</ref> The body itself cannot physically discern between distress or eustress.<ref>J. Kabat-Zinn. Full catastrophe living - how to cope with stress, pain and illness using mindfulness meditation. (1996)</ref> Differentiation between the two is dependent on one's perception of the stress, but it is believed that the same stressor may cause both eustress and distress.<ref name=Fevre /> One context that this may occur in is societal trauma (e.g. [[the black death]], [[World War II]]) which may cause great distress, but also eustress in the form of [[Psychological resilience|hardiness]], [[Coping (psychology)|coping]], and fostering a sense of [[community]].<ref name=Suedfeld>{{cite journal|last=Suedfeld|first=Peter|title=Reactions to Societal Trauma: Distress and/or Eustress|journal=Political Psychology|date=1 December 1997|volume=18|issue=4|pages=849–861|doi=10.1111/0162-895X.00082|doi-access=free}}</ref>  The [[Yerkes–Dodson law|Yerkes–Dodson model]] demonstrates the optimum balance of stress with a bell curve (shown in the image in the top right).<ref name= quick>{{cite book|title=Preventative stress management in organizations|year=1997|publisher=American Psychological Association|location=Washington, DC|author1=Quick, J. C. |author2=Quick, J. D. |author3=Nelson, D. L. |author4= Hurrell, J. J. |name-list-style=amp }}</ref> This model is supported by research demonstrating emotional-coping and behavioral-coping strategies are related to changes in perceived stress level on the Yerkes–Dodson Curve.<ref name=Anderson>{{cite journal|last=Anderson|first=C. R.|title=Coping behaviors as intervening mechanisms in the inverted-u stress-performance relationship|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|year=1976|volume=61|issue=1|pages=30–34|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.61.1.30|pmid=1249013}}</ref> However, the Yerkes-Dodson Curve has become increasingly questioned.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corbett|first=Martin|date=2015-08-10|title=From law to folklore: work stress and the Yerkes-Dodson Law|journal=Journal of Managerial Psychology|volume=30|issue=6|pages=741–752|doi=10.1108/jmp-03-2013-0085|issn=0268-3946}}</ref> A review of the psychological literature pertaining work performance, found that less than 5% of papers supported the inverted U-shaped curve whereas nearly 50% found a “negative linear” relationship (any level of stress inhibits performance).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Muse|first1=Lori A.|last2=Harris|first2=Stanley G.|last3=Feild|first3=Hubert S.|date=October 2003|title=Has the Inverted-U Theory of Stress and Job Performance Had a Fair Test?|journal=Human Performance|volume=16|issue=4|pages=349–364|doi=10.1207/s15327043hup1604_2|s2cid=144681081|issn=0895-9285}}</ref>
==Occupational==
Much of the research on eustress has focused on its presence in the workplace. In the workplace, stress can often be interpreted as a challenge, which generally denotes positive eustress, or as a hindrance, which refers to distress that interferes with one's ability to accomplish a job or task.<ref name=Fevre />
Research has focused on increasing eustress in the workplace, in an effort to promote positive reactions to an inevitably stressful environment.<ref name=Fevre /> Companies are interested in learning more about eustress and its positive effects to increase productivity. Eustress creates a better environment for employees, which makes them perform better and cost less.<ref name = "HNC"/>  Occupational stress costs the United States somewhere in between 200 and 300 billion dollars per year.<ref name= Fevre /> If this were eustress instead of distress, these companies might potentially retain a portion of these losses and the U.S. economy could improve as well. Stress has also been linked to the six leading causes of death: "disease, accidents, cancer, liver disease, lung ailments, suicide."<ref name = "ACS"/> If workers get sick and/or die, there is obviously a cost to the company in sick time and training new employees. It is better to have productive, happy employees. Eustress is necessary for achievement. Eustress is related to well-being and positive attitudes, and thus, increases work performance.<ref name = "HNC"/>
Other scholars within the positive organizational behavior movement tend to deemphasize the instrumental advantages of eustress to organizations; such scholars theorize that managing for eustress is more appropriately viewed as a means for improving worker well-being than a performance/motivation/profit-seeking manipulation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Hargrove |first1=M. Blake |last2=Becker |first2=Wendy S. |last3=Hargrove |first3=Debra F. |date=2015|title=The HRD Eustress Model |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1534484315598086 |journal=Human Resource Development Review |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=279–298 |doi=10.1177/1534484315598086 |s2cid=145590635 |issn=1534-4843|doi-access=free }}</ref> This line of exploration emphasizes minimizing distress and optimizing eustress.<ref name="quick" /> These scholars explicitly note that the utility of eustress has limits, and that typically positive stressors experienced in too high of an amplitude or of excessive duration can result in individual distress.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="quick" />
Techniques such as [[stress management]] interventions (SMI) have been employed to increase occupational eustress. SMIs often incorporate exercise, meditation, and relaxation techniques to decrease distress and increase positive perceptions of stress in the workplace.<ref name=Fevre /> Rather than decrease stress in the workplace, SMI techniques attempt to increase eustress with positive reactions to stressful stimuli.<ref name=Fevre />    Working within the Challenge-Hindrance Framework, positive primary interventions focus on relating stressors to the accomplishment of goals and personal development.<ref name=":0" />
==Self-efficacy==
Eustress is primarily based on perceptions. It is how you perceive your given situation and how you perceive your given task. It is not what is actually happening, but a person's perception of what is happening.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Velez|first1= J. J. |last2= Sorenson|first2= T.|last3 = McKim|first3= A.|last4=Cano|first4=J.|date= 2013|title=Self-efficacy and Task Value Motivation of Students Based on Classroom, Instructor and Student Variables|journal= NCATA Journal |volume= 57|issue= 4|pages=65–70}}</ref> Eustress is thus related to [[self-efficacy]]. Self-efficacy is one's judgment of how they can carry out a required task, action or role.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Howard|first= F.|date=2008 |title= Managing stress or enhancing wellbeing? Positive psychology's contributions to clinical supervision.| journal= Australian Psychologist|volume=43 |issue= 2|pages= 105–113 |doi=10.1080/00050060801978647}}</ref> Some contributing factors are a person's beliefs about the effectiveness about their options for courses of action and their ability to perform those actions.<ref name = "Smith 1991" /> If a person has low self-efficacy, they will see the demand as more distressful than eustressful because the perceived level of what the person has is lower. When a person has high self-efficacy, they can set goals higher and be motivated to achieve them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Ahmed|first1= I.|last2= Qazi|first2=T. F.|last3=Jabeen|first3=S. |date=2011 |title= Self-Efficacy: The Predictor of Educational Performance among University Students.|journal= Information Management and Business Review |volume= 3|issue=2 |pages=57–62|doi= 10.22610/imbr.v3i2.917|doi-access= free}}</ref> The goal then is to increase self-efficacy and skill in order to enable people to increase eustress.
==Flow==
When an individual appraises a situation as stressful, they add the label for distress or eustress to the issue at hand.  If a situation induces eustress, the person may feel motivated and can experience [[Flow (psychology)|flow]]. Positive psychologist, [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]], created this concept which is described as the moments when one is completely absorbed into an enjoyable activity with no awareness of surroundings.<ref name = "Jackson">{{cite book |last= Jackson |first= S.|date= 2012|title= The Oxford handbook of human motivation|editor-first = R. M.|editor-last=Ryan |location= New York, NY |pages= 127–140|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Flow is an extremely productive state in which an individual experiences their prime performance. The core elements are absorption, enjoyment and intrinsic motivation.<ref name = "FKS">{{cite journal |last1= Fullagar |first1= C. J. |last2= Knight |first2= P. A.| last3= Sovern|first3=H. S. |date=2013 |title= Challenge/Skill Balance, Flow, and Performance Anxiety |journal= Applied Psychology: An International Review |volume= 62|issue= 2|pages=236–259 |doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00494.x}}</ref>
Flow is the "ultimate eustress experience – the [[epitome]] of eustress".<ref name = "HNC"/> Hargrove, Nelson and Cooper described eustress as being focused on a challenge, fully present and exhilarated, which almost exactly mirrors the definition of flow.<ref name = "HNC"/> Flow is considered a peak experience or "the single most joyous, happiest, most blissful moment of your life."<ref name = "Jackson"/> Hargrove, Becker, and Hargrove build upon this work by modeling positive interventions that may lead to thriving and savoring.<ref name=":0" />
==Factors==
There are several factors that may increase or decrease one's chances of experiencing eustress and, through eustress, experiencing flow.
* Stress is also influenced by hereditary predispositions and expectations of society. Thus, a person could already be at a certain advantage or disadvantage toward experiencing eustress.<ref name = "Selye 1983">{{cite book |last= Selye|first=Hans |date=1983 |title=Stress Research Issues for the Eighties |chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/stressresearchis00cooprich|chapter-url-access= registration|chapter=The Stress Concept: Past, Present and Future|editor-last = Cooper|editor-first=C. L. |location= New York, NY|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages=[https://archive.org/details/stressresearchis00cooprich/page/1 1–20]|isbn=9780471102465 }}</ref>
* If a person enjoys experiencing new things and believes they have importance in the world, they are more likely to experience flow.<ref name = "Teng">{{cite journal |last= Teng|first=C. I |date=2011 |title= Who are likely to experience flow? Impact of temperament and character on flow.|journal= Personality and Individual Differences |volume= 50|issue=6 |pages= 863–868|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.012 }}</ref>
* Flow is negatively related to self-directedness, or an extreme sense of autonomy.<ref name = "Teng"/>
* Persistence is positively related to flow and closely related to intrinsic motivation.<ref name = "Teng"/>
* People with an internal locus of control, have an increased chance of flow because they believe they can increase their skill level to match the challenge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Kuhnle |first1=C.|last2=Hofer |first2=M. |last3=Killian|first3=B. |date=2012 |title=Self-control as a predictor of school grades, life balance, and flow in adolescents. |journal=British Journal of Educational Psychology |volume= 82 |issue=4|pages= 533–548 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8279.2011.02042.x|pmid=23025391|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Perfectionism, however, is negatively related to flow. A person downplays their skill levels therefore making the gap too big, and they perceive the challenge to be too large to experience flow.<ref name = "Jackson"/> On the opposite end of perfectionism, however, there are increased chances of flow.
* Active procrastination is positively related to flow. By actively delaying work, the person increases the challenge. Then once the challenge is matched with the person's high skill levels, the person can experience flow. Those who passively procrastinate or do not procrastinate do not have these same experiences. It is only with the purposeful procrastination that a person is able to increase the challenge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Kim|first1=E. |last2= Seo|first2= E. H.|date=2013 |title= The Relationship of Flow and Self-Regulated Learning to Active Procrastination |journal= Social Behavior and Personality|volume=41 |issue=7 |pages= 1099–1114 |doi=10.2224/sbp.2013.41.7.1099}}</ref>
*  Mindset is a significant factor in determining distress versus eustress. Optimistic people and those with high self-esteem contribute to eustress experiences.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Ambriz |first1= M. G. J.|last2=Izal |first2=M.|last3=Montorio|first3=I. |date=2011|title=Psychological and Social Factors that Promote Positive Adaptation to Stress and Adversity in the Adult Life Cycle|journal= Journal of Happiness Studies |volume= 13 |issue= 5|pages=833–848 |doi=10.1007/s10902-011-9294-2|hdl= 10486/666656|s2cid= 143951282|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The positive mindset increases the chances of eustress and a positive response to stressors. Currently, the predominant mindset toward stress is that stress is debilitating. However, mindsets toward stress can be changed.
== See also ==
*[[Distress (medicine)|Distress]], the opposite of eustress
*[[Hans Selye]], who founded this theory of [[stress (biological)|stress]]
== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}
== External links ==
{{wiktionary|eustress}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060915221435/http://academic.cuesta.edu/wholehealth/Level2/Lecpages/str04.htm Eustress at Whole Health Stress Management Lecture]
* [http://www.apa.org/topics/stress/index.aspx American Psychological Association (APA)]
[[Category:Stress (biological and psychological)]]
[[Category:Motivation]]
[[Category:Behavioral neuroscience]]