View source for Evangelicalism in the United States

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[[File:Gateway Church 114 Campus.jpg|thumb|An event at [[Gateway Church (Texas)|Gateway Church]], an Evangelical [[megachurch]] in Texas]]
In the [[United States]], [[evangelicalism]] is a movement among [[Protestantism in the United States|Protestant]] [[Christians]] who believe in the necessity of being [[born again]], emphasize the importance of [[evangelism]], and affirm traditional [[Protestantism|Protestant]] teachings on the [[Biblical authority|authority]] as well as the [[historicity of the Bible]].{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=3}} Comprising nearly a quarter of the U.S. population, evangelicals are a diverse group drawn from a variety of [[Religious denomination|denominational]] backgrounds, including [[Nondenominational Christianity|nondenominational]] churches, [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]], [[Baptists in the United States|Baptist]], [[Lutheran]], [[Calvinism|Reformed]], [[Methodism|Methodist]], [[Mennonites|Mennonite]], [[Plymouth Brethren]], [[Quakers|Quaker]].<ref name="2018AngellDandelion">{{cite book |last1=Angell |first1=Stephen Ward |last2=Dandelion |first2=Pink |title=The Cambridge Companion to Quakerism |date=19 April 2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-13660-1 |page=290 |language=en |quote=Contemporary Quakers worldwide are predominately evangelical and are often referred to as the Friends Church.}}</ref>{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=2}}{{Sfn|Vickers|2013|p=27}}
Evangelicalism has played an important role in shaping American [[Religion in the United States|religion]] and [[Culture of the United States|culture]]. The [[First Great Awakening]] of the 18th century marked the rise of evangelical religion in [[Colonial history of the United States|colonial America]]. As the [[Christian revival|revival]] spread throughout the [[Thirteen Colonies]], evangelicalism united Americans around a common faith.{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=3}} The [[Second Great Awakening]] of the early 19th century led to what historian [[Martin Marty]] calls the "Evangelical Empire", a period in which evangelicals dominated U.S. cultural institutions, including schools and universities. Evangelicals of this era in the [[northern United States]] were strong advocates of reform. They were involved in the [[temperance movement]] and supported the [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolition of slavery]], in addition to working toward [[History of education in the United States|education]] and [[History of United States prison systems|criminal justice reform]]. In the [[southern United States]], evangelicals split from their northern counterparts on the issue of slavery, establishing new denominations that opposed abolition and defended the practice of [[Slavery in the United States|racial slavery]]{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=4-5}} upon which the South's expanding cash-crops-for-export agricultural economy was built.{{Sfn|Emerson|Smith|2001|pp=26-27}}{{Sfn|Johnson|2013|p=10}}{{Sfn|Hannah-Jones|2021|p=16}} During the bloody [[American Civil War|Civil War]], each side confidently preached in support of its own cause using Bible verses and Evangelical arguments, which exposed a deep theological conflict that had been brewing for decades and would continue long after [[Robert E. Lee|Lee]]'s surrender at Appomattox.{{Sfn|Noll|2006|pp=1-7}}
By the end of the 19th century, the old evangelical consensus that had united much of American Protestantism no longer existed. Protestant churches became divided over ground-breaking new intellectual and theological ideas, such as [[Darwinism|Darwinian evolution]] and [[historical criticism]] of the [[Protestant Bible|Bible]]. Those who embraced these ideas became known as [[Liberal Christianity|modernists]], while those who rejected them became known as [[Christian fundamentalism|fundamentalists]]. Fundamentalists defended a doctrine of [[biblical inerrancy]] and adopted a [[Dispensationalism|dispensationalist]] theological system for interpreting the Bible.{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=5}}{{Sfn|Hummel|2023|p=1}} As a result of the [[fundamentalist–modernist controversy]] of the 1920s and 1930s, fundamentalists lost control of the [[Mainline Protestant]] churches and [[Ecclesiastical separatism|separated]] themselves from non-fundamentalist churches and cultural institutions.{{Sfn | Marsden | 1991 | pp=3–4}}
After [[World War II]], a new generation of conservative Protestants rejected the separatist stance of fundamentalism and began calling themselves evangelicals. Popular evangelist [[Billy Graham]] was at the forefront of reviving use of the term. During this time period, several evangelical institutions were established, including the [[National Association of Evangelicals]], the magazine ''[[Christianity Today]]'', and educational institutions such as [[Fuller Theological Seminary]].{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|pp=5–6}} As a reaction to the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|1960s counterculture]] and the U.S. Supreme Court's 1973 ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' decision, many white evangelicals became politically active and involved in the [[Christian right]],{{Sfn|Miller|2014|pp=32-59}} which became an important [[voting bloc]] in the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. Recently, however, observers such as journalist [[Frances FitzGerald (journalist)|Frances FitzGerald]] have noted that since 2005 the influence of the Christian right among evangelicals has been in decline.{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|pp=8–10}} Though less visible, some evangelicals identify as [[Evangelical left|progressive evangelicals]].{{Sfn|Miller|2014|pp=32-59}}
==Definition==
Many scholars have adopted historian [[David W. Bebbington|David Bebbington]]'s definition of evangelicalism. According to Bebbington, evangelicalism has four major characteristics. These are ''conversionism'' (an emphasis on the [[Born again|new birth]]), ''biblicism'' (an emphasis on the [[Bible]] as the supreme religious authority), ''activism'' (an emphasis on individual engagement in spreading [[the gospel]]), and ''crucicentrism'' (an emphasis on [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Christ's sacrifice on the cross]] as the heart of true religion). However, this definition has been criticized for being so broad as to include all Christians.{{Sfn|Noll|2002|p=5}}<ref name="Defining">{{Citation|title=Defining Evangelicalism|url=http://www.wheaton.edu/ISAE/Defining-Evangelicalism/Defining-the-Term|contribution=Defining the Term in Contemporary Context|place=Wheaton College|publisher=Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals|access-date=June 29, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614171830/http://www.wheaton.edu/ISAE/Defining-Evangelicalism/Defining-the-Term|archive-date=June 14, 2016}}.</ref>
Historian [[Molly Worthen]] writes "history—rather than theology or politics—is the most useful tool for pinning down today's evangelicals."{{Sfn|Worthen|2014|p=4}} She finds that evangelicals share common origins in the religious revivals and moral crusades of the 18th and 19th centuries. She writes, "Evangelical [[catchphrase]]s like 'Bible-believing' and 'born again' are modern translations of the [[Protestant Reformers|Reformers]]' slogan ''[[sola scriptura]]'' and [[Pietism|Pietists']] emphasis on internal spiritual transformation."{{Sfn|Worthen|2014|p=4}}
Evangelicals are often defined in opposition to [[mainline Protestant]]s. According to sociologist Brian Steensland and colleagues, "evangelical denominations have typically sought more separation from the broader culture, emphasized missionary activity and individual conversion, and taught strict adherence to particular religious doctrines."{{Sfn|Steensland|Park|Regnerus|Robinson|2000|p=249}} Mainline Protestants are described as having "an accommodating stance toward modernity, a proactive view on issues of social and economic justice, and pluralism in their tolerance of varied individual beliefs."{{Sfn|Steensland|Park|Regnerus|Robinson|2000|p=248}}
Historian [[George Marsden]] writes that during the 1950s and 1960s the simplest definition of an evangelical was "anyone who likes [[Billy Graham]]". During that period, most people who self-identified with the evangelical movement were affiliated with organizations that had some connection to Graham.{{Sfn|Marsden|1991|p=6}} It can also be defined narrowly as a movement centered around organizations such as the [[National Association of Evangelicals]] and [[Youth for Christ]].<ref name="Defining" />
News media often conflate evangelicalism with "conservative Protestantism" or the [[Christian right]]. However, not every conservative Protestant identifies as evangelical, nor are all evangelicals political conservatives.{{Sfn|Woodberry|Smith|1998|pp=25–26}}
===Types===
[[File:Saddleback church Lake Forest building 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1| [[Saddleback Church]] in [[Lake Forest, California]]]]
[[File:Goshen College Music Center.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Goshen College]] Music Center ([[Mennonite Church USA]]) in [[Goshen, Indiana]]]]
Scholars have found it useful to distinguish among different types of evangelicals. One scheme by sociologist [[James Davison Hunter]] identifies four major types: the [[Baptists in the United States|Baptist]] tradition, the [[Holiness movement|Holiness]] and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] tradition, the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] tradition, and the [[Confessionalism (religion)|Confessional]] tradition ([[Evangelical Anglicanism|evangelical Anglicans]], pietistic Lutherans, and evangelicals within the Reformed churches).{{Sfn|Dorrien|1998|p=2}}{{Sfn|Ellingsen|1991|p=234}}
Ethicist [[Max Stackhouse]] and historians Donald W. Dayton and Timothy P. Weber divide evangelicalism into three main historical groupings. The first, called "Puritan" or ''classical'' evangelicalism, seeks to preserve the doctrinal heritage of the 16th century Protestant [[Reformation]], especially the Reformed tradition. Classical evangelicals emphasize absolute [[Sovereignty of God in Christianity|divine sovereignty]], forensic [[Justification (theology)|justification]], and "[[Biblical literalism|literalistic]]" [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrancy]]. The second, ''pietistic'' evangelicalism, originates from the 18th-century pietist movements in Europe and the [[Great Awakening]]s in America. Pietistic evangelicals embrace [[Christian revival|revivalism]] and a more experiential faith, emphasizing [[Born again|conversion]], [[Christian perfection|sanctification]], [[Regeneration (theology)|regeneration]], and [[Faith healing|healing]]. The third, ''[[Christian fundamentalism|fundamentalist]]'' evangelicalism, results from the [[Fundamentalist–modernist controversy|Fundamentalist–Modernist]] split of the early 20th century. Fundamentalists emphasize certain "fundamental" beliefs against modernist criticism and often use an [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic]], [[Premillennialism|premillennialist]] interpretation of the Bible. These three categories are more fluid than Hunter's, so an individual could identify with only one, any two, or all three.{{Sfn|Dorrien|1998|pp=2–3}}
[[John C. Green]], a senior fellow at the [[Pew Research Center|Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life]], used polling data to separate evangelicals into three broad camps, which he labels as ''traditionalist'', ''centrist'' and ''modernist'':<ref name="nytimes">{{Cite news| title=Evangelicals Debate the Meaning of 'Evangelical' | last=Luo | first=Michael |date=April 16, 2006 | work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/weekinreview/16luo.html?_r=1&adxnnlx=1145227368-p%20hJwvCXS0qceSTw%20jLi8w&pagewanted=all}}</ref>
# Traditionalist evangelicals, characterized by high affinity for certain Protestant beliefs, (especially [[penal substitution]]ary [[Salvation in Christianity#Atonement|atonement]], [[Sola fide|justification by faith]], the authority of scripture, and the [[priesthood of all believers]]) which, when fused with the highly political milieu of Western culture (especially American culture), has resulted in the political disposition that has been labeled the Christian right, with public figures like [[Jerry Falwell]] and the television evangelist [[Pat Robertson]] among its most visible spokesmen.
# Centrist evangelicals, described as socially conservative and mostly avoiding politics, who still support much of traditional Christian theology.
# Modernist evangelicals, a small minority in the movement, who have lower levels of church attendance and "have much more diversity in their beliefs".<ref name="nytimes" />
==History==
===18th century===
The roots of American evangelicalism lie in the merger of three older Protestant traditions: New England [[Puritans|Puritanism]], Continental Pietism and Scotch-Irish [[Presbyterianism]].{{Sfn | Balmer| 2002 |pp=vii–viii}} Within their [[Congregationalism in the United States|Congregational churches]], Puritans promoted experimental or experiential religion, arguing that saving [[Faith in Christianity|faith]] required an inward transformation.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=31}} This led Puritans to demand evidence of a [[Puritans#Conversion|conversion experience]] (in the form of a [[conversion narrative]]) before a convert was admitted to full church membership.{{Sfn|Youngs|1998|pp=40–41}} In the 1670s and 1680s, Puritan clergy began to promote religious [[Christian revival|revival]] in response to a perceived decline in religiosity.{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|loc=Chapter 1, [[Amazon Kindle]] location 148–152}} The [[Ulster Scots people#Scotch-Irish|Ulster Scots]] who immigrated to the American colonies in the early 18th century brought with them their own revival tradition, specifically the practice of [[communion season]]s.{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|p=31}} Pietism was a movement within the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] and Reformed churches in Europe that emphasized a "religion of the heart": the ideal that faith was not simply acceptance of [[proposition]]al truth but was an emotional "commitment of one's whole being to God" in which one's life became dedicated to [[Self-denial|self-sacrificial]] ministry.{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|pp=24–25}} Pietists promoted the formation of [[cell group]]s for [[Bible study (Christianity)|Bible study]], prayer, and accountability.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=34}}
[[File:Jonathan Edwards.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Jonathan Edwards (theologian)|Jonathan Edwards]] was the most influential evangelical theologian in America during the 18th century.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=44}}]]
These three traditions were brought together with the [[First Great Awakening]], a series of revivals in Britain and its American Colonies during the 1730s and 1740s.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=27}} The Awakening began within the Congregational churches of New England. In 1734, [[Jonathan Edwards (theologian)|Jonathan Edwards]]' preaching on justification by faith instigated a revival in [[Northampton, Massachusetts]]. Earlier Puritan revivals had been brief, local affairs, but the Northampton revival was part of a larger wave of revival that affected the Presbyterian and [[Dutch Reformed Church|Dutch Reformed]] churches in the middle colonies as well.{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=14–18}} There the Reformed minister [[Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen|Theodore Frelinghuysen]] and Presbyterian minister [[Gilbert Tennent]] led revivals.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=44}}
The English evangelist [[George Whitefield]] was responsible for spreading the revivals through all the colonies. An [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] priest, Whitefield had studied at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] prior to ordination, and there he befriended [[John Wesley]] and his brother [[Charles Wesley|Charles]], the founders of a pietistic movement within the [[Church of England]] called [[Methodism]]. Whitefield's dramatic preaching style and ability to simplify doctrine made him a popular preacher in England, and in 1739 he arrived in America preaching up and down the Atlantic coastline. Thousands flocked to open-air meetings to hear him preach, and he became a celebrity throughout the colonies.{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=18}}
The Great Awakening hit its peak by 1740,{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|pp=44, 48}} but it shaped a new form of Protestantism that emphasized, according to historian [[Thomas S. Kidd]], "''seasons of revival'', or ''outpourings of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]]'', and ''converted sinners experiencing God's love personally''" [emphasis in original].{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|p=xiv}} Evangelicals believed in the "new birth"—a discernible moment of conversion—and believed that it was normal for a Christian to have [[Assurance (theology)|assurance of faith]].{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|loc=Introduction, [[Amazon Kindle]] location 66}} While the Puritans had also believed in the necessity of conversion, they "had held that assurance is rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers".{{Sfn | Bebbington | 1993 | pp=43}} Emphasis on the individual's relationship to God gave evangelicalism an [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] streak as well, which was perceived by anti-revivalists as undermining social order. Radical evangelicals ordained uneducated ministers (sometimes nonwhite men) and sometimes allowed nonwhites and women to serve as [[deacon]]s and [[Elder (Christianity)|elders]]. They also supported [[Laity|laypeople's]] right to dissent from their pastors and form new churches.{{Sfn|Kidd|2007|loc=Introduction, [[Amazon Kindle]] location 79–82}}[[File:Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God by Jonathan Edwards 1741.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|[[Jonathan Edwards (theologian)|Jonathan Edwards]]' 1741 sermon "[[Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God]]"]]The Awakening split the Congregational and Presbyterian churches over support for the revival movement, between [[Old and New Lights]], leading to the [[Old Side–New Side controversy]]. Ultimately, the evangelical New Lights became the larger faction among both Congregationalists and Presbyterians. The [[New England theology]], based on Edwards' work, would become the dominant theological outlook within Congregational churches.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=59}}{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=18}} In New England, radical New Lights broke away from the established churches and formed [[Separate Baptists|Separate Baptist]] congregations. In the 1740s and 1750s, New Side Presbyterians and Separate Baptists began moving to the southern colonies and establishing churches. Many traveled along the difficult [[Great Wagon Road]] on their way to the southern colonies. There they challenged the Anglican religious establishment, which was identified with the [[Planter class|planter elite]]. In contrast, evangelicals tended to be neither very rich nor very poor, but hardworking farmers and tradesmen who disapproved of [[World#Christianity|worldliness]] they saw in the planter class. In the 1760s, the first Methodist missionaries came to America and focused their ministry in the South as well. By 1776, evangelicals outnumbered Anglicans in the South.{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|pp=22–25}}
During and after the [[American Revolution]], the Anglican Church (now known as the [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]]) experienced much disruption and lost its special legal status and privileges. The four largest denominations were the Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists. In the 1770s and 1780s, the Baptists and Methodists had experienced dramatic growth. In 1770, there were only 150 Baptist and 20 Methodist churches, but in 1790 there were 858 Baptist and 712 Methodist churches. These two evangelical denominations were most successful in the southern states and along the [[American frontier|western frontier]]. They also appealed to African [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]]; on the [[Delmarva Peninsula]], for example, over a third of Methodists were black. In the 1790s, evangelical influence on smaller groups such as Quakers, Lutherans, and the Dutch and German Reformed was still limited. Because of cultural and language barriers, the Dutch and German churches were not a major part of this era's evangelical revivals.{{Sfn|Wolffe|2007|pp=40–41}}
===19th century===
In the 19th century, evangelicalism expanded as a result of the [[Second Great Awakening]] (1790s–1840s).{{Sfn|Wolffe|2007|p=47}} The revivals of the Second Great Awakening influenced all the major Protestant denominations, and turned most American Protestants into evangelicals.{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=25}} From the 1790s until the 1860s, evangelicals were the most influential religious leaders in the United States.{{Sfn|Noll|2002|p=5}} For context, the U.S. population was 2.6 million in 1776. By 1860 it had grown to 31.5 million. Between 1790 and 1840, over four million people (more than the entire population in 1776) had moved west of the Appalachian Mountains.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=189}}
There were three major centers of revival in the Second Great Awakening. Revival in the [[Cumberland River]] Valley of western frontier states [[Tennessee]] and [[Kentucky]] started as early as 1800. In [[New England#New England in the new nation|New England]], a major revival began among Congregationalists by the 1820s, led by [[New England theology|Edwardsian]] preachers such as [[Timothy Dwight IV|Timothy Dwight]], [[Lyman Beecher]], [[Nathaniel William Taylor|Nathaniel Taylor]], and [[Asahel Nettleton]]. In western New York—the so-called "[[burned-over district]]" along the [[Erie Canal]]—the revival was mainly led by Congregationalists and Presbyterians, but Baptists and Methodists were also involved.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|pp=66–71}}
[[File:Camp meeting.jpg|thumb|Depiction of a camp meeting]]
Unlike the East Coast, where revivals tended to be quieter and more solemn, western revivals tended to be emotional and dramatic.{{Sfn|Wolffe|2007|pp=62-63}} Presbyterian minister [[James McGready]] led the [[Revival of 1800]], also known as the Red River Revival, in southwestern Kentucky's [[Logan County, Kentucky#History|Logan County]]. It was here that the traditional Scottish communion season began to evolve into the American [[camp meeting]].{{Sfn|Wolffe|2007|p=58}} In northeastern Kentucky's [[Bourbon County, Kentucky#Old Bourbon|Bourbon County]] a year later, the [[Cane Ridge Revival]] led by [[Barton W. Stone|Barton Stone]] lasted a week and drew crowds of 20,000 people from the thinly populated [[American frontier#New nation|frontier]]. At Cane Ridge, many converts experienced religious ecstasy and "bodily agitations".{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=26}} Some worshipers caught [[holy laughter]], barked like dogs, experienced [[convulsion]]s, fell into [[trance]]s, danced, shouted or were [[slain in the Spirit]]. Similar responses had occurred in other revivals, but they were more intense at Cane Ridge. This revival was the origin of the [[Restoration Movement|Stone-Campbell Movement]], from which the [[Churches of Christ]] and [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)|Disciples of Christ]] denominations originate.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=72}}{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=26}}
During the Second Great Awakening, the [[Methodist Episcopal Church]] was most successful at gaining converts. It enthusiastically adopted camp meetings as a regular part of church life, and devoted resources to evangelizing the western frontier. Itinerant ministers known as [[Circuit rider (religious)|circuit riders]] traveled hundreds of miles each year to preach and serve scattered congregations. The Methodists took a democratic and egalitarian approach to ministry, allowing poor and uneducated young men to become circuit riders. The Baptists also expanded rapidly. Like the Methodists, Baptists also sent out itinerant ministers, often with little education.{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|pp=26–27}}
[[File:Finney.png|thumb|upright|[[Charles Grandison Finney]], the most prominent revivalist of the [[Second Great Awakening]]]]
The theology behind the First Great Awakening had been largely [[Calvinism|Calvinist]].{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=66}} Calvinists taught [[Predestination in Calvinism|predestination]] and that God only gives [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] to a small group of the [[Unconditional election|elect]] and condemns everyone else to [[Hell in Christianity|hell]]. The Calvinist doctrine of [[irresistible grace]] denied to humans [[Free will in theology|free will]] or any role in their own salvation.{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=31}} The Second Great Awakening was heavily influenced by [[Arminianism]], a theology that allows for free will and gives humans a greater role in their own conversion.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=66}} The Methodists were Arminians and taught that all people could choose salvation. They also taught that Christians could lose their salvation by [[backsliding]] or returning to [[sin]].{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=31}}
The most influential evangelical of the Second Great Awakening was [[Charles Grandison Finney]]. He is best known for preaching from 1825 to 1835 in [[Upstate New York]],{{Sfn|Johnson|2004|pp=3-5}} which experienced a population boom after the Erie Canal opened in 1825.{{Sfn|Johnson|2004|p=13}} Though ordained by the Presbyterian Church, Finney deviated from traditional Calvinism. Finney taught that neither revivals nor conversion occurred without human effort. While divine grace is necessary to persuade people of the truth of Christianity, God does not force salvation upon people. Unlike Edwards, who described revival as a "surprising work of God", Finney taught that "revival is not a miracle" but "the result of the right use of the appropriate means."{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|pp=67–68}} Finney emphasized several methods to promote revival that became known as the "new measures" (even though they were not new but had already been in use among the Methodists): mass advertising, protracted revival meetings, allowing women to speak and [[Testimony|testify]] in revival meetings, and the [[mourner's bench]] where potential converts sat to pray for conversion.{{Sfn|Balmer|2002|p=491}} Finney was also active in social reforms, particularly the [[abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist]] movement. He frequently denounced [[slavery in the United States|slavery]] from the pulpit, called it a "great national sin," and refused Holy Communion to slaveholders.{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=40}}
Evangelical views on [[Christian eschatology|eschatology]] (the doctrine of the end times) have also changed over time. The Puritans were premillennialists, which means they believed [[Second Coming|Christ would return]] before the [[Millennialism|Millennium]] (a thousand years of godly rule on earth). But the First Great Awakening convinced many evangelicals that the millennial kingdom was already being established before Christ returned, a belief known as [[postmillennialism]]. During the Second Great Awakening, postmillennialism (with its expectation that society would become progressively more Christianized) became the dominant view, since it complemented the Arminian emphasis on self-determination and the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment's]] positive view of human potential.{{Sfn|Balmer|1999|p=47–48}}
[[File:Remember Your Weekly Pledge Massachusetts Anti-Slavey Society collection box.jpg|thumb|upright|Collection box for the [[Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society]], circa 1850]]
This ''postmillennial optimism'' inspired a number of social reform movements among northern evangelicals,{{Sfn|Johnson|2004|pp=5-8}} including [[Temperance movement|temperance]] (as [[teetotalism]] became "a badge of honor" for evangelicals),{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=75}} abolitionism, prison reform, and educational reform.{{Sfn|Balmer|1999|p=47–48}} They launched a campaign to end [[duel]]ing.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=74}} They built asylums for the physically disabled and mentally ill, [[History of deaf education in the United States|schools for the deaf]], and hospitals for treating [[tuberculosis]]. They formed organizations to provide food, clothing, money, and job placement to immigrants and the poor.{{Sfn|FitzGerald|2017|p=45}} In order to "impress the new nation with an indelibly Protestant character," evangelicals founded [[Sunday school]]s, colleges, and seminaries. They published millions of books, [[Tract (literature)|tracts]], and Christian periodicals through organizations such as the [[American Tract Society]] and the [[American Bible Society]].{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=74}} This network of social reform organizations is referred to as the [[Benevolent Empire]].
Postmillennialism also led to an increase in [[Christian mission|missionary]] work.{{Sfn|Balmer|1999|p=47–48}} Many of the major missionary societies in the U.S. were [[Timeline of Christian missions|founded around this time]]. Missionary efforts by northern evangelicals included the influential [[American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions]] (ABCFM), founded in 1810, which sent missionaries overseas, placed missionaries with [[Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands|American Indian]] tribes in the [[Southeastern United States]], and had established missions among the [[Cherokee]], for example, by 1820. The ABCFM fought against U.S. [[Indian removal]] policies in general and against the [[Indian Removal Act]] of 1830 in particular.{{Sfn|Andrew|1992|p=unknown}} In 1836 the ABCFM sent [[Whitman Mission National Historic Site|Marcus and Narcissa Whitman]] west from Upstate New York to preach to the [[Cayuse people#History|Cayuse people]] in [[Oregon Country]].{{Sfn|Miller|2003|pp=79-84}}{{Sfn|Harden|2021}}
The [[Third Great Awakening]] that began in 1857–1858 also gathered much of its strength from the postmillennial belief that the Second Coming of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire Earth. It was affiliated with the [[Social Gospel]] movement, which applied Christianity to social issues.{{Sfn|McLoughlin|1980|page=unknown}}
==== Dispensationalism ====
[[File:JohnNelsonDarby.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Nelson Darby]], considered to be the father of modern Dispensationalism]]
The spread of [[dispensationalism]] in late 19th-century America led many Evangelicals to return to the more pessimistic premillennialist point of view. According to scholar Mark Sweetnam, ''dispensationalists'' are evangelical, [[premillennialism|premillennialist]] and [[apocalypticism|apocalyptic]], insist on a literal interpretation of Scripture, identify distinct stages ("dispensations") in God's dealings with humanity, and expect Christ's imminent return to [[rapture]] His saints.<ref>{{Citation | first=Mark S | last=Sweetnam | title=Defining Dispensationalism: A Cultural Studies Perspective | journal=Journal of Religious History | year=2010 | volume=34 | issue=2 | pages=191–212 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-9809.2010.00862.x}}.</ref> As B. M. Pietsch notes, their leaders have built intricate new methods of text analysis to "unlock" the Bible's meaning.{{Sfn|Pietsch|2015|p=4}}
[[John Nelson Darby]] was an austere 19th-century [[Anglo-Irish people|Anglo-Irish]] Bible teacher and former Anglican clergyman who devised and promoted dispensationalism. This new and controversial method of interpreting the Bible,{{Sfn|Pietsch|2015|p=2}}{{Sfn|Gloege|2015|pp=29-31}} which does not reconcile easily with findings from recent mainstream archaeological and textual research,{{Sfn|Finkelstein|2013|pp=162-163}}{{Sfn|Sivertsen|2009|pp=1-9}}{{Sfn|Römer|Geuss|2015|pp=9-23 and p. 293 note 1}} was incorporated into the development of modern Evangelicalism.{{Sfn|Grem|2016|pp=21-22}} First taught in the 1830s by Darby and the [[Plymouth Brethren]] in England, dispensationalism was introduced to American evangelical leaders during Darby's missionary journeys to the U.S. and Canada in the 1860s and 1870s.{{Sfn|Sandeen|1970|pp=70-79}} The [[Niagara Bible Conference]] was organized in 1876 to teach dispensationalist ideas;{{Sfn|Dayton|2001|p=11}} these ideas came to dominate the fundamentalist movement within a few decades.{{Sfn|Hummel|2023|p=1}}{{Sfn|Hiett|2003|pp=6-7}}
[[File:Dwight Lyman Moody c.1900.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dwight Moody]], founder of the Moody Bible Institute]]
[[Dwight L. Moody]] played a key role in this transformation. In the latter half of the 19th century, Moody became the most important evangelical figure of the era, weaving ideas from business and religion into a compelling new form of evangelical Protestantism and reaching very large audiences with his powerful preaching.{{Sfn|Gloege|2015|p=3}}{{Sfn|Maas|1990|p=unknown}}<ref>{{Citation | first=David W | last=Bebbington | title=Dominance of Evangelicalism: The Age of Spurgeon and Moody | year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last=Findlay | first=James F | title=Dwight L. Moody: American Evangelist, 1837–1899 | year=1969}}.</ref> Focused on the city of [[Chicago]] and active in the Sunday School movement and [[YMCA#Origins|Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA)]] from 1858 in his early ministry, Moody had relentlessly sought financial contributions from rich evangelical businessmen such as [[John V. Farwell|John Farwell]] and [[Cyrus McCormick]]. Moody's approach was rough, blunt and unconventional, but wealthy philanthropists could see he truly cared for the urban poor and he found effective ways to improve their lot.{{Sfn|Gloege|2015|p=24}}{{Sfn|Maas|1990|p=unknown}} During an 1867 visit to England, Moody became acquainted with a group of pragmatic [[Brethren Church|Brethren]] dispensationalists who shared many of his own concerns and approaches to charitable work.{{Sfn|Gloege|2015|p=30}} After the [[Great Chicago Fire]] in 1871 destroyed his church, his home and the Chicago YMCA, Moody left local church work for a new career as a traveling revivalist.{{Sfn|Maas|1990|p=unknown}} Convinced now that the world would be changed not by social work but by Christ's return and the establishment of His millennial kingdom on Earth, Moody abandoned his own previous postmillennialist views.{{Sfn|Maas|1990|p=unknown}} His revivals accelerated the spread of dispensationalist beliefs, and he was influential in preaching the imminence of the Kingdom of God that is so important to dispensationalism.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kee|first=Howard Clark|title=Christianity: A Social and Cultural History|year=1998|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|page=484|author2=Emily Albu|author2-link= Emily Albu |author3=Carter Lindberg |author4=J. William Frost |author5=Dana L. Robert }}</ref>
Enlisting philanthropic support from the business community was one of several enduring innovations Moody had introduced into the conduct of revival campaigns.{{Sfn|Maas|1990|p=unknown}} Like many clergymen in the [[Gilded Age]] that followed soon after the Civil War, Moody supported the business community's values. He helped forge the union between the evangelical mind and the business mind that came to be a hallmark of later popular revivalists.{{Sfn|Grem|2016|pp=19-21}} Moody's religious individualism fit neatly with the rugged individualism of Gilded Age businessmen.{{Sfn|Chartier|1969|p=24}} Moody radiated optimism when he spoke about how Christian conversion would impact a poor man's life.{{Sfn|Chartier|1969|p=22}} He believed Christian conversion would make lazy, poor men into energetic men who would then work hard and prosper.{{Sfn|Chartier|1969|p=22}} At his revival meetings Moody would look around at the wealthy men who sat on the platform with him, such as McCormick, [[William E. Dodge]], and [[John Wanamaker]], comment that they were all devout church members, all born again Christians, and say that few of the poor in the slums of Chicago, London, or New York attended church services.{{Sfn|Chartier|1969|p=22}} Moody also viewed [[Industrialisation|industrialism]] and its ills through the same lens of Christian conversion. As he saw it, the fix was simple and obvious: believe in God, and the problems will vanish soon.{{Sfn|Chartier|1969|p=28}}[[File:ScofieldCI.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Cyrus Scofield]], author of the Scofield Reference Bible]]American evangelical minister and Moody associate [[C. I. Scofield|Cyrus Scofield]] also promoted the spread of dispensationalism, starting with a pamphlet published in 1888, then by weaving extensive interpretive commentary into prominent notes on the pages of his ambitious [[Scofield Reference Bible]]. First published in 1909, the Scofield Bible became a popular one-volume reference used widely by independent Evangelicals in the United States.{{Sfn|Pietsch|2015|pp=4-5}} It did much to popularize dispensationalism early in the 20th century, as Evangelicals sought to make sense of calamities like [[World War I]], the [[Spanish flu|1918 influenza pandemic]], the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929|1929 stock market crash]], the [[Great Depression]] and [[Dust Bowl]] in the 1930s, and [[World War II]]. By 1945, more than 2 million copies had been published in the United States.{{Sfn|Allis|1945|p=267}}
[[File:1917 Scofield Bible.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Scofield Reference Bible]], 1917 edition]]
Evangelicals also launched a network of independent Bible institutes which soon became the nucleus for the spread of American dispensationalism.{{Sfn|Carpenter|1999|pp=16-17}} Notable examples include the [[Moody Bible Institute]]{{Sfn|Grem|2016|p=20}} and the [[Biola University|Bible Institute of Los Angeles]].{{Sfn|Grem|2016|p=38}} By the early 1930s there were as many as fifty such Bible institutes serving fundamentalist constituencies.{{Sfn|Carpenter|1999|pp=16-17}}
==== Holiness Movement ====
In the late 19th century, the revivalist [[Holiness movement]] promoted the doctrine of [[Christian perfection|entire sanctification]], and while many adherents remained within mainline Methodism, those associated with it also formed new denominations, such as the [[Free Methodist Church]] and [[Wesleyan Methodist Church (United States)|Wesleyan Methodist Church]].<ref name="Winn">{{cite book |last1=Winn |first1=Christian T. Collins |title=From the Margins: A Celebration of the Theological Work of Donald W. Dayton |date=2007 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-63087-832-0 |page=115 |language=English|quote=In addition to these separate denominational groupings, one needs to give attention to the large pockets of the Holiness movement that have remained within the United Methodist Church. The most influential of these would be the circles dominated by Asbury College and Asbury Theological Seminary (both in Wilmore, KY), but one could speak of other colleges, innumerable local camp meetings, the vestiges of various local Holiness associations, independent Holiness oriented missionary societies and the like that have had great impact within United Methodism. A similar pattern would exist in England with the role of Cliff College within Methodism in that context.}}</ref> In urban Britain the holiness message was less censorious, and did not face as much opposition.<ref>{{Citation | first=David W | last=Bebbington | title=The Holiness Movements in British and Canadian Methodism in the Late Nineteenth Century | journal=Proceedings of the Wesley Historical Society | year=1996 | volume=50 | number=6 | pages=203–28}}.</ref>
==== Princeton Theologians ====
From the 1850s to the 1920s, a more technical theological perspective came from the [[Princeton theology|Princeton Theologians]], such as [[Charles Hodge]], [[Archibald Alexander]], and [[B. B. Warfield]],<ref>{{Citation | first=W. Andrew | last=Hoffecker | title=Piety and the Princeton Theologians | place=Nutley | publisher=Presbyterian & Reformed | year=1981}}, v.</ref> who strove to defend traditional doctrines they found in the Bible against rival claims from other learned scholars, including such claims that were based on [[Historical criticism|higher criticism]].{{Sfn|Noll|1987|pp=20–22}}
===20th century===
[[File:LymanStewart.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Lyman Stewart]], co-founder of [[Unocal Corporation#History|Union Oil]]]]
By the 1890s, most American Protestants belonged to evangelical denominations, except for [[high church]] Episcopalians and German Lutherans. In the early 20th century, a divide opened up between fundamentalists and the mainline Protestant denominations, chiefly over inerrancy of the Bible. After 1910, evangelicalism was dominated by fundamentalists who rejected liberal theology, emphasized inerrancy of Scripture, and taught a dispensationalist interpretation of the Bible to support their views of human history and mankind's future.
Pastors, theologians, and laity shaped the course of early fundamentalism, but wealthy businessmen also played a crucial role.{{Sfn|Gloege|2015|p=2}}{{Sfn|Grem|2016|p=21}} For example, [[Unocal Corporation#History|Union Oil]] co-founder [[Lyman Stewart]] was instrumental in establishing the Bible Institute of Los Angeles.{{Sfn|Grem|2016|p=38}}<ref>{{Citation|title=History and Heritage - Biola University|url=https://www.biola.edu/about/history|access-date=November 19, 2022}}.</ref> He also anonymously funded publication and distribution of ''[[The Fundamentals]]'' (groups of essays by multiple authors published quarterly in twelve volumes from 1910 through 1915), which became the foundation document of Christian fundamentalism, published as a set in 1917,{{Sfn|Grem|2016|p=21}}{{Sfn|Marsden|2006|pp=118-119}}{{Sfn|Sandeen|1970|p=unknown}} and he ensured that its many individual authors promoted premillennialist dispensationalism.{{Sfn|Grem|2016|p=21}}{{Sfn|Marsden|2006|pp=118-119}} The essays were written by 64 different authors, representing most of the major Protestant Christian denominations. It was mailed free of charge to ministers, missionaries, professors of theology, Sunday school superintendents, YMCA and [[YWCA]] secretaries, and other Protestant religious workers in the United States and other English-speaking countries. Over three million volumes (250,000 sets) were sent out.{{Sfn|Marsden|2006|pp=118-119}}
Dispensationalism led fundamentalist evangelicals to see the world as a battleground in a deadly conflict between God and the Devil that would sweep all unbelievers to perdition very soon, so that they must focus on saving souls, with reform of society as a strictly secondary concern.{{Sfn|Allitt|2003|pp=12-13}} Adoption of this "lifeboat" theology also made the fundamentalists' message more welcome among American groups and communities who opposed reform of their own cherished institutions (such as violent enforcement of [[racial segregation]] by local authorities and by self-appointed [[Lynching in the United States|vigilante groups]]) and business practices (ruthless exploitation of industrial workers,{{Sfn|Gloege|2015|pp=60-61}} [[redlining]], and the [[Jim Crow economy]]).{{Sfn|Mathews|2017|p=1}}
Dispensationalism also led fundamentalists to fear that new trends in modern science were pulling people away from what they saw as essential truth, and to believe that modernist parties in Protestant churches had surrendered their Evangelical heritage by accommodating secular views and values. Among these fundamentalist evangelicals, a favored way of resisting modernism was to prohibit teaching [[evolution]] as fact in public schools, a movement that reached a peak in the [[Scopes trial]] of 1925. The sting of this public embarrassment led fundamentalists to retreat further into separatism. Protestant modernists criticized fundamentalists for their separatist self-isolation and for their rejection of the [[Social Gospel]] that had been developed by Protestant activists in the previous century. By this time, modernists had largely abandoned the term "evangelical," and tolerated evolutionary theories in modern science and even in Biblical studies. In the 1930s, fundamentalist pastors and parishioners who rejected modernist viewpoints put forward by their own denominations turned more and more to the dispensationalist Bible institutes for guidance and community.{{Sfn|Carpenter|1999|p=17}} As the largest of these schools, the Moody Bible Institute set the pace, providing a wide variety of fundamentalist outreach services, from guest speakers and extension courses to Bible conferences, magazines and [[Radio broadcasting|radio]] programs.{{Sfn|Carpenter|1999|p=17}}{{Sfn|Gloege|2015|pp=227-228}}
[[File:Angelus Temple worship service 1942.jpg|thumb|right|Congregation at [[Angelus Temple]] during 14-hour Holy Ghost service led by [[Aimee Semple McPherson]] in Los Angeles, California, in 1942]]
During and after World War II, white evangelicals formed new organizations and expanded their vision to include the entire world. There was a great expansion of Evangelical activity within the United States, "a revival of revivalism." The doctrine of dispensationalism, with its intense focus on end times and the rapture, continued to be a major theme. Many earlier evangelists had preached in tents to small-town audiences on the "sawdust trail," but the new evangelicals sought ways to save souls in the big cities that had come to dominate American life.{{Sfn|Allitt|2003|p=13}} [[Youth for Christ]] was formed in 1940 to help make the evangelical message attractive to soldiers, sailors, and urban teenagers;{{Sfn|Allitt|2003|p=14}} it later became the base for Billy Graham's post-war revival crusades.{{Sfn|Grem|2016|p=14}}<ref>{{Citation|title=Encyclopædia Britannica - Billy Graham biography|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Billy-Graham|publisher=britannica com|access-date=October 22, 2021}}.</ref> The [[National Association of Evangelicals]] was formed in 1942 as a response to the mainline [[Federal Council of Churches]], which had been organized in 1908.{{Sfn|Allitt|2003|p=13}} [[Charles E. Fuller (Baptist minister)|Charles Fuller]] had started broadcasting the ''Old-Fashioned Revival Hour'' in 1937; by 1943 it had a record-setting national radio audience, with twenty million weekly listeners.{{Sfn|Allitt|2003|p=13}}
But a split also developed among evangelicals in this era, as they disagreed among themselves about how a Christian ought to respond to an unbelieving world. Many evangelicals urged that Christians must engage contemporary culture directly and constructively,<ref>{{Citation|last=Henry|first=Carl FH|title=The Uneasy Conscience of Modern Fundamentalism|date=August 29, 2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN080282661X|orig-date=1947|edition=reprint|place=Grand Rapids|publisher=Eerdmans|isbn=0-8028-2661-X|page=xvii}}.</ref> and they began to express reservations about being known to the world as fundamentalists. As [[Kenneth Kantzer]] put it at the time, the name ''fundamentalist'' had become "an embarrassment instead of a badge of honor".<ref>{{Citation|last=Zoba|first=Wendy Murray|title=The Fundamentalist-Evangelical Split|url=http://www.beliefnet.com/Faiths/2005/06/The-Fundamentalist-Evangelical-Split.aspx|publisher=Belief net|access-date=July 1, 2005}}.</ref> [[Fuller Theological Seminary]] founding president [[Harold Ockenga]] coined the term ''neo-evangelicalism'' in 1947 to identify a distinct movement he saw within fundamentalist Christianity. This new generation of evangelicals sought to pursue a more open, non-judgmental dialogue with other traditions. They also called for greater application of the gospel to sociology, politics, and economics. Many fundamentalists responded by separating their opponents from the "fundamentalist" name and by seeking to distinguish themselves from the more open group, which they often characterized derogatorily by Ockenga's term "neo-Evangelical", or simply "evangelicals".
==== Growth during the Cold War ====
[[File:Services at the Pentecostal Church of God. Lejunior, Harlan County, Kentucky. - NARA - 541336.jpg|thumb|Services at the [[Pentecostal Church of God]] in Lejunior, Kentucky, in 1946]]
[[File:Baylor BSB.JPG|thumb|right| Faculty of Science at [[Baylor University]] in [[Waco, Texas]], affiliated with the [[Baptist General Convention of Texas]]]]
The end of World War II in 1945 and the onset of the [[Cold War]] by 1948 provided new opportunities for evangelical expansion. The Second World War ended in August 1945 after the U.S. used two [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|nuclear bombs]] to destroy the Japanese cities of [[Hiroshima#World War II and the atomic bombing (1939–1945)|Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki#Atomic bombing of Nagasaki during World War II|Nagasaki]]. Even [[Irreligion|nonreligious]] people groped for religious language to express those bombs' nearly unimaginable destructive power.{{Sfn|Allitt|2003|p=1}} And the end of the war affected almost everyone in America: millions of men returned from the [[United States Armed Forces|armed forces]], while millions of women left their [[Rosie the Riveter|temporary wartime industrial jobs]]. The marriage rate and the birth rate soared, accelerating a [[Baby boom#United States|baby boom]] that had begun while the war was still being fought.{{Sfn|Allitt|2003|p=12}} As young American families crowded into new churches, their ministers, priests, and rabbis led them in fervent prayers for a world in upheaval.{{Sfn|Allitt|2003|p=12}} No one in the U.S. voiced fears for the world's future with more fervor than evangelical and fundamentalist preachers. A key element in their preaching had always been that the Second Coming of Christ could happen at any moment and that everyone must be ready for the end of the world.{{Sfn|Allitt|2003|p=12}}
In September 1949, 30-year-old evangelist [[Billy Graham]] set up circus tents in a [[Los Angeles]] parking lot for a series of revival meetings. A tall, handsome, spellbinding preacher from [[North Carolina]] with a piercing gaze, Graham aimed to fill his listeners first with dread that they were lost [[Christian views on sin|sinners]] in a world rushing headlong into disaster, then with a deep longing to turn their lives around, trust Jesus, and be saved.{{Sfn|Allitt|2003|p=14}} The crusade started on September 25, 1949,<ref name="cincinnati post">{{Cite news |title= Billy Graham: A Man With A Mission Impossible.(Special Section) |url= http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-87912863.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110829105151/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-87912863.html|archive-date= August 29, 2011|author=Barry M. Horstmann |work=Cincinnati Post |date=June 27, 2002 |access-date=August 18, 2007}}</ref> and it was scheduled to last three weeks, from September 25 to October 17.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Billy Graham Greater Los Angeles Campaign | url = http://www2.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/exhibits/LA49/03prep11.html | publisher = Christ for Greater Los Angeles | location = Washington at Hill | year = 1949}}</ref> Two days before the start of the revival, in a statement released on September 23, 1949, [[Harry S. Truman|President Truman]] revealed to the public that the communist [[Soviet Union]] had built and successfully detonated [[Soviet atomic bomb project#RDS-1|its own nuclear bomb]] on August 29.<ref>{{Citation|title="Statement by President Truman in Response to First Soviet Nuclear Test," September 23, 1949, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Department of State Bulletin, Vol. XXI, No. 533, October 3, 1949.|url=http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/134436|access-date=October 23, 2022}}.</ref> Six days after the revival started, mainland [[China]] fell to [[Mao Zedong]]'s communist [[Chinese Red Army|Red Army]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Watershed: Los Angeles 1949|url=https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/watershed-los-angeles-1949|access-date=October 23, 2022}}.</ref> Newspaper headlines that reported these shocking Cold War events put much of the nation into an anxious, apocalyptic mood. Then in October, media tycoon<ref>{{Citation|title=William Randolph Hearst - Biography, Facts & Career - History.com Editors, Nov 30, 2021|date=November 30, 2021 |url=https://www.history.com/topics/early-20th-century-us/william-randolph-hearst|access-date=October 23, 2022}}.</ref> [[William Randolph Hearst]] sent a telegram to all editors in his conservative [[Hearst Communications|Hearst chain of newspapers]]: "[[Promotion (marketing)|Puff]] Graham."<ref name="Bagdikian">Ben Bagdikian, ''The Media Monopoly'', Boston, Mass: Beacon Press, 2000 6th ed., p. 39 ff.</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=70th Anniversary – Greater Los Angeles Billy Graham Crusade of 1949 - September 25, 2019|date=September 25, 2019 |url=https://billygrahamlibrary.org/70th-anniversary-greater-los-angeles-billy-graham-crusade-of-1949|access-date=November 21, 2022}}.</ref> As a result, within five days Graham gained national coverage.<ref name="worldscollide">{{cite journal |title=When worlds collide: politics, religion, and media at the 1970 East Tennessee Billy Graham Crusade |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-19592304.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517015119/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-19592304.html  |archive-date=May 17, 2011 |first=Randall E. |last=King |journal=Journal of Church and State |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=273–295 |date=March 22, 1997 |access-date=August 18, 2007|doi=10.1093/jcs/39.2.273 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Bagdikan 2000 p. 39">Bagdikan (2000), ''Media Monopoly'', p. 39</ref> Planned to last three weeks, the event ran for eight weeks. Graham became a national figure with heavy coverage from the [[News agency#History|wire services]] and national magazines, and he went on to become the most influential American evangelist of the 20th century.
Evangelicals' international missionary activity also expanded in the postwar era. White evangelicals found new enthusiasm and self-confidence after the nation's victory in the world war. Many came from poor rural districts that had struggled during the Great Depression of the 1930s, but wartime and postwar prosperity had dramatically increased the funding resources available for missionary work. Overseas missionaries began to prepare for their postwar role, in organizations such as the [[SEND International|Far Eastern Gospel Crusade]]. After [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] had been defeated, the newly mobilized evangelicals prepared to combat perceived threats from atheistic communism, secularism, Darwinism, liberalism, Catholicism, and (in overseas missions) paganism.{{Sfn|Miller-Davenport|2013|p=1110}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 194-0798-29, Düsseldorf, Veranstaltung mit Billy Graham.jpg|thumb|Billy Graham preaching in [[Duisburg]], Germany, 1954]]
While mainline Protestant denominations cut back on their missionary activities from 7,000 overseas workers in 1935 to only 3,000 in 1980, evangelicals tripled their career foreign missionary force in the same period: from 12,000 in 1935 to 35,000 in 1980. At Youth for Christ's 70,000-person rally on [[Memorial Day]] 1945 in Chicago's [[Soldier Field#Early configuration|Soldier Field]] football stadium (seating capacity 74,000), soldiers and nurses marched along with missionary representatives who paraded in costumes representing all the nations still awaiting the dispensationalist gospel.{{Sfn|Allitt|2003|p=14}}<ref name="TIME">{{cite magazine|title=Religion: Youth for Christ|magazine=[[TIME (magazine)|TIME]]|date=February 4, 1946|url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,776614-1,00.html|access-date=November 22, 2022}}</ref> North Americans had sent out only 41% of all the world's Protestant missionaries in 1936, but their contribution rose to 52% in 1952 and 72% in 1969. Denominations expanding their overseas missionary efforts after the war included the [[United Pentecostal Church International]], formed in 1945, and the [[Assemblies of God]], which nearly tripled from 230 missionaries in 1935 to 626 in 1952. [[Southern Baptist Convention|Southern Baptist]] missionaries more than doubled from 405 to 855, as did those sent by the [[Church of the Nazarene]], from 88 to 200.{{Sfn|Carpenter|1999|pp=184–5}}
The post-war period also saw growth of the [[Ecumenism|ecumenical movement]] and the founding of the [[World Council of Churches]] (1948), which was generally regarded with suspicion by the evangelical community.<ref>{{Citation|title="Evangelicals and the World Council," Christianity Today, August 30, 1963|date=August 30, 1963 |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1963/august-30/evangelicals-and-world-council.html|page=unknown|access-date=October 27, 2022}}.</ref> During the 1950s, the number of church members in America grew from 64.5 million to 114.5 million. By 1960, more than 60% of the nation belonged to a church.{{Sfn|Sweeney|2005|p=199}} Following the [[Welsh Methodist revival]], the [[Azusa Street Revival]] in 1906 had begun the spread of [[Pentecostalism]] in North America. The [[Charismatic movement]] began in the 1960s and led to Pentecostal theology and practices being introduced into many mainline denominations. Charismatic groups such as [[Newfrontiers]] and the [[Association of Vineyard Churches]] trace their roots to this period.
===21st century===
[[File:Baptist Health System.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1| Baptist Medical Center Jacksonville ([[Baptist Health (Jacksonville)|Baptist Health]] network) in [[Jacksonville, Florida]]]]
A 2018 report of polls conducted from 2003 to 2017 of 174,485 [[Sampling (statistics)|random-sample]] telephone interviews by [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] and ''[[The Washington Post]]'' show significant shifts in U.S. religious identification in those 15 years, including a decline in the share of Americans who identify as Protestants (both evangelical and non-evangelical) and a rise in the share of Americans who say they have no religion.<ref>{{cite web |last1=De Jong |first1=Allison |title=Protestants decline, more have no religion in a sharply shifting religious landscape (POLL) The nation's religious makeup has shifted dramatically in the past 15 years. |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/protestants-decline-religion-sharply-shifting-religious-landscape-poll/story?id=54995663 |work=ABC News |date=May 10, 2018 |access-date=December 21, 2020}}</ref> According to reports in the ''New York Times'', some evangelicals have sought to expand their movement's social agenda to include reducing poverty, combating [[HIV/AIDS|AIDS]] in the [[Third World]], and protecting the environment: "a push to better this world as well as save eternal souls."<ref name="Kirkpatrick">{{Cite journal | last=Kirkpatrick | first=David D | date=October 28, 2007 | title=The Evangelical Crackup | journal=[[The New York Times Magazine]] | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/28/magazine/28Evangelicals-t.html?pagewanted=6}}</ref> This has been highly contentious within the evangelical community, because evangelicals of a more conservative stance believe this trend compromises important issues, and values popularity and consensus too highly: "a 'capitulation' to the broader culture."<ref name="Kirkpatrick"/> Personifying this division in the early 21st century were the evangelical leaders [[James Dobson]] and [[Rick Warren]]. Dobson warned of dangers, from his point of view, of a victory by Democratic Party presidential candidate [[Barack Obama]] in [[2008 United States presidential election|2008]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://focusfamaction.edgeboss.net/download/focusfamaction/pdfs/10-22-08_2012letter.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031013511/http://focusfamaction.edgeboss.net/download/focusfamaction/pdfs/10-22-08_2012letter.pdf  | archive-date=October 31, 2008 | publisher=Akamai | title=Edge Boss | access-date=August 2, 2010 }}</ref> Warren declined to endorse either major candidate, on the grounds that he wanted the church to be less politically divisive and that he agreed substantially with both Obama and Republican Party candidate [[John McCain]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.christianpost.com/news/rick-warren-pastors-shouldn-t-endorse-politicians-33559/ | title=Rick Warren: Pastors Shouldn't Endorse Politicians | first=Michelle A | last=Vu |work=The Christian Post | date=July 29, 2008 |access-date=October 25, 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Lakewood worship.jpg|thumb|An [[evangelical charismatic movement|evangelical charismatic]] [[Worship service (evangelicalism)|worship service]] at [[Lakewood Church]], Houston, Texas, in 2013]]
==Demographics==
[[File:BibleBelt.png|thumb|Socially conservative evangelical Protestantism has a major cultural influence in the [[Bible Belt]], covering almost all of the [[Southern United States]], including all [[Confederate States of America|states]] that fought against the Union in the [[American Civil War|Civil War]].]]
[[File:Blanchard Hall Wheaton College.jpg|thumb|[[Wheaton College (Illinois)|Wheaton College]] campus, Illinois]]
Anywhere from 6 to 35% of the [[Demographics of the United States|United States population]] is evangelical, depending on how "evangelical" is defined.<ref name="Kurtzleben 2015">{{cite news | last = Kurtzleben | first = Danielle | title = Are You An Evangelical? Are You Sure? | publisher = [[NPR]] | date = December 19, 2015 | url = https://www.npr.org/2015/12/19/458058251/are-you-an-evangelical-are-you-sure | access-date = February 28, 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200228135645/https://www.npr.org/2015/12/19/458058251/are-you-an-evangelical-are-you-sure | archive-date = February 28, 2020 | url-status = live}}</ref> A 2008 study reported that in 2000, about 9% of Americans attended an evangelical [[Church service|service]] on any given Sunday.{{Sfn|Olson|2008|p=240}} A 2014 [[Pew Research Center]] survey of religious life in the United States reported that 25.4% of the population were evangelical, while [[Catholic Church in the United States|Roman Catholics]] were 20.8% and [[mainline Protestant]]s were 14.7%.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/ | title = America's Changing Religious Landscape | date = May 12, 2015 | publisher = [[Pew Research Center]] | access-date = March 30, 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200330105439/https://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/ | archive-date = March 30, 2020 | url-status = live}}</ref> In 2020, mainline Protestants were reported to outnumber predominantly-white Evangelical churches.<ref>{{Cite magazine|date=July 16, 2021|title=The Unlikely Rebound of Mainline Protestantism|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/the-unlikely-rebound-of-mainline-protestantism|access-date=July 19, 2021|magazine=The New Yorker|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=July 8, 2021|title=Survey: White mainline Protestants outnumber white evangelicals, while 'nones' shrink|url=https://religionnews.com/2021/07/08/survey-white-mainline-protestants-outnumber-white-evangelicals/|access-date=July 19, 2021|website=Religion News Service|language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, Pew Research Center reported that "24% of U.S. adults describe themselves as born-again or evangelical Protestants."<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/12/14/about-three-in-ten-u-s-adults-are-now-religiously-unaffiliated/ | title = About Three-in-Ten U.S. Adults Are Now Religiously Unaffiliated | date=December 14, 2021 | publisher = [[Pew Research Center]] | access-date=September 22, 2023}}</ref>
In 2007 [[Barna Group]] reported that 8% of adult Americans were born-again evangelicals, defined as those surveyed in 2006 who answered yes to these nine questions:<ref>{{cite web |title=Survey Explores Who Qualifies As an Evangelical |url=https://www.barna.com/research/survey-explores-who-qualifies-as-an-evangelical/#.Vmr1BhorJPV |website=barna.com |publisher=The Barna Group |access-date=April 9, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Kurtzleben 2015"/>
*"Have you made a personal commitment to Jesus Christ that is still important in your life today?"
*"Do you believe that when you die you will go to Heaven because you have confessed your sins and have accepted Jesus Christ as your savior?"
*"Is your faith very important in your life today?"
*"Do you have a personal responsibility to share your religious beliefs about Christ with non-Christians?"
*"Does Satan exist?"
*"Is eternal salvation possible only through grace, not works?"
*"Did Jesus Christ live a sinless life on earth?"
*"Is the Bible accurate in all that it teaches?"
*"Is God the all-knowing, all-powerful, perfect deity who created the universe and still rules it today?"
In 2012, ''[[The Economist]]'' estimated that "over one-third of Americans, more than 100 million, can be considered evangelical," arguing that the percentage is often undercounted because many African Americans espouse evangelical theology but refer to themselves as "born again Christians" rather than "evangelical."<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.economist.com/node/21554201 | newspaper=The Economist | title=Lift every voice | date=May 5, 2012}}</ref> As of 2017, according to ''The Economist'', white evangelicals overall account for about 17% of Americans, while white evangelicals under the age of 30 represent about 8% of Americans in that age group.<ref name="veconomist" >{{cite news|title=The evangelical divide|url=https://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21730237-younger-evangelicals-have-never-been-moral-majority-changes-how-they-see|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=October 12, 2017}}</ref>
In 2016, [[Wheaton College (Illinois)|Wheaton College]]'s Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals estimated that about 30–35% (90 to 100 million people) of the U.S. population is evangelical. These figures include white and black "cultural evangelicals" (Americans who do not regularly attend church but identify as evangelicals).<ref name="How Many Evangelicals Are There">{{Citation | title=How Many Evangelicals Are There? | url=http://www.wheaton.edu/ISAE/Defining-Evangelicalism/How-Many-Are-There/ | publisher=Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals | place=Wheaton College | access-date=June 29, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130062242/http://www.wheaton.edu/ISAE/Defining-Evangelicalism/How-Many-Are-There | archive-date=January 30, 2016  }}</ref> Similarly, a 2019 [[Gallup, Inc.|Gallup]] survey asking respondents whether they identified either as "born-again" or as "evangelical" found that 37% of respondents answered in the affirmative.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/1690/religion.aspx|title=Religion - Gallup Historical Trends|date=2019|publisher=[[Gallup (company)|Gallup]]|access-date=November 9, 2020}}</ref>
Sometimes members of historically [[black church]]es are counted as evangelicals, and at other times they are not. When analyzing political trends, pollsters often distinguish between white evangelicals (who tend to vote for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]) and African American Protestants (who share religious beliefs in common with white evangelicals but have tended to vote for the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]).<ref name="Kurtzleben 2015"/>{{Sfn|Mathews|2017|p=iii}}
{{Anchor|politics}}
==Politics and social issues==
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
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| caption = Political ideology among American Evangelicals<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/religious-tradition/evangelical-protestant/political-ideology/| title=Political ideology among Evangelical Protestants - Religion in America: U.S. Religious Data, Demographics and Statistics}}</ref>
| label1=[[Conservatism in the United States|Conservative]]
| value1=55
| color1=Crimson
| label2=[[Political moderate|Moderate]]
| value2=27
| color2=Violet
| label3=[[Modern Liberalism in the United States|Liberal]]
| value3=13
| color3=DodgerBlue
| label4=Don't know
| value4=6
| color4=black
}}
{{Main|Christian right|Evangelical left|Christian left}}
Evangelical political influence in America was first evident in the 1830s with movements such as the [[Prohibition in the United States|prohibition movement]], which closed saloons and taverns in state after state until it succeeded nationally in 1919.<ref>{{Citation | first=Norman H | last=Clark | title=Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition | year=1976}}.</ref> The [[Christian Right]] is a coalition of numerous groups of traditionalist and observant church-goers of many kinds: especially [[Catholic Church in the United States|Catholics]] on issues such as birth control and abortion, plus Southern Baptists, [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod|Missouri Synod Lutherans]], and others.<ref>"The Triumph of the Religious Right", ''The Economist'' November 11, 2004.</ref> Since the early 1980s the Christian Right has been associated with several political and issue-oriented organizations, including the [[Moral Majority]], the [[Christian Coalition of America|Christian Coalition]], [[Focus on the Family]], and the [[Family Research Council]].<ref>{{Citation | first=Jerome L. | last=Himmelstein|title=To The Right: The Transformation of American Conservatism|year=1990|publisher=[[University of California Press]]}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | last=Martin | first=William | title=With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America | year=1996 | publisher=[[Broadway Books]] | location=New York | isbn=0-7679-2257-3 | url=https://archive.org/details/withgodonourside00will }}.</ref>
In the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 presidential election]], exit polls reported that 81% of white evangelicals voted for [[Donald Trump]],<ref>Goldberg, Michelle. [https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/27/opinion/sunday/donald-trump-the-religious-rights-trojan-horse.html "Donald Trump, the Religious Right's Trojan Horse."] ''New York Times''. January 27, 2017. January 27, 2017.</ref> despite criticism from some conservative evangelicals.<ref>Bean, Alan. [https://baptistnews.com/article/a-thing-that-money-could-buy-how-corporate-evangelicalism-elected-a-presiden/#.Y3a3BXbMI2x "A thing that money could buy: How corporate evangelicalism elected a president"] ''Baptist News Global''. January 20, 2017. retrieved November 17, 2022.</ref><ref>Wehner, Peter. [https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/10/evangelical-trump-christians-politics/620469/ "The Evangelical Church is breaking apart: Christians must reclaim Jesus from his church."] ''The Atlantic''. October 24, 2021. retrieved November 12, 2022.</ref><ref>Bean, Alan. [https://baptistnews.com/article/understanding-the-evangelical-civil-war/#.Y3A0E3bMI2w "Understanding the evangelical civil war"] ''Baptist News Global''. November 8, 2021. retrieved November 12, 2022.</ref>
[[File:Cornerstone Church Toledo worship.jpg|thumb|Evangelical church in [[Toledo, Ohio]]]]
Evangelical political activists are not all on the right. There is also a small group of liberal white Evangelicals.{{Sfn|Miller|2014|pp=32-59}}{{Sfn|Swartz|2012|p=7}}<ref>{{Citation | first=Jon A | last=Shields | title=The Democratic Virtues of the Christian Right | year=2009 | pages=117, 121}}.</ref> Some Evangelical leaders, such as [[Tony Perkins (politician)|Tony Perkins]] of the Family Research Council, object to equating the term ''Christian Right'' with [[Conservative Christianity|theological conservatism]] and Evangelicalism. Although white evangelicals constitute the core constituency of the Christian Right within the United States, not all evangelicals fit that political description. Secular media do frequently conflate the Christian Right with theological conservatism, but this becomes complicated when the label ''religious conservative'' or ''conservative Christian'' is also applied to other religious groups who are theologically, socially, and culturally conservative but do not have overtly political organizations associated with them. Some of these [[Christian denominations]] may best be described as indifferent toward politics.<ref name="Deckman2004">{{cite book |last=Deckman |first=Melissa Marie |url=https://archive.org/details/schoolboardbattl0000deck |title=School Board Battles: The Christian Right in Local Politics |publisher=[[Georgetown University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-58901-001-7 |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/schoolboardbattl0000deck/page/48 48] |quote=More than half of all Christian Right candidates attend evangelical Protestant churches that are more theologically liberal. A relatively large number of Christian Right candidates (24 percent) are Catholics; however, when asked to describe themselves as either "progressive/liberal" or "traditional/conservative" Catholics, 88 percent of these Christian Right candidates place themselves in the traditional category. |author-link=Melissa Deckman |access-date=April 10, 2014 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Joireman |author-first=Sandra F. |title=Church, State, and Citizen: Christian Approaches to Political Engagement |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-537845-0 |editor-last=Joireman |editor-first=Sandra F. |location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]] |pages=73–91 |chapter=Anabaptism and the State: An Uneasy Coexistence |lccn=2008038533 |access-date=February 26, 2022 |chapter-url=https://scholarship.richmond.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1090&context=polisci-faculty-publications |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125145905/https://scholarship.richmond.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1090&context=polisci-faculty-publications |archive-date=November 25, 2020 |url-status=live |s2cid=153268965}}</ref> [[Tim Keller (pastor)|Tim Keller]], an Evangelical theologian and [[Presbyterian Church in America]] pastor, has argued that [[Conservative Christianity]] (theology) predates the Christian Right (politics), that being a theological conservative does not necessitate being a political conservative, and that some [[Progressivism|politically progressive]] views around economics, racial diversity, helping the poor, and the [[redistribution of wealth]] are compatible with theologically conservative Christianity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr. Timothy Keller at the March 2013 Faith Angle Forum |url=https://eppc.org/publication/dr-timothy-keller-at-the-march-2013-faith-angle-forum/ |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=Ethics & Public Policy Center |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Doctrine and Race: African American Evangelicals and Fundamentalism between the Wars |url=https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/review/doctrine-and-race-african-american-evangelicals-and-fundamentalism-between-the-wars/ |access-date=2023-01-20 |website=The Gospel Coalition |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Rod Dreher]], a senior editor for ''[[The American Conservative]]'', a secular conservative magazine, argues for the same distinctions, even claiming that a "traditional Christian," a theological conservative, can be an [[Economic progressivism|economic progressive]] or even a [[Socialism|socialist]] while maintaining traditional Christian beliefs.<ref name="Dreher">{{Cite web |last=Dreher |first=Rod |date=2014-07-24 |title=What Is 'Traditional Christianity,' Anyway? |url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/what-is-traditional-christianity-anyway/ |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=The American Conservative |language=en-US}}</ref>
On the other hand, a Pew Research report published in September 2022 reported that "70% of adults who were raised Christian but are now unaffiliated are Democrats or Democratic-leaning independents, compared with 43% of those who remained Christian and 51% of U.S. adults overall. Some scholars argue that disaffiliation from Christianity is driven by an association between Christianity and political conservatism that has intensified in recent decades."<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/09/13/how-u-s-religious-composition-has-changed-in-recent-decades/ | title = How U.S. religious composition has changed in recent decades | date = 2022-09-13 | publisher = [[Pew Research Center]] | access-date = 2023-01-31}}</ref>
Another Pew Research report published in 2021 showed that between 2016 and 2020, the number of white Americans who started identifying as evangelical increased.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Gregory A. |title=More White Americans adopted than shed evangelical label during Trump presidency, especially his supporters |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2021/09/15/more-white-americans-adopted-than-shed-evangelical-label-during-trump-presidency-especially-his-supporters/ |access-date=2024-03-17 |website=Pew Research Center |date=September 15, 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref> Ryan Burge, an assistant professor of political science at Eastern Illinois University and Baptist pastor, notes that a significant amount of Americans who have begun to embrace the evangelical identity are people who self-report as "never" or "seldom" attending church. Burge also notes there is a rise in people who are embracing the identity of "evangelical" but have no attachment to Protestant Christianity, such as Catholics, Muslims, and even Orthodox Christians, Hindus and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Burge |first=Ryan |date=2021-10-26 |title=Opinion {{!}} Why 'Evangelical' Is Becoming Another Word for 'Republican' |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/26/opinion/evangelical-republican.html |access-date=2024-03-17 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
===Evolution===
{{Main|Creation–evolution controversy}}
Evangelicals often reject mainstream scientific views out of concern that those views contradict traditional "young earth" chronologies and certain verses in the Bible. [[C. I. Scofield|Scofield]]-inspired dispensationalists and other fundamentalists reject evolution in favor of [[creation science]] and [[flood geology]] (both of which contradict the [[scientific consensus]] and the well-established [[geologic time scale]]).{{Sfn|Noll|2001|pp=154, 164}} Their influence has led to high-profile court cases over whether public schools can be forced to teach either [[creationism]] or [[intelligent design]] (which is the claim that the complexity and diversity of life can only be explained by the direct intervention of God or some other active intelligence).<ref name="NCSE 2001">{{cite book| publisher=National Center for Science Education | title= Ten Major Court Cases about Evolution and Creationism | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-385-52526-8 |url=http://ncse.com/taking-action/ten-major-court-cases-evolution-creationism |access-date=March 21, 2015}}.</ref><ref name="BioScience">{{cite journal |last=Branch |first=Glenn |s2cid=86665329 |author-link=Glenn Branch |date=March 2007 |title=Understanding Creationism after ''Kitzmiller'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bioscience_2007-03_57_3/page/278 |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=278–284 |doi=10.1641/B570313 |issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free }}</ref>
However, other evangelicals have found evolution to be compatible with Christianity. For example, prominent evangelicals such as Billy Graham, B. B. Warfield, and [[John Stott]] believed the theory could be reconciled with Christian teaching.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://biologos.org/articles/famous-christians-who-believed-evolution-is-compatible-with-christian-faith/ | title = Famous Christians Who Believed Evolution is Compatible with Christian Faith | last = Kramer | first = Brad | date = August 8, 2018 | website = biologos.org | access-date = March 28, 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200106044559/https://biologos.org/articles/famous-christians-who-believed-evolution-is-compatible-with-christian-faith/ | archive-date = January 6, 2020 | url-status = live}}</ref> Careful study by the [[American Scientific Affiliation]], an organization for evangelicals who are professional scientists,{{Sfn|Noll|2001|p=163}} led it to reject "strict" creationism in favor of [[theistic evolution]], encouraging acceptance of evolution among evangelicals.{{Sfn|Numbers|2006|pp=180-181}} [[The BioLogos Foundation]] is an evangelical organization that advocates for [[evolutionary creation]], a belief that God brings about his plan through processes of evolution.<ref>{{cite news | last = Sullivan | first = Amy | title = Helping Christians Reconcile God with Science | newspaper = Time | date = May 2, 2009 | url = http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1895284,00.html | access-date = April 10, 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190906015738/http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1895284,00.html | archive-date = September 6, 2019| url-status = live}}</ref> BioLogos expresses the belief that God is the source of all life and that life expresses the will of God. BioLogos represents the view that science and faith co-exist in harmony.{{Sfn|Collins|2006|p=203}}
===Abortion===
{{Main|Christianity and abortion}}
Since 1980, a central issue motivating conservative evangelicals' political activism has been [[abortion]]. The 1973 decision in ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], which legalized abortion at a federal level, proved to be decisive in bringing Catholics and evangelicals together in a political coalition, which became known as the [[Christian Right]] when it successfully mobilized its voters behind presidential candidate [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1980.<ref name="Dudley2011">{{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Dudley | title=Broken Words: The Abuse of Science and Faith in American Politics | publisher=[[Crown Publishing Group]] | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-385-52526-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UHIWXheyNuEC |access-date=February 24, 2015}}.</ref>
===Separation of church and state===
{{Main|Separation of church and state}}
[[File:President Ronald Reagan and Jerry Falwell.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|[[Moral Majority]] founder [[Jerry Falwell]] with [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1983]]
Supreme Court decisions that outlawed organized prayer in public schools and restricted church-related schools (e.g., preventing them from [[Coit v. Green|engaging in racial discrimination while also receiving a tax exemption]]) also played a role in mobilizing the Christian Right.<ref>Heineman, Kenneth J. (1998). ''God is a Conservative: Religion, Politics and Morality in Contemporary America''. pp. 44–123. {{ISBN|978-0-8147-3554-1}}.</ref> Survey data published in 2002 indicate that "between 31 and 39% do not favor a 'Christian Nation' amendment," but that 60 to 75% of Evangelicals consider Christianity and political liberalism to be incompatible.<ref>Smith, Christian (2002). ''Christian America?: What Evangelicals Really Want''. p. 207.</ref>
A study conducted in May 2022 showed that the strongest support for declaring the United States a [[Christian nationalism#United States|Christian Nation]] comes from Republicans who identify as Evangelical or born-again Christians.<ref name="politico-sept-21-poll">{{cite web |last1=Rouse |first1=Stella |last2=Telhami |first2=Shibley |title=Most Republicans Support Declaring the United States a Christian Nation |url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/09/21/most-republicans-support-declaring-the-united-states-a-christian-nation-00057736 |website=Politico |access-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927001816/https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/09/21/most-republicans-support-declaring-the-united-states-a-christian-nation-00057736 |archive-date=September 27, 2022 |date=September 21, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="the-nation-poll-results">{{cite web |last1=Nichols |first1=John |title=Republicans Are Ready to Declare the United States a Christian Nation |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/politics/republicans-christian-nation/ |website=The Nation |access-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927014652/https://www.thenation.com/article/politics/republicans-christian-nation/ |archive-date=September 27, 2022 |date=September 23, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Of this demographic group, 78% are in favor of formally declaring the United States a Christian nation, versus 48% of Republicans overall.<ref name="politico-sept-21-poll" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Smietana |first1=Bob |title=78% of Republican evangelicals want U.S. declared a Christian nation |url=https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2022/09/23/78-republican-evangelicals-want/ |website=The Salt Lake Tribune |access-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927024609/https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2022/09/23/78-republican-evangelicals-want/ |archive-date=September 27, 2022 |date=September 23, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
===Climate change===
The [[Evangelical Climate Initiative]] is a campaign by U.S. church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate [[Climate change|global warming]]. The Evangelical Climate Initiative was launched in February 2006 by the [[National Association of Evangelicals]], who worked with the [[Harvard Medical School Center for Health and the Global Environment|Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School]] to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together for the project.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newsweek.com/2016/03/18/creation-care-evangelical-christianity-climate-change-434865.html | title=An Evangelical Movement Takes On Climate Change | first=Tik | last=Root |work=Newsweek | date=March 9, 2016 |access-date=December 23, 2022}}</ref> Young Evangelicals for Climate Action "educates and mobilizes young evangelical Christians across the country to take action to address the [[global warming|climate crisis]]."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://insideclimatenews.org/news/21112018/evangelicals-climate-change-action-creation-care-wheaton-college-millennials-yeca|title=Generation Climate: Can Young Evangelicals Change the Climate Debate?|last=Subramaniam|first=Meera|date=November 11, 2018|website=InsideClimate News|language=en-US|access-date=December 23, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/29/opinions/young-evangelicals-fight-climate-change-and-trump-meyaard-schaap/index.html | title=Young evangelicals are defying their elders' politics | first=Kyle | last=Meyaard-Schaap |work=CNN | date=September 29, 2020 |access-date=December 23, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/better-samaritan/2021/april/why-young-christians-are-pursuing-climate-action-as-urgent-.html | title=Why Young Christians Are Pursuing Climate Action as an Urgent Calling | first=Sarah | last=Holcomb | work=Christianity Today | date=April 15, 2021 |access-date=December 23, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/2022/0913/Young-Evangelicals-seek-to-save-the-Earth-and-their-church | title=Young Evangelicals seek to save the Earth – and their church | first=Erika | last=Page | work=The Christian Science Monitor | date=September 13, 2022 |access-date=December 23, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://yecaction.org/ | title=Young Evangelicals for Climate Action | work=YECA | access-date=December 23, 2022}}</ref>
=== Influence on U.S. foreign policy ===
{{Seealso|Christian Zionism}}
Evangelicals have had a significant impact on [[Foreign policy of the United States|U.S. foreign policy]]. They have worked in coalitions with other religious and secular groups to press for action on matters like ending Sudan's civil war, addressing the [[HIV/AIDS in Africa|AIDS crisis in Africa]], and combating human trafficking.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Christian Evangelicals and U.S. Foreign Policy |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/christian-evangelicals-and-us-foreign-policy |access-date=2023-07-26 |website=Council on Foreign Relations |language=en}}</ref> Evangelicals played a key role in passing the [[International Religious Freedom Act of 1998|International Religions Freedom Act]], which made freedom of religion and conscience a top objective of U.S. foreign policy. The act established an agency to monitor countries' performance on religious freedom and allowed for potential sanctions against those with poor grades.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Conceptualizing Evangelical Influence in U.S. Foreign Policy: Caught between Structural Realism and Neoliberal Institutionalism |url=https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=history_and_government_presentations}}</ref> Evangelicals were also involved in the passing of the [[North Korean Human Rights Act of 2004]], which required the appointment of a special envoy for [[human rights in North Korea]] and emphasized the importance of human rights in future negotiations with the country.<ref name=":0" /> Evangelicals also supported the Trafficking Victims Protection Act, which aimed to deter human trafficking, punish traffickers, and protect and rehabilitate victims.<ref name=":0" />
Evangelicals generally view the Middle East through a [[Dispensationalism|dispensationalist]] biblical lens and strongly support Israel. They believe that God gave the land of Israel to the Jews and that the U.S. will be blessed if it blesses Israel. However, there are variations in views among Evangelicals, with some holding more rigid stances than others. Some have supported [[Israeli settlement]]s in the occupied territories, and others disagree with certain peace initiatives that involve territorial compromises.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=2006-11-14 |title=For Evangelicals, Supporting Israel Is 'God's Foreign Policy' |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/14/washington/14israel.html |access-date=2023-07-26 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Biblical literalism]]
* [[Broad church]]
* [[Child evangelism movement]]
* [[Christianese]]
* [[Christianity in the United States]]
* [[List of evangelical Christians]]
* [[List of evangelical seminaries and theological colleges]]
{{Portal bar|Christianity|Evangelical Christianity|Religion|United States}}
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
== References ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Allis|first=Oswald T|title=Prophecy and the Church|year=1945|publisher=Presbyterian & Reformed|location=Philadelphia}}
* {{cite book|last=Allitt|first=Patrick|title=Religion in America Since 1945: A History|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-2311-2154-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Andrew|first=John A. III|title=From Revivals to Removal: Jeremiah Evarts, the Cherokee Nation, and the Search for the Soul of America|publisher=[[University of Georgia Press]]|year=1992|location=Athens, Georgia|isbn=0-8203-1427-7|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/fromrevivalstore00andr}}
* {{cite book|last=Balmer|first=Randall|title=Blessed Assurance: A History of Evangelicalism in America|url=https://archive.org/details/blessedassurance0000balm|url-access=registration|publisher=Beacon Press|year=1999|isbn=0-8070-7710-0}}
* {{cite book | first=Randall | last=Balmer | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=syUupeVJOz4C | title=Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism | place=Louisville, KY | publisher=Westminster John Knox Press | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-664-22409-7|author-mask=3}}.
* {{Citation| last=Bauder | first=Kevin | contribution=Fundamentalism | year=2011 | title=Four Views on the Spectrum of Evangelicalism | editor-last=Naselli | editor-first=Andrew | editor-last2=Hansen | editor-first2=Collin | place=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Zondervan | isbn=978-0-310-55581-0}}
* {{Citation|last=Bebbington|first=David W|title=Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s|year=1993| publisher=Routledge | location=London}}
* {{Citation|last=Carpenter|first=Joel A.|title=Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-512907-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/reviveusagain00joel}}.
* {{Citation|last=Chartier|first=Myron Raymond|title=The Social Views of Dwight L. Moody and Their Relation to the Workingman of 1860-1900. Fort Hays Studies Series. 40.|year=1969| publisher=Fort Hays State University | location=Hays, Kansas|url=https://scholars.fhsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=fort_hays_studies_series}}
* {{cite book
| last = Collins
| first = Francis S
| author-link = Francis Collins
| title = The Language of God: a Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| date=2006
| isbn = 0-7432-8639-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Dayton|first=Donald W.|title=The Variety of American Evangelicalism|publisher=[[University of Tennessee Press]]|year=2001|location=Knoxville}}
* {{cite book | last = Dorrien | first = Gary J. | author-link = Gary Dorrien | title = The Remaking of Evangelical Theology | publisher = Westminster John Knox Press | year = 1998 | url = https://archive.org/details/remakingofevange0000dorr | url-access = registration | isbn = 978-0-664-25803-0 }}
* {{Citation| last1=Ellingsen | first1=Mark | contribution=Lutheranism | year=1991 | title=The Variety of American Evangelicalism | editor-last=Dayton | editor-first=Donald W. | editor-last2=Johnston | editor-first2=Robert K. | place=Knoxville, TN | publisher=The University of Tennessee Press | isbn=1-57233-158-5}}
* {{cite book|last1=Emerson|first1=Michael O.|last2=Smith|first2=Christian|title=Divided by Faith: Evangelical Religion and the Problem of Race in America|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2001|location=New York|isbn=0-1951-4707-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Finkelstein|first=Israel|title=The Forgotten Kingdom: The Archaeology and History of Northern Israel (Ancient Near East Monographs)|publisher=[[Society of Biblical Literature]]|year=2013|location=Atlanta|isbn=978-1-5898-3912-0}}
* {{cite book | last = FitzGerald | first = Frances | author-link = Frances FitzGerald (journalist) | title = The Evangelicals: The Struggle to Shape America | publisher = Simon and Schuster | date = 2017 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WxmLDgAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-1-4391-3133-6 }}
* {{cite book|last=Gloege|first=Timothy E.W.|title=Guaranteed Pure: The Moody Bible Institute, Business, and the Making of Modern Evangelicalism|publisher=The [[University of North Carolina Press]]|year=2015|location=Chapel Hill|isbn=978-1-4696-3343-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Grem|first=Darren E|title=The Blessings of Business: How Corporations Shaped Conservative Christianity|year=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Hannah-Jones|first=Nikole|title=The 1619 Project: A New Origin Story|publisher=[[Random House]]|year=2021|location=New York|isbn=978-0-5932-3057-2}}
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* {{cite book|last=Hiett|first=Peter|title=Eternity Now! Encountering the Jesus of Revelation|publisher=Thomas Nelson|year=2003|location=Nashville}}
* {{cite book|last=Hummel|first=Daniel G.|title=The Rise and Fall of Dispensationalism: How the Evangelical Battle over the End Times Shaped a Nation|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2023|location=Grand Rapids, MI|isbn=978-0-802-87922-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Paul E.|title=A Shopkeeper's Millennium: Society and Revivals in Rochester, New York, 1815-1837|publisher=[[Hill and Wang]]|year=2004|location=New York|isbn=0-8090-1635-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Walter|title=River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom|publisher=[[The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press]]|year=2013|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0-674-04555-2}}
* {{cite book | last = Kidd | first = Thomas S. | author-link = Thomas S. Kidd | title = The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America | publisher = Yale University Press | format = [[Amazon Kindle]] | date = 2007 | location = New Haven, Connecticut | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xPCrZa70--AC | isbn = 978-0-300-11887-2 }}
* {{cite book|last=Lantzer|first=Jason S.|year=2012|title=Mainline Christianity: The Past and Future of America's Majority Faith|location=New York|publisher=NYU Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKpoL6Q7LvcC|isbn=978-0-8147-5330-9}}
* {{Citation|last=Longfield |first=Bradley J. | title=Presbyterians and American Culture: A History |year=2013 | publisher=Westminster John Knox Press | location=Louisville, Kentucky}}
* {{Citation| first=Richard F | last=Lovelace |author-link=Richard F. Lovelace |title=The American Pietism of Cotton Mather: Origins of American Evangelicalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IuIuHwAACAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Wipf & Stock| isbn=978-1-55635-392-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Marsden | first=George M. | author-link=George Marsden | title=Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism | year=1991 |publisher=W.B. Eerdmans | location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=0-8028-0539-6 }}
* {{cite book|last=Marsden|first=George M.|title=Fundamentalism and American Culture|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York}}
* {{Citation | last=Martin | first=William | title=With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America | year=1996 | publisher=[[Broadway Books]] | location=New York | isbn=0-7679-2257-3 | url=https://archive.org/details/withgodonourside00will }}
* {{cite book|last=Mathews|first=Mary Beth Swetnam|title=Doctrine and Race: African American Evangelicals and Fundamentalism between the Wars|publisher=The [[University of Alabama Press]]|year=2017|location=Tuscaloosa|isbn=978-0-8173-5918-8}}
*{{cite book|last=McLoughlin|first=William G.|author-link=William G. McLoughlin|year=1980|title=Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform: An Essay on Religion and Social Change in America, 1607-1977|location=Chicago|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]}}
* {{Citation|last=Miller|first=Christopher L.|title=Prophetic Worlds: Indians and Whites on the Columbia Plateau|year=2003| publisher=University of Washington Press | location=Seattle}}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Steven P. |year=2014 |title=The Age of Evangelicalism: America's Born-Again Years |chapter=Left, Right, Born Again |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cWLwAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199777952.003.0003 |pages=32–59 |isbn=978-0-19-977795-2 |lccn=2013037929 |oclc=881502753}}
* {{cite journal|last=Miller-Davenport|first=Sarah|title='Their blood shall not be shed in vain': American Evangelical Missionaries and the Search for God and Country in Post–World War II Asia|year=2013|journal=Journal of American History|volume=99|issue=4|pages=1109–32|jstor=44307506|doi=10.1093/jahist/jas648}}
* {{Citation| last=Mohler | first=Albert | contribution=Confessional Evangelicalism | year=2011 | title=Four Views on the Spectrum of Evangelicalism | editor-last=Naselli | editor-first=Andrew | editor-last2=Hansen | editor-first2=Collin | place=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Zondervan | isbn=978-0-310-55581-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Noll|first=Mark A.|author-link=Mark A. Noll|year=1987|title=Between Faith and Criticism: Evangelicals, Scholarship and the Bible in America|publisher=HarperCollins}}
* {{cite book | last = Noll | first = Mark A. | author-link = Mark A. Noll | title = American Evangelical Christianity: An Introduction | publisher = Blackwell Publishers | year = 2001 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tE3uAAAAMAAJ | isbn = 978-0-631-21999-6 }}
* {{cite book | last = Noll | first = Mark A. | author-link = Mark A. Noll | title = America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2002 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LanKhFle9BUC | isbn = 0-19-803441-5 | author-mask=3}}
* {{cite book|first=Mark A. | last=Noll |author-link=Mark Noll | title=The Rise of Evangelicalism: The Age of Edwards, Whitefield and the Wesleys |publisher=InterVarsity Press| series = A History of Evangelicalism | volume = 1 |year=2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=524uDwAAQBAJ|isbn=1-84474-001-3|author-mask=3}}
*{{cite book|last=Noll|first=Mark A.|author-link=Mark Noll|year=2006|title=The Civil War As a Theological Crisis|publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]]}}
* {{cite book
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| title = [[The Creationists]]: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design, Expanded Edition
| publisher = Harvard University Press
|date=November 30, 2006
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* {{cite book|last=Olson|first=David T.|title=The American Church in Crisis|publisher=[[Zondervan]]|year=2008|location=Grand Rapids}}
* {{Citation| last=Olson | first=Roger | contribution=Postconservative Evangelicalism | year=2011 | title=Four Views on the Spectrum of Evangelicalism | editor-last=Naselli | editor-first=Andrew | editor-last2=Hansen | editor-first2=Collin | place=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Zondervan | isbn=978-0-310-55581-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Pietsch|first=B. M.|title=Dispensational Modernism|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2015|location=New York|isbn=978-0-1902-4408-8}}
* {{Cite book|title=Evangelicals and the Continental Divide: The Conservative Protestant Subculture in Canada and the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/evangelicalscont0000reim |url-access=registration |last=Reimer |first=Sam |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |year=2003}}
* {{cite book|last1=Römer|first1=Thomas|last2=Geuss|first2=Raymond|title=The Invention of God|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2015|location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]|isbn=978-0-6745-0497-4}}
* {{Citation|last=Sandeen|first=Ernest R|title=The Roots of Fundamentalism: British and American Millenarianism, 1800–1930|year=1970| publisher=University of Chicago Press | location=Chicago}}
* {{Citation| first=Douglas H | last=Shantz| title=An Introduction to German Pietism: Protestant Renewal at the Dawn of Modern Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40wB2kGLm28C&pg=PA279|year=2013 | publisher=JHU| isbn=978-1-4214-0830-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Sivertsen|first=Barbara J.|title=The Parting of the Sea: How Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and Plagues Shaped the Story of Exodus|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=2009|location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-691-13770-4}}
* {{Cite book|last=Stanley |first=Brian |title=The Global Diffusion of Evangelicalism: The Age of Billy Graham and John Stott |publisher=IVP Academic |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8308-2585-1}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Steensland | first1 = Brian | last2 = Park | first2 = Jerry Z. | last3 = Regnerus | first3 = Mark D. | last4 = Robinson | first4 = Lynn D. | last5 = Wilcox | first5 = W. Bradford | last6 = Woodberry | first6 = Robert D. | title = The Measure of American Religion: Toward Improving the State of the Art | journal = Social Forces | volume = 79 | issue = 1 | pages = 291–318 | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = September 2000 | jstor = 2675572 | doi = 10.2307/2675572 | doi-access = free }}
* Sutton, Matthew Avery. ''American Apocalypse: A History of Modern Evangelicalism'' (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2014). 480 pp. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=44771 online review]
* {{Cite book|title=Moral Minority: The Evangelical Left in an Age of Conservatism|first=David R.|last=Swartz|year=2012|isbn=978-0-8122-2306-4|location=Philadelphia|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press}}
* {{cite book | last = Sweeney | first = Douglas A. | title = The American Evangelical Story: A History of the Movement | publisher = Baker Academic | date = 2005 | url = https://archive.org/details/americanevangeli0000swee | url-access = registration | isbn = 978-1-58558-382-9 }}
* {{Cite book|title=The Post-Evangelical |last=Tomlinson |first=Dave |year=2007 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0-310-25385-3}}
* {{Citation| last=Trueman | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Trueman|title=The Real Scandal of the Evangelical Mind|year=2011 | publisher=[[Moody Publishers]]}}
* {{cite book|last=Vickers|first=Jason E.|title=The Cambridge Companion to American Methodism|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_dGaAAAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1-107-43392-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Winn|first=Christian T. Collins|title=From the Margins: A Celebration of the Theological Work of Donald W. Dayton|publisher=[[Wipf and Stock]]|year=2007|location=Eugene, Oregon|isbn=978-1-4982-4917-1}}
* {{cite book | last = Wolffe | first = John | title = The Expansion of Evangelicalism: The Age of Wilberforce, More, Chalmers and Finney | publisher = InterVarsity Press | series = A History of Evangelicalism | volume = 2 | date = 2007 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7sUiYMEyVtsC | isbn = 978-0-8308-2582-0 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Woodberry | first1 = Robert D. | last2 = Smith | first2 = Christian S. | title = Fundamentalism et al: Conservative Protestants in America | journal = Annual Review of Sociology | volume = 24 | pages = 25–56 | publisher = Annual Reviews | date = 1998 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.25 | jstor = 223473 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Worthen |first=Molly | author-link = Molly Worthen |title=Apostles of Reason: The Crisis of Authority in American Evangelicalism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ufHQCwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-19-989646-2 }}
* {{cite book | last = Youngs | first = J. William T. | title = The Congregationalists | publisher = [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger]] | series = Denominations in America | volume = 4 | edition = Student | date = 1998 | location = Westport, Connecticut | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kOuBhis1-7QC | isbn = 978-0-275-96441-2 }}
{{refend}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Citation|title=American Evangelicalism and Islam: From the Antichrist to the Mahdi|url=http://en.qantara.de/content/american-evangelicalism-and-islam-from-the-antichrist-to-the-mahdi|place=Germany|publisher=Qantara}}.
* {{Citation|last=Balmer|first=Randall Herbert|title=The Making of Evangelicalism: From Revivalism to Politics and Beyond|year=2010|publisher=Baylor University Press |isbn=978-1-60258-243-9}}.
* {{Citation|last=Beale|first=David O|title=In Pursuit of Purity: American Fundamentalism Since 1850|year=1986|place=Greenville, SC: Bob Jones University|publisher=Unusual|isbn=0-89084-350-3}}.
* {{cite book|last=Borg|first=Marcus J.|title=The Heart of Christianity: Rediscovering a Life of Faith|publisher=[[HarperOne]]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-060-52676-4}}
* {{Citation|last=Carpenter|first=Joel A.|title=Fundamentalist Institutions and the Rise of Evangelical Protestantism, 1929–1942|year=1980|journal=Church History|volume=49|issue=1|pages=62–75|doi=10.2307/3164640|jstor=3164640|s2cid=145632415 }}.
* Carter, Heath W. and Laura Rominger Porter, eds. ''Turning Points in the History of American Evangelicalism'' (Eerdmans, 2017). xviii, 297 pp
* Chapman, Mark B., "American Evangelical Attitudes Toward Catholicism: Post-World War II to Vatican II," ''U.S. Catholic Historian'', 33#1 (Winter 2015), 25–54.
* Compton, John W. 2020. ''The End of Empathy: Why White Protestants Stopped Loving Their Neighbors''. Oxford University Press.
* {{Cite book |last=Georgianna |first=Sharon Linzey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uP4QAQAAIAAJ |title=The Moral Majority and Fundamentalism: Plausibility and Dissonance |date=1989 |publisher=E. Mellen Press |isbn=978-0-88946-851-1 |language=en}}
* Grainger, Brett. ''Church in the Wild: Evangelicals in Antebellum America'' (Harvard UP, 2019) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=54193 online review]
*Griffith, R. M. (2017). ''Moral combat: how sex divided American Christians and fractured American politics''. New York: Basic Books, {{ISBN|9780465094769}}. History of sexual politics in the United States, 1920–2017, and how it has influenced the formation of political identities in American Christian denominations.
* {{Citation|last=Knox|first=Ronald|title=Enthusiasm: a Chapter in the History of Religion, with Special Reference to the XVII and XVIII Centuries|year=1950|page=viii|place=Oxford, Eng|publisher=Oxford University Press}}, 622 pp.
* {{cite book |last1=Loveland |first1=Anne C. |title=Southern Evangelicals and the Social Order, 1800-1860 |date=1981 |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |location=Baton Rouge, LA |isbn=9780807107836}}
* Luhrmann, Tanya (2012) ''When God Talks Back-Understanding the American Evangelical Relationship with God'', Knopf
* {{Citation|last=Maas|first=David|title=The Life & Times of D. L. Moody|year=1990|journal=Christian History|issue=25|url=https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/life-and-times-of-moody}}.
* {{Citation|last=Marsden|first=George M|title=Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller Seminary and the New Evangelicalism|year=1987|location=Grand Rapids|publisher=William B. Eerdmans}}.
* {{cite book|author=Menikoff, Aaron|title=Politics and Piety: Baptist Social Reform in America, 1770–1860|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2oANBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9|year=2014|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|isbn=978-1-63087-282-3}}
* Naselli, A. D., and Collin Hansen, eds (2011), ''Four Views on the Spectrum of Evangelicalism'', Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. {{ISBN|9780310293163}}.
* {{Citation|last=Noll|first=Mark A|title=A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada|year=1992|author-link=Mark Noll|pages=311–89|place=Grand Rapids|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=0-8028-0651-1}}.
* {{Citation|title=Evangelicalism: Comparative Studies of Popular Protestantism in North America, the British Isles and Beyond, 1700–1990|year=1994|editor1-last=Noll|editor2-last=Bebbington|editor3-last=Rawlyk|editor1-first=Mark A|editor2-first=David W|editor3-first=George A|editor1-link=Mark Noll}}.
* {{Citation|last=Pierard|first=Richard V.|title=The Quest For the Historical Evangelicalism: A Bibliographical Excursus|year=1979|journal=[[Fides et Historia]]|volume=11|issue=2|pages=60–72}}.
* {{Citation|last=Price|first=Robert M.|title=Neo-Evangelicals and Scripture: A Forgotten Period of Ferment|year=1986|journal=Christian Scholars Review|volume=15|issue=4|pages=315–30}}.
* {{Citation|title=Amazing Grace: Evangelicalism in Australia, Britain, Canada, and the United States|year=1993|editor1-last=Rawlyk|editor2-last=Noll|editor1-first=George A|editor2-first=Mark A}}.
* {{Citation|last=Schafer|first=Axel R|title=Countercultural Conservatives: American Evangelicalism From the Postwar Revival to the New Christian Right|year=2011|publisher=U. of Wisconsin Press}}, 225 pp; covers evangelical politics from the 1940s to the 1990s that examines how a diverse, politically pluralistic movement became, largely, the Christian Right.
* {{Citation|last=Smith|first=Timothy L|title=Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War|year=1957}}
* {{Citation|last=Spencer|first=Michael|title=The Coming Evangelical Collapse|date=March 10, 2009|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2009/0310/p09s01-coop.html|newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor}}.
* Sutton, Matthew Avery. ''American Apocalypse: A history of modern evangelicalism'' (2014)
* {{cite book|last=Turchin|first=Peter|title=End Times: Elites, Counter-Elites, and the Path of Political Disintegration|publisher=[[Penguin Press]]|year=2023|location=New York|isbn=978-0-593-49050-1}}
* {{Citation|last=Utzinger|first=J. Michael|title=Yet Saints Their Watch Are Keeping: Fundamentalists, Modernists, and the Development of Evangelical Ecclesiology, 1887–1937|year=2006|place=Macon|publisher=Mercer University Press|isbn=0-86554-902-8}}.
* {{Citation|last=Ward|first=WR|title=Early Evangelicalism: A Global Intellectual History|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}.
* {{Citation|title=Methodism and the Shaping of American Culture|year=2001|type=essays by scholars|editor1-last=Wigger|editor2-last=Hatch|editor1-first=John H|editor2-first=Nathan O}}.
* Williams, Daniel K. ''The Election of the Evangelical: Jimmy Carter, Gerald Ford, and the Presidential Contest of 1976'' (University Press of Kansas, 2020) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55955 online review]
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/evangelical.asp | title = Evangelical Protestant Denominations | year = 2010 | publisher = Association of Religion Data Archives}} A list of 146 evangelical Protestant denominations in the US.
* {{Citation|title=Institute for the Study of American Evangelicalism|url=https://www.wheaton.edu/academics/academic-centers/isae/}}.
* {{Citation|title=Operation World|url=http://www.operationworld.org/}} – Statistics from around the world including numbers of Evangelicals by country.
{{Evangelical Protestantism in the United States}}
{{Christianity footer}}
{{United States topics}}
[[Category:Evangelicalism in the United States| ]]