View source for First Epistle of Peter

{{Short description|Book of the New Testament}}
{{redirect|1 Pet.|the first volume of ''Peters's Reports''|List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 26}}
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{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Peter}}
The '''First Epistle of Peter'''{{Efn|The book is sometimes called the '''First Letter of Peter''', or simply '''1 Peter'''.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HiPouAEACAAJ |title=ESV Pew Bible |publisher= Crossway |year= 2018 |isbn=978-1-4335-6343-0 |location= Wheaton, IL |page = 1014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210603093159/https://www.google.com/books/edition/ESV_Pew_Bible_Black/HiPouAEACAAJ |archive-date=June 3, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> It is most commonly abbreviated as "1 Pet."<ref>{{Cite web |title= Bible Book Abbreviations |url= https://www.logos.com/bible-book-abbreviations |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220421100743/https://www.logos.com/bible-book-abbreviations |archive-date= April 21, 2022 |access-date=April 21, 2022 |website= Logos Bible Software}}</ref>}} is a book of the [[New Testament]]. The author presents himself as [[Peter the Apostle]]. The ending of the letter includes a statement that implies that it was written from “[[Babylon]]”, which may be a reference to [[Rome]]. The letter is addressed to the "[[First Epistle of Peter#Audience |chosen pilgrims of the diaspora]]" in [[Early Christianity#Anatolia|Asia Minor]] suffering religious persecution.
[[File:Papyrus Bodmer VIII.jpg|thumb|[[Papyrus 72]]; the left page shows the end of 1 Peter.]]
== Authorship ==
{{Main|Authorship of the Petrine epistles}}
The authorship of 1 Peter has traditionally been attributed to the Apostle Peter because it bears his name and identifies him as its author (1:1).  Although the text identifies Peter as its author, the language, dating, style, and structure of this letter have led most scholars to conclude that it is pseudonymous.<ref name="moyise">{{cite book|first=Steve|last=Moyise|title=The Old Testament in the New|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCSOK_Q4D1sC&pg=PA116|date=9 December 2004|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-08199-5|page=116}}</ref><ref name="Harris1992">{{cite book|author=Stephen L. Harris|title=Understanding the Bible|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a64SAQAAIAAJ|year=1992|publisher=Mayfield|isbn=978-1-55934-083-0|page=388|quote=Most scholars believe that 1 Peter is pseudonymous (written anonymously in the name of a well-known figure) and was produced during postapostolic times.}}</ref><ref name="Martin 2009">[[Dale Martin (scholar)|Dale Martin]] 2009 (lecture). {{YouTube|XJ9Gt_R5a-k|"24. Apocalyptic and Accommodation"}}. [[Yale University]]. Accessed 22 July 2013. [http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/apocalyptic-and-accommodation-6817/ Lecture 24 (transcript)]</ref> Many scholars argue that Peter was not the author of the letter because its writer appears to have had a formal education in [[rhetoric]] and [[philosophy]], and an advanced knowledge of the Greek language,<ref name= "ReferenceA">Achtemeier, Paul. ''Peter 1 Hermeneia''. Fortress Press. 1996</ref> none of which would be usual for a [[Galilee|Galilean]] fisherman.
New Testament scholar [[Graham Stanton]] rejects Petrine authorship because 1 Peter was most likely written during the reign of [[Domitian]] in AD 81, which is when he believes widespread Christian persecution began, which is long after the death of Peter.{{Sfn | Stanton | 2003}}{{Page needed |date=April 2022}} More recent scholars such as Travis Williams say that the persecution described does not appear to be describing official Roman persecutions after Peter's death, thus not directly ruling out an early date for the composition of the epistle.{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 |pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA28  28–]}}
Another dating issue is the reference to "Babylon" in chapter 5 verse 13, generally agreed to be a claim the letter was written from Rome. It is believed that the identification of Rome with Babylon, the ancient enemy of the Jews, only came after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE) |destruction of the Temple in AD 70]].<ref name= "forged" /> Other scholars doubt Petrine authorship because they are convinced that 1 Peter is dependent on the [[Pauline epistles]] and thus was written after [[Paul the Apostle]]'s ministry because it shares many of the same motifs espoused in [[Ephesians]], [[Colossians]], and the [[Pastoral Epistles]].<ref name="Bartlett, David 1998">Bartlett, David, ''New Interpreter's Bible Commentary'', 1 Peter. Abingdon Press. 1998</ref>
Others argue that it makes little sense to ascribe the work to Peter when it could have been ascribed to Paul.{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 | pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA28  28–]}} Alternatively, one theory supporting legitimate Petrine authorship of 1 Peter is the "secretarial hypothesis", which suggests that 1 Peter was dictated by Peter and was written in Greek by his secretary, [[Silas |Silvanus]] (5:12). John Elliot disagrees, suggesting that the notion of Silvanus as secretary or author or drafter of 1 Peter introduces more problems than it solves, and claims that the Greek rendition of 5:12 suggests that Silvanus was not the secretary, but the courier/bearer of 1 Peter.<ref>Elliot, John. ''1 Peter'': Anchor Bible Commentary. Yale University Press. 2001.</ref> Like English translations generally, the more recent NRSV (2021) translation of this verse from the Greek does not exclude understanding Silvanus as secretary: "Through Silvanus, whom I consider a faithful brother, I have written this short letter to encourage you and to testify that this is the true grace of God. Stand fast in it." Some see Mark as a contributive [[amanuensis]] in the composition and writing of the work.{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 | pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA25  25–]}}<ref name= "Moon2009">{{cite book| first = Jongyoon | last = Moon |title= Mark As Contributive Amanuensis of 1 Peter?|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WPtf9DCl1S4C|year=2009 |publisher= LIT | place = Münster |isbn= 978-3-643-10428-1}}</ref>
On the one hand, some scholars such as [[Bart D. Ehrman]] are convinced that the language, dating, literary style, and structure of this text makes it implausible to conclude that 1 Peter was written by Peter.<ref name= "forged">{{cite book |last1= Ehrman |first1=Bart D. |author-link1=Bart D. Ehrman |title= Forged |url= https://archive.org/details/forgedwritinginn00ehrm |url-access=registration |year= 2011 |publisher=HarperOne, [[HarperCollins]] |isbn= 978-0-06-201262-3|pages= [https://archive.org/details/forgedwritinginn00ehrm/page/65 65–77]}}</ref>  According to these scholars, it is more likely that 1 Peter is a pseudonymous letter, written later by an unknown Christian in his name.
On the other hand, some scholars argue that there is enough evidence to conclude that Peter did, in fact, write 1 Peter.  For instance, there are similarities between 1 Peter and Peter's speeches in the Biblical [[Acts of the Apostles|book of Acts]],<ref>Daniel Keating, ''First and Second Peter Jude'' (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2011) 18. Norman Hillyer, ''1 and 2 Peter, Jude'', New International Biblical Commentary (Peabody, MA: Henrickson, 1992), 1–3. [[Karen H. Jobes]], ''1 Peter'' (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), 14–19.</ref> allusions to several historical sayings of Jesus indicative of eyewitness testimony (e.g., compare Luke 12:35 with 1 Peter 1:13, Matthew 5:16 with 1 Peter 2:12, and Matthew 5:10 with 1 Peter 3:14),<ref>{{cite book |last1= Lane |first1=Dennis |last2= Schreiner |first2=Thomas |title= ESV Study Bible |date=2016 |publisher= Crossway |location= Wheaton, IL |page=2401 |chapter= Introduction to 1 Peter}}</ref> and early attestation of Peter's authorship found in [[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]] (AD 60–160)<ref>Bauckham, RJ (1983), ''Word Bible Commentary'', Vol. 50, Jude – 2 Peter, Waco</ref> and the [[Epistles of Clement|letters of Clement]] (AD 70–140),{{Sfn | Williams | 2012 | pp = [https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C&pg=PA28  28–]}} all supporting genuine Petrine origin. Ultimately, the authorship of 1 Peter remains contested.
<!-- A Yale professor stating that the majority of scholars reject the Petrine authorship is a valid source for the statement that the majority of scholars reject the Petrine authorship. EVERY OTHER REPUTABLE ACADEMIC SOURCE says the same thing. DO NOT ALTER THIS SENTENCE TO SAY SOMETHING DIFFERENT TO WHAT THE SOURCE SAYS AGAIN. -->
==Oldest surviving manuscripts==
The original manuscript of this letter is lost, as are several centuries of copies. The [[Textual variants in the First Epistle of Peter|text of the surviving manuscripts varies]]. The oldest surviving manuscripts that contain some or all of this book include:
;In Greek
*[[Papyrus 72]] (3rd/4th century)
*[[Papyrus 125]] (3rd/4th century)
*[[Papyrus 81]] (4th century)
*[[Codex Vaticanus]] (325–350)
*[[Codex Sinaiticus]] (330–360)
*[[Codex Alexandrinus]] (400–440)
*[[Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus]] (ca. 450)
*[[Papyrus 74]] (7th century)
;In Latin
*[[León palimpsest]] (7th century)<ref name = Metzger>Bruce M. Metzger, ''The Early Versions of the New Testament'', Oxford University Press, 1977, p. 316.</ref>
==Audience==
1 Peter is addressed to the "elect resident aliens" scattered throughout [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], [[Galatia]], [[Cappadocia]], Asia, and [[Bithynia]]. The five areas listed in 1:1 as the geographical location of the first readers were [[Roman province]]s in Asia Minor. The order in which the provinces are listed may reflect the route to be taken by the messenger who delivered the circular letter. The recipients of this letter are referred to in 1:1 as "exiles of the Dispersion". In 1:17, they are urged to "live in reverent fear during the time of your exile".{{Sfn | Stanton | 2003}}{{Page needed |date=April 2022}}  The social makeup of the addressees of 1 Peter is debatable because some scholars interpret "strangers" (1:1) as Christians longing for their home in heaven, some interpret it as literal "strangers", or as an Old Testament adaptation applied to Christian believers.{{Sfn | Stanton | 2003}}{{Page needed |date=April 2022}}
While the new Christians have encountered oppression and hostility from locals, Peter advises them to maintain loyalty both to their religion and the Roman Empire (1 Peter 2:17).<ref>W. R. F. Browning.   10 May 2012.  "[http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t94.e1457  Peter, first letter of]", ''A Dictionary of the Bible''.  Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  University of Chicago.</ref>
The author counsels (1) to steadfastness and perseverance under persecution (1–2:10); (2) to the practical duties of a holy life (2:11–3:13); (3) he adduces the example of Christ and other motives to patience and holiness (3:14–4:19); and (4) concludes with counsels to pastors and people (chap. 5).
==Outline==
[[David L. Bartlett|David Bartlett]] uses the following outline to structure the literary divisions of 1 Peter:<ref name="Bartlett, David 1998"/>
[[File:Dolní_Jelení,_kříž_na_návsi,_nápis.jpg|thumb|Gravestone in the [[Czech Republic]] quoting 1 Peter 2:21 — "To this you were called, because Christ suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps."]]
* Greeting (1:1–2)
* Praise to God (1:3–12)
* God's Holy People (1:13–2:10)
* Life in Exile (2:11–4:11)
* Steadfast in Faith (4:12–5:11)
* Final Greeting (5:12–14)
==Context==
The Petrine author writes of his addressees undergoing "various trials" (1 Peter 1:6), being "tested by fire" (which isn't a physical reference but a metaphor for a spiritual warfare; 1:7), maligned "as evildoers" (2:12) and suffering "for doing good" (3:17). Based on such internal evidence, biblical scholar John Elliott summarizes the addressees' situation as one marked by undeserved suffering.{{Sfn | Elliott | 2000}}{{Page needed |date= April 2022}} Verse [[1 Peter 3:19|3:19]], "[[Spirits in prison]]", is a continuing theme in Christianity, and one considered by most theologians to be enigmatic and difficult to interpret.<ref>{{Citation | work = Christian Monthly Standard | url = http://www.christianmonthlystandard.com/index.php/preached-to-the-spirits-in-prison-1-peter-318-20/ | title = Preached to the spirits in prison: I Peter iii:18–20}}.</ref>
A number of verses in the epistle contain possible clues about the reasons Christians experienced opposition. Exhortations to live blameless lives (2:15; 3:9, 13, 16) may suggest that the Christian addressees were accused of immoral behavior, and exhortations to civil obedience (2:13–17) perhaps imply that they were accused of disloyalty to governing powers.<ref name= "ReferenceA"/>
However, scholars differ on the nature of persecution inflicted on the addressees of 1 Peter. Some read the epistle to be describing persecution in the form of social [[discrimination]], while some read them to be official persecution.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Mason|first1=Eric F.|last2= Martin|first2=Troy W.|title= Reading 1–2 Peter and Jude : A Resource for Students|date=2014|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|location= Atlanta, GA |isbn= 978-1-58983737-9 |pages=16–17}}</ref>
[[File:Authentic_Leaf_of_a_Geneva_Bible_1578_-_Translation_of_the_Bible_used_by_many_Protestant_Reformers.jpg|thumb|English translation of 1 Peter from the 1578 [[Geneva Bible]].]]
===Social discrimination of Christians===
Some scholars believe that the sufferings the epistle's addressees were experiencing were social in nature, specifically in the form of verbal derision.{{Sfn | Elliott | 2000}}{{Page needed |date=April 2022}} Internal evidence for this includes the use of words like "malign" (2:12; 3:16), and "reviled" (4:14). Biblical scholar John Elliott notes that the author explicitly urges the addressees to respect authority (2:13) and even honor the emperor (2:17), strongly suggesting that they were unlikely to be suffering from official Roman persecution.  It is significant to him that the author notes that "your brothers and sisters in all the world are undergoing the same kinds of suffering" (5:9), indicating suffering that is worldwide in scope. Elliott sees this as grounds to reject the idea that the epistle refers to official persecution, because the first worldwide [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecution of Christians]] officially meted by Rome did not occur until the persecution initiated by [[Decius]] in AD 250.
===Official persecution of Christians===
On the other hand, scholars who support the official persecution theory take the exhortation to defend one's faith (3:15) as a reference to official court proceedings.<ref name= "ReferenceA" /> They believe that these persecutions involved court trials before Roman authorities, and even executions.{{Citation needed |date=October 2016}}
One common supposition is that 1 Peter was written during the reign of [[Domitian]] (AD 81–96). Domitian's aggressive claim to divinity would have been rejected and resisted by Christians. Biblical scholar Paul Achtemeier believes that persecution of Christians by Domitian would have been in character, but points out that there is no evidence of official policy targeted specifically at Christians. If Christians were persecuted, it is likely to have been part of Domitian's larger policy suppressing all opposition to his self-proclaimed divinity.<ref name= "ReferenceA"/> There are other scholars who explicitly dispute the idea of contextualizing 1 Peter within Domitian's reign. Duane Warden believes that Domitian's unpopularity even among Romans renders it highly unlikely that his actions would have great influence in the provinces, especially those under the direct supervision of the senate such as Asia (one of the provinces 1 Peter is addressed to).<ref>Warden, Duane. "Imperial Persecution and the Dating of 1 Peter and Revelation". ''Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society'' 34:2. 1991</ref>
Also often advanced as a possible context for 1 Peter is the trials and executions of Christians in the Roman province of Bithynia-Pontus under [[Pliny the Younger]]. Scholars who support this theory believe that a famous [[Pliny the Younger on Christians |letter]] from Pliny to Emperor [[Trajan]] concerning the delation of Christians reflects the situation faced by the addressees of this epistle.<ref name= "ReferenceB">Knox, John. "Pliny and I Peter: A Note on I Peter 4:14–16 and 3:15". ''Journal of Biblical Literature'' 72:3. 1953</ref><ref>Downing, F Gerald. "Pliny's Prosecutions of Christians: Revelation and 1 Peter".  ''Journal for the Study of the New Testament'' '''34'''. 1988</ref> In Pliny's letter, written in AD 112, he asks Trajan if the accused Christians brought before him should be punished based on the name 'Christian' alone, or for crimes associated with the name. For biblical scholar John Knox, the use of the word "name" in 4:14–16 is the "crucial point of contact" with that in Pliny's letter.<ref name= "ReferenceB" />  In addition, many scholars in support of this theory believe that there is content within 1 Peter that directly mirrors the situation as portrayed in Pliny's letter. For instance, they interpret the exhortation to defend one's faith "with gentleness and reverence" in 3:15–16 as a response to Pliny executing Christians for the obstinate manner in which they professed to be Christians. Generally, this theory is rejected mainly by scholars who read the suffering in 1 Peter to be caused by social, rather than official, discrimination.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ferguson |first=Everett |title=Persecution in the Early Church: Did You Know? |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue-27/persecution-in-early-church-did-you-know.html |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=Christian History {{!}} Learn the History of Christianity & the Church |language=en}}</ref>
==The Harrowing of Hell==
{{Main|Harrowing of Hell}}
The author refers to Jesus, after his death, proclaiming to spirits in prison (3:18–20). This passage, and a few others (such as Matthew 27:52 and Luke 23:43), are the basis of the traditional Christian belief in the descent of Christ into hell, or the [[harrowing of hell]].<ref name="ODCC Descent">Cross, F. L. 2005, ed. "Descent of Christ into Hell."  ''The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Though interpretations vary, some theologians{{Who|date=June 2012}} see this passage as referring to Jesus, after his death, going to a place (neither heaven nor hell in the ultimate sense) where the souls of pre-Christian people waited for the Gospel. The first creeds to mention the harrowing of hell were Arian formularies of [[Fourth Council of Sirmium|Sirmium]] (359), Nike (360), and [[Council of Constantinople (360)|Constantinople]] (360). It spread through the west and later appeared in the [[Apostles' Creed]].<ref name="ODCC Descent"/>
==Submissiveness of women==
1 Peter 3:1 instructs women to submit to their husbands, "so that, even if some of them do not obey the Word, they may be won over without a word by their wives' conduct, when they see the purity and reverence of your lives."<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Peter|3:1–2}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Second Epistle of Peter]]
* [[Textual variants in the New Testament#First Epistle of Peter |Textual variants in the First Epistle of Peter]]
* [[Spirits in prison]], [[Spirits in prison|3:19]].
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
{{reflist |32em}}
== Bibliography ==
* {{Citation | last = Elliott | first = John | title = 1 Peter: a new translation with introduction and commentary | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 2000}}.
* {{Citation | last = Stanton | first = Graham | title = Eerdmans Commentary of the Bible | publisher = Wm.B. Eerdmans | year = 2003}}.
* {{Citation | first = Travis B. | last = Williams |title= Persecution in 1 Peter: Differentiating and Contextualizing Early Christian Suffering |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=fmJDV7Ke9b0C |access-date= 1 April 2013 |date=1 November 2012 |publisher= Brill |isbn= 978-90-04-24189-3}}.
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|auto=1|d=y}}
===Online translations of the First Epistle of Peter===
* [http://net.bible.org/bible.php?book=1Pe&chapter=1#n1 NET Bible] 1 Peter Bible Text, Study notes, [https://web.archive.org/web/20071007130035/http://net.bible.org/bible.php?book=1Pe&chapter=1&tab=grkheb Greek], with [https://web.archive.org/web/20071010050611/http://media.bible.org/mp3/netaudio/21-1Peter-01.mp3 audio link]
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/1peter.html Early Christian writings:] 1 Peter
* [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=1Peter+1 ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org]
* {{librivox book | dtitle=Bible: 1 Peter| stitle=NT 21 1 Peter}} Various versions
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=67 Multiple bible versions at ''Bible Gateway''] (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.)
===Other===
*[http://www.studylight.org/enc/isb/view.cgi?number=T6839 ''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'']: 1 Peter
*[http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd/T0002900.html#T0002912 ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'' 1897:] First Epistle of Peter
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100707173543/http://www.wlsessays.net/node/886 Ernst R. Wendland, “Stand Fast in the True Grace of God! A Study of 1 Peter"]
*[http://www.bible-apologetics.com/history/1peter.htm 1 Peter] The authenticity and authorship by Peter of the First Epistle of Peter defended
*[https://bibleproject.com/explore/video/1-peter/ BibleProject Animated Overview (Evangelical Perspective)]
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