View source for Folklore

{{short description|Expressive culture shared by particular groups}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Little Red Riding Hood - J. W. Smith.jpg|thumb|Illustration of [[Little Red Riding Hood]] by [[Jessie Willcox Smith]], from the book ''A Child's Book of Stories'', 1911]]
'''Folklore''' is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of [[people]], [[culture]] or [[subculture]].{{sfn|Schlinkert|2007|p=30}} This includes [[oral traditions]] such as [[Narrative|tales]], [[myth]]s, [[legend]]s, [[proverbs]], [[Poetry|poems]], [[jokes]], and other oral traditions.{{sfn|Dundes|1965|p=3}}{{sfn|Schlinkert|2007|p=33}} This also includes [[material culture]], such as traditional building styles common to the group. Folklore also encompasses customary lore, taking actions for folk beliefs, and the forms and rituals of celebrations such as [[Christmas]], weddings, [[folk dance]]s, and [[Rite of passage|initiation rites]].{{sfn|Dundes|1965|p=3}}
Each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a [[Cultural artifact|folklore artifact]] or [[Cultural expressions|traditional cultural expression]]. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next. Folklore is not something one can typically gain from a formal school curriculum or study in the [[fine arts]]. Instead, these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another, either through verbal instruction or demonstration.{{sfn|Schlinkert|2007|p=37}}
The academic study of folklore is called [[folklore studies]] or folkloristics, and it can be explored at the undergraduate, graduate, and Ph.D. levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Folklore Programs in the US and Canada |url=https://cfs.osu.edu/about/resources/programs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108025803/https://cfs.osu.edu/about/resources/programs |archive-date=8 November 2018 |access-date=21 August 2020 |website=Center for Folklore Studies |publisher=[[Ohio State University]]}}</ref>
== Overview ==
[[File:Indian Folk Worship.jpg|thumb|right|Indian Folk Worship at [[Batu Caves]], [[Selangor]], Malaysia]]
[[File:Folk dancing Plovdiv Bulgaria 12.jpg|thumb|right|Folk dancing, [[Plovdiv]], Bulgaria]]
[[File:Serbian Folk Group, Music and Costume.jpg|thumb|right|Serbian Folk Group, Music and Costume. A group of performers sharing traditional Serbian folk music on the streets of [[Belgrade]], Serbia.]]
The word ''folklore'', a compound of ''folk'' and ''lore'', was coined in 1846 by the Englishman [[William Thoms]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://folklore-society.com/about/william-john-thoms/ |title=William John Thoms |work=[[The Folklore Society]] |access-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715184703/https://folklore-society.com/about/william-john-thoms/ |archive-date=15 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> who contrived the term as a replacement for the contemporary terminology of "popular antiquities" or "popular literature". The second half of the word, ''[[wikt:lore|lore]]'', comes from Old English lār 'instruction'. It is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group frequently passed along by word of mouth.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/lore |title=lore – Definition of lore in English |website=Oxford Dictionaries |access-date=8 October 2017 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327184253/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/lore |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{sfn|Schlinkert|2007|pp=30–37}}
The concept of ''[[wikt:folk|folk]]'' has varied over time. When Thoms first created this term, ''folk'' applied only to rural, frequently poor, and illiterate peasants. A more modern definition of ''folk'' is a social group that includes two or more people with common traits who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. "Folk is a flexible concept which can refer to a nation as in [[Folklore of the United States|American folklore]] or to a [[Family folklore|single family.]]"{{sfn|Dundes|1969|page=13, footnote 34}} This expanded social definition of ''folk'' supports a broader view of the material, i.e., the lore, considered to be ''folklore artifacts''. These now include all "things people make with words (verbal lore), things they make with their hands (material lore), and things they make with their actions (customary lore)".{{sfn|Wilson|2006|page=85}} Folklore are no longer considered to be limited to that which is old or obsolete. These [[Cultural artifacts|folk artifacts]] continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, and always in multiple variants. The folk group is not individualistic; it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community. "As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, [[:Category:Computer folklore|computer programmers]]".{{sfn|Dundes|1980|page=7}} In direct contrast to [[high culture]], where any single work of a named artist is protected by [[copyright law]], folklore is a function of shared identity within a common social group.{{sfn|Bauman|1971}}
Having identified folk artifacts, the professional folklorist strives to understand the ''significance'' of these beliefs, customs, and objects for the group, since these cultural units{{sfn|Dundes|1971}} would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group. That meaning can, however, shift and morph; for example, the [[Halloween]] celebration of the 21st century is not the All Hallows' Eve of the Middle Ages and even gives rise to its own set of [[Poisoned candy myths|urban legends]] independent of the historical celebration; the cleansing rituals of [[Orthodox Judaism]] were originally good public health in a land with little water, but now these customs signify for some people identification as an Orthodox Jew. By comparison, a common action such as [[tooth brushing]], which is also transmitted within a group, remains a practical hygiene and health issue and does not rise to the level of a group-defining tradition.{{sfn|Dundes|1965|page=1}} Tradition is initially remembered behavior; once it loses its practical purpose, there is no reason for further transmission unless it has been imbued with meaning beyond the initial practicality of the action. This meaning is at the core of folkloristics, the study of folklore.{{sfn|Schreiter|2015|p={{pn|date=August 2021}}}}
With the increasing theoretical sophistication of the [[social science]]s, it has become evident that folklore is a naturally occurring and necessary component of any social group; it is indeed all around us.{{sfn|Sims|Stephens|2005|pages=7–8}} Folklore does not have to be old or antiquated; it continues to be created and transmitted, and in any group, it is used to differentiate between "us" and "them."
== Origin and development of folklore studies ==
{{main|Folklore_studies#History|l1=History of folklore studies}}
Folklore began to distinguish itself as an autonomous discipline during the period of romantic nationalism in Europe. A particular figure in this development was [[Johann Gottfried von Herder]], whose writings in the 1770s presented oral traditions as organic processes grounded in the locale. After the German states were invaded by [[Napoleonic France]], Herder's approach was adopted by many of his fellow Germans, who systematized the recorded folk traditions and used them in their process of [[nation building]]. This process was enthusiastically embraced by smaller nations, like Finland, Estonia, and Hungary, which were seeking political independence from their dominant neighbors.{{sfn|Noyes|2012|p=20}}
Folklore, as a field of study, further developed among 19th-century European scholars, who were contrasting [[tradition]] with the newly developing [[modernity]]. Its focus was the oral folklore of the rural peasant populations, which were considered as residues and survivals of the past that continued to exist within the lower strata of society.{{sfn|Noyes|2012|pages=15–16}} The "[[Kinder- und Hausmärchen]]" of the [[Brothers Grimm]] (first published 1812) is the best known but by no means only collection of verbal folklore of the European peasantry of that time. This interest in stories, sayings, and songs continued throughout the 19th century and aligned the fledgling discipline of folkloristics with literature and mythology. By the turn of the 20th century, the number and sophistication of folklore studies and folklorists had grown both in Europe and North America. Whereas [[European folklore|European folklorists]] remained focused on the oral folklore of the homogenous peasant populations in their regions, the American folklorists, led by [[Franz Boas]] and [[Ruth Benedict]], chose to consider [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] cultures in their research, and included the totality of their customs and beliefs as folklore. This distinction aligned American folkloristics with [[cultural anthropology]] and [[ethnology]], using the same techniques of data collection in their field research. This divided alliance of folkloristics between the humanities in Europe and the social sciences in America offers a wealth of theoretical vantage points and research tools to the field of folkloristics as a whole, even as it continues to be a point of discussion within the field itself.{{sfn|Zumwalt|Dundes|1988}}
The term ''folkloristics'', along with the alternative name ''folklore studies'',{{efn|The word ''folkloristics'' is favored by Alan Dundes, and used in the title of his publication {{harvnb|Dundes|1978}}; the term ''folklore studies'' is defined and used by [[Simon Bronner]], see {{harvnb|Bronner|1986|page=xi}}.}} became widely used in the 1950s to distinguish the academic study of traditional culture from the [[cultural artifacts|folklore artifacts]] themselves. When the American Folklife Preservation Act (Public Law 94-201) was passed by the U.S. Congress in January 1976,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/folklife/public_law.html |title=Public Law 94-201: The Creation of the American Folklife Center |website=American Folklife Center |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |access-date=8 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928191517/https://www.loc.gov/folklife/public_law.html |archive-date=28 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> to coincide with the [[United States Bicentennial|Bicentennial Celebration]], folkloristics in the United States came of age.
<blockquote>"…[Folklife] means the traditional expressive culture shared within the various groups in the United States: familial, ethnic, occupational, religious, regional; expressive culture includes a wide range of creative and symbolic forms such as custom, belief, technical skill, language, literature, art, architecture, music, play, dance, drama, ritual, pageantry, handicraft; these expressions are mainly learned orally, by imitation, or in performance, and are generally maintained without benefit of formal instruction or institutional direction." </blockquote>
Added to the extensive array of other legislation designed to protect the natural and [[cultural heritage]] of the United States, this law also marks a shift in national awareness. It gives voice to a growing understanding that cultural diversity is a national strength and a resource worthy of protection. Paradoxically, it is a unifying feature, not something that separates the citizens of a country. "We no longer view cultural difference as a problem to be solved, but as a tremendous opportunity. In the diversity of American folklife, we find a marketplace teeming with the exchange of traditional forms and cultural ideas, a rich resource for Americans".{{sfn|Hufford|1991}} This diversity is celebrated annually at the [[Smithsonian Folklife Festival]] and many other [[List of folk festivals|folklife fests]] around the country.
There are numerous other definitions. According to [[William Bascom]] major article on the topic, there are "four functions to folklore":{{sfn|Bascom|1954}}
* Folklore lets people escape from repressions imposed upon them by society.
* Folklore validates culture, justifying its rituals and institutions to those who perform and observe them.
* Folklore is a pedagogic device which reinforces morals and values and builds wit.
* Folklore is a means of applying [[social pressure]] and exercising [[social control]].
== Definition of "folk" ==
[[File:Friends in the farm.jpg|thumb|right|Friends in a farm]]
[[File:Folklore theater in Mansoura.jpg|thumb|right|Folklore theater in [[Mansoura, Egypt|Mansoura]], Egypt]]
The folk of the 19th century, the social group identified in the [[Folklore studies#From antiquities to lore|original term "folklore"]], was characterized by being rural, illiterate, and poor. They were the peasants living in the countryside, in contrast to the urban populace of the cities. Only toward the end of the century did the urban proletariat (on the coattails of Marxist theory) become included with the rural poor as folk. The common feature in this expanded definition of folk was their identification as the underclass of society.{{sfn|Dundes|1980|page=8}}
Moving forward into the 20th century, in tandem with new thinking in the [[History of sociology#20th century: functionalism, structuralism, critical theory, and globalization|social sciences]], folklorists also revised and expanded their concept of the folk group. By the 1960s, it was understood that [[social groups]], i.e., folk groups, were all around us; each individual is enmeshed in a multitude of differing identities and their concomitant social groups. The first group that each of us is born into is the family, and each family has its own unique [[family folklore]]. As a child grows into an individual, its identities also increase to include age, language, ethnicity, occupation, etc. Each of these cohorts has its own folklore, and as one folklorist points out, this is "not idle speculation… Decades of fieldwork have demonstrated conclusively that these groups do have their own folklore."{{sfn|Dundes|1980|page=7}} In this modern understanding, folklore is a function of shared identity within any social group.{{sfn|Bauman|1971}}
This folklore can include jokes, sayings, and expected behavior in multiple variants, always transmitted in an informal manner. For the most part, it will be learned by observation, imitation, repetition, or correction by other group members. This informal knowledge is used to confirm and reinforce the identity of the group. It can be used both internally within the group to express their common identity, for example in an initiation ceremony for new members. It can also be used externally to differentiate the group from outsiders, like a folk dance demonstration at a community festival. Significant to folklorists here is that there are two opposing but equally valid ways to use this in the study of a group: you can start with an identified group in order to explore its folklore, or you can identify folklore items and use them to identify the social group.{{sfn|Bauman|1971|page=41}}
Beginning in the 1960s, a further expansion of the concept of folk began to unfold through the study of folklore. Individual researchers identified folk groups that had previously been overlooked and ignored. One notable example of this is found in an issue of the ''[[Journal of American Folklore]]'', published in 1975, which is dedicated exclusively to articles on women's folklore, with approaches that had not come from a man's perspective. {{efn|Contributors of this issue were, among others, Claire Farrer, Joan N. Radner, Susan Lanser, Elaine Lawless, and Jeannie B. Thomas.}} Other groups that were highlighted as part of this broadened understanding of the folk group were [[Family folklore#Family as a folk group|non-traditional families]], occupational groups, and families that pursued the production of folk items over multiple generations.
Folklorist [[Richard Dorson]] explained in 1976 that the study of folklore is "concerned with the study of traditional culture, or the unofficial culture" that is the folk culture, "as opposed to the elite culture, not for the sake of proving a thesis but to learn about the mass of [humanity] overlooked by the conventional disciplines."{{sfn|Dorson|1976}}
== Folklore genres ==
[[File:UAE Folk Dance- Khaliji.jpg|thumb|United Arab Emirates' traditional folk dance; the women flip their hair sideways in brightly coloured traditional dress.]]
Individual folklore artifacts are commonly classified as one of three types: material, verbal or customary lore. For the most part self-explanatory, these categories include physical objects ('''material folklore'''), common sayings, expressions, stories and songs ('''verbal folklore'''), and beliefs and ways of doing things ('''customary folklore'''). There is also a fourth major subgenre defined for [[Childlore|children's folklore]] and games ('''childlore'''), as the collection and interpretation of this fertile topic is particular to school yards and neighborhood streets.{{sfn|Opie|Opie|1969}} Each of these genres and their subtypes is intended to organize and categorize the folklore artifacts; they provide common vocabulary and consistent labeling for folklorists to communicate with each other.
That said, each artifact is unique; in fact, one of the characteristics of all folklore artifacts is their variation within genres and types.{{sfn|Georges|Jones|1995|pages=10–12}} This is in direct contrast to manufactured goods, where the goal in production is to create identical products, and any variations are considered mistakes. It is, however, just this required variation that makes identification and classification of the defining features a challenge. While this classification is essential for the subject area of folkloristics, it remains just labeling and adds little to an understanding of the traditional development and meaning of the artifacts themselves.{{sfn|Toelken|1996|page=184}}
Necessary as they are, genre classifications are misleading in their oversimplification of the subject area. Folklore artifacts are never self-contained, they do not stand in isolation but are particulars in the self-representation of a community. Different genres are frequently combined with each other to mark an event.{{sfn|Sims|Stephens|2005|page=17}} So a birthday celebration might include a song or formulaic way of greeting the birthday child (verbal), presentation of a cake and wrapped presents (material), as well as customs to honor the individual, such as sitting at the head of the table and blowing out the candles with a wish. There might also be special games played at birthday parties, which are not generally played at other times. Adding to the complexity of the interpretation, the birthday party for a seven-year-old will not be identical to the birthday party for that same child as a six-year-old, even though they follow the same model. For each artifact embodies a single variant of a performance in a given time and space. The task of the folklorist becomes to identify within this surfeit of variables the constants and the expressed meaning that shimmer through all variations: honoring of the individual within the circle of family and friends, gifting to express their value and worth to the group, and of course, the festival food and drink as [[Signified and signifier|signifiers]] of the event.
=== Verbal tradition ===
[[File:Prince Salim (the future Jahangir) and his legendary illicit love.jpg|thumb|The story of [[Jahangir]] and [[Anarkali]] is popular folklore in the former territories of the [[Mughal Empire]].]]
The formal definition of verbal lore is words, both written and oral, that are "spoken, sung, voiced forms of traditional utterance that show repetitive patterns."{{sfn|Dorson|1972|page=2}} Crucial here are the repetitive patterns. Verbal lore is not just any conversation, but words and phrases conforming to a traditional configuration recognized by both the speaker and the audience. For [[narratology|narrative types]], by definition, they have a consistent structure and follow an existing model in their narrative form.{{efn|[[Vladimir Propp]] first defined a uniform structure in Russian fairy tales in his groundbreaking monograph ''Morphology of the Folktale'', published in Russian in 1928. See {{harvnb|Propp|1968}}}} As just one simple example, in English, the phrase "An elephant walks into a bar…" instantaneously flags the following text as a [[Joke#Telling jokes|joke]]. It might be one you have already heard, but it might be one that the speaker has just thought up within the current context. Another example is the child's song [[Old MacDonald Had a Farm]], where each performance is distinctive in the animals named, their order, and their sounds. Songs such as this are used to express cultural values (farms are important, farmers are old and weather-beaten) and teach children about different domesticated animals.{{sfn|Sims|Stephens|2005|page=13}}
Verbal folklore was the [[Folklore studies#From antiquities to lore|original folklore]], the artifacts defined by [[William Thoms]] as older, oral cultural traditions of the rural populace. In his 1846 published call for help in documenting antiquities, Thoms was echoing scholars from across the European continent to collect artifacts of verbal lore. By the beginning of the 20th century, these collections had grown to include artifacts from around the world and across several centuries. A system to organize and categorize them became necessary.{{sfn|Georges|Jones|1995|pages=112–113}} [[Antti Aarne]] published the first classification system for folktales in 1910. This was later expanded into the [[Aarne–Thompson classification system]] by [[Stith Thompson]] and remains the standard classification system for European folktales and other types of oral literature. As the number of classified oral artifacts grew, similarities were noted in items that had been collected from very different geographic regions, ethnic groups, and epochs, giving rise to the [[Folklore studies#Aarne–Thompson and the historic–geographic method|Historic–Geographic Method]], a methodology that dominated folkloristics in the first half of the 20th century.
When William Thoms first published his appeal to document the verbal lore of the rural populations, it was believed these folk artifacts would die out as the population became literate. Over the past two centuries, this belief has proven to be wrong; folklorists continue to collect verbal lore in both written and spoken form from all social groups. Some variants might have been captured in published collections, but much of it is still transmitted orally and, indeed, continues to be generated in new forms and variants at an alarming rate.
Below is listed a small sampling of types and examples of verbal lore.
{{div col|colwidth=13em}}
* [[Aloha]]
* [[Ballads]]
* [[Blessing]]s
* [[Bluegrass music|Bluegrass]]
* [[Chants]]
* [[Spell (paranormal)|Charms]]
* [[Cinderella]]
* [[Country music]]
* [[Cowboy poetry]]
* [[Creation stories]]
* [[Curses]]
* [[:wikt:Category:English similes|English similes]]
* [[Epic poetry]]
* [[Fable]]
* [[Fairy tale]]
* [[Folk belief]]
* [[Folk etymologies]]
* [[Metaphor|Folk metaphors]]
* [[Ethnopoetics|Folk poetry]]
* [[Folk music]]
* [[Folksongs]]
* [[Slang|Folk speech]]
* Folktales of [[oral tradition]]
* [[Ghostlore]]
* [[Greetings]]
* [[Hog-calling]]
* [[Insults]]
* [[Jokes]]
* [[Keening]]
* [[Latrinalia]]
* [[Legend]]s
* [[Limericks]]
* [[Lullabies]]
* [[Myth]]
* [[Oaths]]
* [[Parting phrase|Leave-taking formulas]]
* [[Fakelore]]
* [[Place name origins|Place names]]
* [[Now I Lay Me Down to Sleep|Prayers at bedtime]]
* [[Proverb]]s
* Retorts
* [[Riddle]]
* [[Roast (comedy)|Roasts]]
* [[Sagas]]
* [[Sea shanty|Sea shanties]]
* [[Hawker (trade)|Street vendors]]
* [[Superstition]]
* [[Tall tale]]
* [[Taunting|Taunts]]
* [[Toast (honor)|Toasts]]
* [[Tongue-twisters]]
* [[Urban legends]]
* [[Word games]]
* [[Yodeling]]
{{div col end}}
=== Material culture ===
[[File:Horse and Sulky weathervane - SAAM - DSC00796.JPG|thumb|Horse and [[sulky]] weathervane, Smithsonian American Art Museum]]
The genre of [[material culture]] includes all artifacts that can be touched, held, lived in, or eaten. They are tangible objects with a physical or mental presence, either intended for permanent use or to be used at the next meal. Most of these folklore artifacts are single objects that have been created by hand for a specific purpose; however, folk artifacts can also be mass-produced, such as [[dreidel]]s or Christmas decorations. These items continue to be considered folklore because of their long (pre-industrial) history and their customary use. All of these material objects "existed prior to and continue alongside mechanized industry. … [They are] transmitted across the generations and subject to the same forces of conservative tradition and individual variation"{{sfn|Dorson|1972|page=2}} that are found in all folk artifacts. Folklorists are interested in the physical form, the method of manufacture or construction, the pattern of use, as well as the procurement of the raw materials.{{sfn|Vlach|1997}} The meaning to those who both make and use these objects is important. Of primary significance in these studies is the complex balance of continuity over change in both their design and their decoration.
[[File:At a goldsmith's workshop Podhale region.webm|thumb|Traditional highlanders' pins hand-made by a goldsmith in [[Podhale]], Poland]]
In Europe, prior to the [[Industrial Revolution]], everything was made by hand. While some folklorists of the 19th century wanted to secure the oral traditions of the rural folk before the populace became literate, other folklorists sought to identify hand-crafted objects before their production processes were lost to industrial manufacturing. Just as verbal lore continues to be actively created and transmitted in today's culture, so these [[handicrafts]] can still be found all around us, with possibly a shift in purpose and meaning. There are many reasons for continuing to handmake objects for use, for example these skills may be needed to repair manufactured items, or a unique design might be required which is not (or cannot be) found in the stores. Many crafts are considered as simple home maintenance, such as cooking, sewing and carpentry. For many people, handicrafts have also become an enjoyable and satisfying hobby. Handmade objects are often regarded as prestigious, where extra time and thought is spent in their creation and their uniqueness is valued.{{sfn|Roberts|1972|pages=236 ff}} For the folklorist, these hand-crafted objects embody multifaceted relationships in the lives of the craftspeople and the users, a concept that has been lost with mass-produced items that have no connection to an individual craftsperson.{{sfn|Schiffer|2000}}
Many traditional crafts, such as ironworking and glass-making, have been elevated to the [[fine art|fine]] or [[applied arts]] and taught in art schools;{{sfn|Roberts|1972|pages=236 ff, 250}} or they have been repurposed as [[folk art]], characterized as objects whose decorative form supersedes their utilitarian needs. Folk art is found in hex signs on Pennsylvania Dutch barns, tin man sculptures made by metalworkers, front yard Christmas displays, decorated school lockers, carved gun stocks, and tattoos. "Words such as naive, self-taught, and individualistic are used to describe these objects, and the exceptional rather than the representative creation is featured."<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |work=American Folklife Center |title=Material Culture |date=29 October 2010 |url=https://www.loc.gov/folklife/guide/materialculture.html |access-date=8 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820221339/https://www.loc.gov/folklife/guide/materialculture.html |archive-date=20 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> This is in contrast to the understanding of folklore artifacts that are nurtured and passed along within a community.{{efn|[[Henry Glassie]], a distinguished folklorist studying technology in cultural context, notes that in Turkish one word, sanat, refers to all objects, not distinguishing between art and craft. The latter distinction, Glassie emphasizes, is not based on medium but on social class. This raises the question as to the difference between arts and crafts; is the difference found merely in the labeling?}}
Many objects of material folklore are challenging to classify, difficult to archive, and unwieldy to store. The assigned task of museums is to preserve and make use of these bulky artifacts of material culture. To this end, the concept of the [[living museum]] has developed, beginning in Scandinavia at the end of the 19th century. These open-air museums not only display the artifacts, but also teach visitors how the items were used, with actors reenacting the everyday lives of people from all segments of society, relying heavily on the material artifacts of a pre-industrial society. Many locations even duplicate the processing of the objects, thus creating new objects of an earlier historic time period. Living museums are now found throughout the world as part of a thriving [[heritage industry]].
This list represents just a small sampling of objects and skills that are included in studies of material culture.
{{div col|colwidth=14em}}
* [[Autograph book]]s
* [[Bunad]]
* [[Embroidery]]
* [[Folk art]]
* [[Folk costume]]
* [[History of herbalism|Folk medicines]]
* [[Challah|Food recipes and presentation]]
* [[Foodways]]
* [[Handicraft#List of common handicrafts|Common handicrafts]]
* [[List of wooden toys|Handmade toys]]
* [[Hay#Stacking|Haystacks]]
* [[Hex signs]]
* [[Ironwork|Decorative ironworks]]
* [[Pottery]]
* [[Quilting]]
* [[Stone carving|Stone sculpting]]
* [[Tipis]]
* [[Wattle (construction)|Traditional fences]]
* [[Vernacular architecture]]
* [[Weather vane]]s
* [[Woodworking]]
{{div col end}}
=== Customs ===
[[Tradition|Customary culture]] is remembered enactment, i.e. re-enactment. It is the patterns of expected behavior within a group, the "traditional and expected way of doing things"{{sfn|Sweterlitsch|1997|page=168}}{{sfn|Sims|Stephens|2005|page=16}} A custom can be a [[List of gestures|single gesture]], such as [[thumbs down]] or a [[handshake]]. It can also be a complex interaction of multiple folk customs and artifacts as seen in a child's birthday party, including verbal lore ([[Happy Birthday to you|Happy Birthday song]]), material lore (presents and a birthday cake), special games ([[Musical chairs]]) and individual customs (making a wish as you blow out the candles). Each of these is a folklore artifact in its own right, potentially worthy of investigation and cultural analysis. Together they combine to build the custom of a birthday party celebration, a scripted combination of multiple artifacts which have meaning within their social group.
[[File:Pvt. Evan Allen Dancer, center, smiles as Santa Claus, right, hands gifts to Destiny Hawley and her brother Justin Hawley of Scipio, Ind., during the 3rd Annual Operation Christmas Blessing event at Muscatatuck 111212-A-QU728-005.jpg|thumb|[[Santa Claus]] giving gifts to children, a common folk practice associated with [[Christmas]] in Western nations]]
[[File:Haji_Firuz_on_the_road.jpg|right|thumb|[[Hajji Firuz]] is a fictional character in Iranian folklore who appears in the streets by the beginning of [[Nowruz]], dances through the streets while singing and playing tambourine.]]
Folklorists divide customs into several different categories.{{sfn|Sweterlitsch|1997|page=168}} A custom can be a '''seasonal celebration''', such as [[Thanksgiving]] or [[New Year's Day|New Year's]]. It can be a '''life cycle celebration''' for an individual, such as baptism, birthday or wedding. A custom can also mark a '''community festival''' or event; examples of this are [[Cologne Carnival|Carnival in Cologne]] or [[New Orleans Mardi Gras|Mardi Gras in New Orleans]]. This category also includes the [[Smithsonian Folklife Festival]] celebrated each summer on the Mall in Washington, DC. A fourth category includes customs related to '''folk beliefs'''. Walking under a ladder is just one of many [[List of unlucky symbols|symbols considered unlucky]]. '''Occupational groups''' tend to have a rich history of customs related to their life and work, so the [[Sailors' superstitions|traditions of sailors]] or [[Lumberjack#Culture|lumberjacks]].{{efn|The folklorist [[Archie Green]] specialized in workers' traditions and the lore of labor groups.}} The area of [[folk religion|ecclesiastical folklore]], which includes modes of worship not sanctioned by the established church{{sfn|Dorson|1972|page=4}} tends to be so large and complex that it is usually treated as a specialized area of folk customs; it requires considerable expertise in standard church ritual in order to adequately interpret folk customs and beliefs that originated in official church practice.
[[File:Deal Hoodeners, 1909.jpg|thumb|right|Practitioners of [[hoodening]], a folk custom found in [[Kent]], southeastern England, in 1909]]
These festivals and parades, with a target audience of people who do not belong to the social group, intersect with the interests and mission of [[Public folklore|public folklorists]], who are engaged in the documentation, preservation, and presentation of traditional forms of folklife. With a swell in popular interest in folk traditions, these [[List of folk festivals|community celebrations]] are becoming more numerous throughout the western world. While ostensibly parading the diversity of their community, economic groups have discovered that these folk parades and festivals are good for business. All shades of people are out on the streets, eating, drinking and spending. This attracts support not only from the business community, but also from federal and state organizations for these local street parties.{{sfn|Sweterlitsch|1997|page=170}} Paradoxically, in parading diversity within the community, these events have come to authenticate true community, where business interests ally with the varied (folk) social groups to promote the interests of the community as a whole.
This is just a small sampling of types and examples of customary lore.
{{div col|colwidth=13em}}
* [[Amish]]
* [[Barn raising]]
* [[Birthday]]
* [[Cakewalk]]
* [[Cat's cradle]]
* [[Chaharshanbe Suri]]
* [[Christmas]]
* [[Crossed fingers]]
* [[Folk dance]]
* [[Folk drama]]
* [[Folk medicine]]
* [[Giving the finger]]
* [[Halloween]]
* [[Hoodening]]
* [[List of gestures|Gestures]]
* [[Groundhog Day]]
* [[Louisiana Creole people]]
* [[Mime]]
* [[Culture of the Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiians]]
* [[Ouiji|Ouiji board]]
* [[Powwow]]s
* [[Practical jokes]]
* [[Saint John's Eve]]
* [[Shakers]]
* [[Symbols]]
* [[Thanksgiving]]
* [[Thumbs down]]
* [[Trick or Treating]]
* [[Yo-yo]]s
{{div col end}}
=== Childlore and games ===
[[File: Pieter Bruegel d. Ä. 041b.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|''[[Children's Games (Bruegel)|Children's Games]]'' by [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]], 1560; there are five boys playing a game of [[buck buck]] in the lower right-hand corner of the painting.]]
[[Childlore]] is a distinct branch of folklore that deals with activities passed on by children to other children, away from the influence or supervision of an adult.{{sfn|Grider|1997|page=123}} Children's folklore contains artifacts from all the standard folklore genres of verbal, material, and customary lore; it is however the '''child-to-child conduit''' that distinguishes these artifacts. For childhood is a social group where children teach, learn and share their own traditions, flourishing in a [[Children's street culture|street culture]] outside the purview of adults. This is also ideal where it needs to be collected; as [[Iona and Peter Opie]] demonstrated in their pioneering book ''Children's Games in Street and Playground''.{{sfn|Opie|Opie|1969}} Here the social group of children is studied on its own terms, not as a derivative of adult social groups. It is shown that the [[Childlore|culture of children]] is quite distinctive; it is generally unnoticed by the sophisticated world of adults, and quite as little affected by it.{{sfn|Grider|1997|page=125}}
Of particular interest to folklorists here is the mode of transmission of these artifacts; this lore circulates exclusively within an informal pre-literate children's network or folk group. It does not include artifacts taught to children by adults. However children can take the taught and teach it further to other children, turning it into childlore. Or they can take the artifacts and turn them into something else; so Old McDonald's farm is transformed from animal noises to the scatological version of animal poop. This childlore is characterized by "its lack of dependence on literary and fixed form. Children…operate among themselves in a world of informal and oral communication, unimpeded by the necessity of maintaining and transmitting information by written means".{{sfn|Grider|1997}} This is as close as folklorists can come to observing the transmission and social function of this folk knowledge before the spread of literacy during the 19th century.
As we have seen with the other genres, the original collections of children's lore and games in the 19th century was driven by a fear that the culture of childhood would die out.{{sfn|Grider|1997|page=127}} Early folklorists, among them [[Alice Gomme]] in Britain and [[William Wells Newell]] in the United States, felt a need to capture the unstructured and unsupervised street life and activities of children before it was lost. This fear proved to be unfounded. In a comparison of any modern school playground during recess and the painting of "Children's Games" by [[Pieter Breugel the Elder]] we can see that the activity level is similar, and many of the games from the 1560 painting are recognizable and comparable to modern variations still played today.
These same artifacts of childlore, in innumerable variations, also continue to serve the same function of learning and practicing skills needed for growth. So bouncing and swinging rhythms and rhymes encourage development of [[Vestibular system|balance and coordination]] in infants and children. Verbal rhymes like [[Peter Piper|Peter Piper picked...]] serve to increase both the oral and aural acuity of children. Songs and chants, accessing a different part of the brain, are used to memorize series ([[Alphabet song]]). They also provide the necessary beat to complex physical rhythms and movements, be it hand-clapping, jump roping, or ball bouncing. Furthermore, many physical games are used to develop strength, coordination and endurance of the players. For some team games, negotiations about the rules can run on longer than the game itself as social skills are rehearsed.{{sfn|Georges|Jones|1995|pages=243–254}} Even as we are just now uncovering the [[neuroscience]] that undergirds the developmental function of this childlore, the artifacts themselves have been in play for centuries.
Below is listed just a small sampling of types and examples of childlore and games.
{{div col|colwidth=14em}}
* [[Buck buck]]
* [[Children's song|Counting rhymes]]
* [[Children's song|Dandling rhymes]]
* [[Children's song|Finger and toe rhymes]]
* [[Counting-out game]]s
* [[Dreidel]]
* [[Eeny, meeny, miny, moe]]
* [[Games]]
* [[List of traditional children's games|Traditional games]]
* [[London Bridge Is Falling Down]]
* [[Lullabies]]
* [[Nursery rhymes]]
* [[Playground song]]s
* [[Playground song|Ball-bouncing rhymes]]
* [[Rhymes]]
* [[Riddle]]s
* [[Ring a Ring o' Roses|Ring a Ring o Roses]]
* [[Skipping-rope rhyme|Jump-rope rhymes]]
* [[Stickball]]
* [[Street games]]
{{div col end}}
=== Folk history ===
{{Mythology}}
{{See also|Ethnohistory}}
A case has been made for considering folk history as a distinct sub-category of folklore, an idea that has received attention from such folklorists as Richard Dorson. This field of study is represented in ''The Folklore Historian'', an annual journal sponsored by the History and Folklore Section of the [[American Folklore Society]] and concerned with the connections of folklore with history, as well as the history of folklore studies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.afsnet.org/page/TFH |title=The Folklore Historian |publisher=[[American Folklore Society]] |access-date=30 September 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008205743/https://www.afsnet.org/page/TFH |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=14em}}
* [[List of world folk-epics]]
{{div col end}}
== Folklore performance in context ==
[[File:Folk-dance-kalash.jpg|thumb|right|Folk-dance-kalash in Pakistan]]
[[File:Slovene Folklore Dancers 7.jpg|thumb|right|Slovene folklore dancers]]
Lacking context, folklore artifacts would be uninspiring objects without any life of their own. It is only through performance that the artifacts come alive as an active and meaningful component of a social group; the intergroup communication arises in the performance and this is where transmission of these cultural elements takes place. American folklorist [[Roger D. Abrahams]] has described it thus: "Folklore is folklore only when performed. As organized entities of performance, items of folklore have a sense of control inherent in them, a power that can be capitalized upon and enhanced through effective performance."{{sfn|Abrahams|1972|page=35}} Without transmission, these items are not folklore, they are just individual quirky tales and objects.
This understanding in folkloristics only occurred in the second half of the 20th century, when the two terms "[[Performance studies|folklore performance]]" and "text and context" dominated discussions among folklorists. These terms are not contradictory or even mutually exclusive. As borrowings from other fields of study, one or the other linguistic formulation is more appropriate to any given discussion. Performance is frequently tied to verbal and customary lore, whereas context is used in discussions of material lore. Both formulations offer different perspectives on the same folkloric understanding, specifically that folklore artifacts need to remain embedded in their cultural environment if we are to gain insight into their meaning for the community.
The concept of cultural (folklore) performance is shared with [[ethnography]] and [[anthropology]] among other social sciences. The cultural anthropologist [[Victor Turner]] identified four universal characteristics of cultural performance: playfulness, [[Framing (social sciences)|framing]], the use of symbolic language, and employing the [[subjunctive mood]].{{sfn|Ben-Amos|1997a|pages=633–634}} In viewing the performance, the audience leaves the daily reality to move into a mode of make-believe, or "what if?" It is self-evident that this fits well with all types of verbal lore, where reality has no place among the symbols, fantasies, and nonsense of traditional tales, proverbs, and jokes. Customs and the lore of children and games also fit easily into the language of a folklore performance.
Material culture requires some moulding to turn it into a performance. Should we consider the performance of the creation of the artifact, as in a quilting party, or the performance of the recipients who use the quilt to cover their marriage bed? Here the language of context works better to describe the quilting of patterns copied from the grandmother, quilting as a social event during the winter months, or the gifting of a quilt to signify the importance of the event. Each of these—the traditional pattern chosen, the social event, and the gifting—occur within the broader context of the community. Even so, when considering context, the structure and characteristics of performance can be recognized, including an audience, a framing event, and the use of decorative figures and symbols, all of which go beyond the utility of the object.
=== Backstory ===
Before the [[World War II|Second World War]], folk artifacts had been understood and collected as cultural shards of an earlier time. They were considered individual vestigial artifacts, with little or no function in the contemporary culture. Given this understanding, the goal of the folklorist was to capture and document them before they disappeared. They were collected with no supporting data, bound in books, archived and classified more or less successfully. The [[Folklore studies#Aarne–Thompson and the historic–geographic method|Historic–Geographic Method]] worked to isolate and track these collected artifacts, mostly verbal lore, across space and time.
Following the Second World War, folklorists began to articulate a more holistic approach toward their subject matter. In tandem with the growing sophistication in the [[History of sociology#20th century: functionalism, structuralism, critical theory and globalization|social sciences]], attention was no longer limited to the isolated artifact, but extended to include the artifact embedded in an active cultural environment. One early proponent was [[Alan Dundes]] with his essay "Texture, Text and Context", first published 1964.{{sfn|Dundes|1980}} A public presentation in 1967 by [[Dan Ben-Amos]] at the American Folklore Society brought the behavioral approach into open debate among folklorists. In 1972 Richard Dorson called out the "young Turks" for their movement toward a behavioral approach to folklore. This approach "shifted the conceptualization of folklore as an extractable item or 'text' to an emphasis on folklore as a kind of human behavior and communication. Conceptualizing folklore as behavior redefined the job of folklorists..."{{sfn|Gabbert|1999|page=119}}{{efn|A more extensive discussion of this can be found in "The 'Text/Context' Controversy and the Emergence of Behavioral Approaches in Folklore", {{harvnb|Gabbert|1999}}}}
Folklore became a verb, an action, something that people do, not just something that they have.{{sfn|Bauman|Paredes|1972|page=xv}} It is in the performance and the active context that folklore artifacts get transmitted in informal, direct communication, either verbally or in demonstration. Performance includes all the different modes and manners in which this transmission occurs.
=== Tradition-bearer and audience ===
[[File:Walaskie fujary.webm|thumb|Presentation of traditional Wallachian pipes at the [[Wallachian Open Air Museum]], Rožnov pod Radhoštěm, Czech Republic, 2017]]
Transmission is a communicative process requiring a binary: one individual or group who actively transmits information in some form to another individual or group. Each of these is a defined role in the folklore process. The tradition-bearer{{sfn|Ben-Amos|1997b}} is the individual who actively passes along the knowledge of an artifact; this can be either a mother singing a lullaby to her baby, or an Irish dance troupe performing at a local festival. They are named individuals, usually well known in the community as knowledgeable in their traditional lore. They are not the anonymous "folk", the nameless mass without of history or individuality.
The audience of this performance is the other half in the transmission process; they listen, watch, and remember. Few of them will become active tradition-bearers; many more will be passive tradition-bearers who maintain a memory of this specific traditional artifact, in both its presentation and its content.
There is active communication between the audience and the performer. The performer is presenting to the audience; the audience in turn, through its actions and reactions, is actively communicating with the performer.{{sfn|Sims|Stephens|2005|page=127}} The purpose of this performance is not to create something new but to re-create something that already exists; the performance is words and actions which are known, recognized and valued by both the performer and the audience. For folklore is first and foremost remembered behavior. As members of the same cultural [[reference group]], they identify and value this performance as a piece of shared cultural knowledge.
[[File:Bikkessy Heinbucher Táncoló magyarok.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|''Dancing Hungarians'' by {{nowrap|J. B. Heinbucher}}, 1816]]
[[File:XIX üldtantsupidu 13.JPG|thumb|upright=1.35|Some elements of folk culture might be in the center of local culture and an import part of self-identity. For instance [[folk dance]] is highly popular in [[Estonia]] and it has evolved into a sort of a national sport.{{efn|See {{cite web |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/The_art_of_dance/Folk_dance/ |title=Folk dance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215849/http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/The_art_of_dance/Folk_dance/ |archive-date=2016-03-03 |website=Estonica}}}} XIX Estonian Dance Celebration in 2015 that was held together with [[Estonian Song Festival]].]]
=== Framing the performance ===
To initiate the performance, there must be a [[Framing (social sciences)|frame]] of some sort to indicate that what is to follow is indeed performance. The frame brackets it as outside of normal discourse. In customary lore such as life cycle celebrations (ex. birthday) or dance performances, the framing occurs as part of the event, frequently marked by location. The audience goes to the event location to participate. Games are defined primarily by rules,{{sfn|Beresin|1997|page=393}} it is with the initiation of the rules that the game is framed. The folklorist [[Barre Toelken]] describes an evening spent in a Navaho family playing [[string figure]] games, with each of the members shifting from performer to audience as they create and display different figures to each other.{{sfn|Toelken|1996|pages=118 ff}}
In verbal lore, the performer will start and end with recognized linguistic formulas. An easy example is seen in the common introduction to a joke: "Have you heard the one...", "Joke of the day...", or "An elephant walks into a bar". Each of these signals to the listeners that the following is a [[joke]], not to be taken literally. The joke is completed with the [[punch line]] of the joke. Another traditional narrative marker in English is the framing of a fairy tale between the phrases "[[Once upon a time]]" and "They all lived happily ever after." Many languages have [[Once upon a time#Other languages|similar phrases]] which are used to frame a traditional tale. Each of these linguistic formulas removes the bracketed text from ordinary discourse, and marks it as a recognized form of stylized, formulaic communication for both the performer and the audience.
=== In the subjunctive voice ===
Framing as a narrative device serves to signal to both the story teller and the audience that the narrative which follows is indeed a fiction (verbal lore), and not to be understood as historical fact or reality. It moves the framed narration into the [[subjunctive mood]], and marks a space in which "fiction, history, story, tradition, art, teaching, all exist within the narrated or performed expressive 'event' outside the normal realms and constraints of reality or time."{{sfn|Sims|Stephens|2005|page=141}} This shift from the [[realis mood|realis]] to the [[irrealis mood]] is understood by all participants within the reference group. It enables these fictional events to contain meaning for the group, and can lead to very real consequences.{{sfn|Ben-Amos|1997a}}{{clarify|reason="very real consequences" is somewhat vague and abstract |date=May 2023}}
=== Anderson's law of auto-correction ===
The theory of self-correction in folklore transmission was first articulated by the folklorist [[Walter Anderson (folklorist)|Walter Anderson]] in the 1920s; this posits a feedback mechanism which would keep folklore variants closer to the original form.{{sfn|Dorst|2016|page=131}}{{efn|Anderson is best known for his monograph ''[[King John and the Bishop|Kaiser und Abt]]'' (Folklore Fellows' Communications 42, Helsinki 1923) on folktales of type AT 922.}} This theory addresses the question about how, with multiple performers and multiple audiences, the artifact maintains its identity across time and geography. Anderson credited the audience with censoring narrators who deviated too far from the known (traditional) text.{{sfn|El-Shamy|1997}}
Any performance is a two-way communication process. The performer addresses the audience with words and actions; the audience in turn actively responds to the performer. If this performance deviates too far from audience expectations of the familiar folk artifact, they will respond with negative feedback. Wanting to avoid more negative reaction, the performer will adjust his performance to conform to audience expectations. "Social reward by an audience [is] a major factor in motivating narrators..."{{sfn|El-Shamy|1997|page=71}} It is this dynamic feedback loop between performer and audience which gives stability to the text of the performance.{{sfn|Sims|Stephens|2005|page=127}}
In reality, this model is not so simplistic; there are multiple redundancies in the active folklore process. The performer has heard the tale multiple times, he has heard it from different story tellers in multiple versions. In turn, he tells the tale multiple times to the same or a different audience, and they expect to hear the version they know. This expanded model of redundancy in a non-linear narrative process makes it difficult to innovate during any single performance; corrective feedback from the audience will be immediate.{{sfn|Dorst|2016|pages=131–132}} "At the heart of both autopoetic self-maintenance and the 'virality' of meme transmission... it is enough to assume that some sort of recursive action maintains a degree of integrity [of the artifact] in certain features ... sufficient to allow us to recognize it as an instance of its type."{{sfn|Dorst|2016|page=138}}
=== Context of material lore ===
For material folk artifacts, it becomes more fruitful to return to the terminology of Alan Dundes: text and context. Here the text designates the physical artifact itself, the single item made by an individual for a specific purpose. The context is then unmasked by observation and questions concerning both its production and its usage. Why was it made, how was it made, who will use it, how will they use it, where did the raw materials come from, who designed it, etc. These questions are limited only by the skill of the interviewer.
In his study of southeastern Kentucky chair makers, Michael Owen Jones describes production of a chair within the context of the life of the craftsman.{{sfn|Jones|1975|p={{pn|date=August 2021}}}} For [[Henry Glassie]] in his study of Folk Housing in Middle Virginia, the investigation concerns the historical pattern he finds repeated in the dwellings of this region: the house is planted in the landscape just as the landscape completes itself with the house.{{sfn|Glassie|1983|page=125}} The artisan in his roadside stand or shop in the nearby town wants to make and display products which appeal to customers. There is "a craftsperson's eagerness to produce 'satisfactory items' due to a close personal contact with the customer and expectations to serve the customer again." Here the role of consumer "... is the basic force responsible for the continuity and discontinuity of behavior."{{sfn|El-Shamy|1997|page=71}}
In material culture the context becomes the cultural environment in which the object is made (chair), used (house), and sold (wares). None of these artisans is "anonymous" folk; they are individuals making a living with the tools and skills learned within and valued in the context of their community.
=== Toelken's conservative-dynamic continuum ===
No two performances are identical. The performer attempts to keep the performance within expectations, but this happens despite a multitude of changing variables. He has given this performance one time more or less, the audience is different, the social and political environment has changed. In the context of material culture, no two hand-crafted items are identical. Sometimes these deviations in the performance and the production are unintentional, just part of the process. But sometimes these deviations are intentional; the performer or artisan want to play with the boundaries of expectation and add their own creative touch. They perform within the tension of conserving the recognized form and adding innovation.
The folklorist Barre Toelken identifies this tension as "a combination of both changing ('dynamic') and static ('conservative') elements that evolve and change through sharing, communication and performance."{{sfn|Sims|Stephens|2005|page=10}} Over time, the cultural context shifts and morphs: new leaders, new technologies, new values, new awareness. As the context changes, so must the artifact, for without modifications to map existing artifacts into the evolving cultural landscape, they lose their meaning. [[Joke|Joking]] as an active form of verbal lore makes this tension visible as [[Joke#Joke cycles|joke cycles]] come and go to reflect new issues of concern. Once an artifact is no longer applicable to the context, transmission becomes a nonstarter; it loses relevancy for a contemporary audience. If it is not transmitted, then it is no longer folklore and becomes instead an historic relic.{{sfn|El-Shamy|1997|page=71}}
=== In the electronic age ===
Folklorists have begun to identify how the advent of electronic communications will modify and change the performance and transmission of folklore artifacts. It is clear that the internet is modifying folkloric process, not killing it, as despite the historic association between folklore and anti-modernity, people continue to use traditional expressive forms in new media, including the internet.{{sfn|Blank|Howard|2013|pages=4, 9, 11}} Jokes and joking are as plentiful as ever both in traditional face-to-face interactions and through electronic transmission. New communication modes are also transforming traditional stories into many different configurations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schwabe |first=Claudia |title=The Fairy Tale and Its Uses in Contemporary New Media and Popular Culture Introduction |url= |journal=[[Humanities (journal)|Humanities]] |year=2016 |volume=5 |issue=4 |page=81 |doi=10.3390/h5040081 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The fairy tale [[Snow White]] is now offered in [[Snow White (disambiguation)|multiple media forms]] for both children and adults, including a television show and video game.
Yeh et al. (2023) suggest that user-generated content (UGC) should be considered as folklore, especially in mental health communities, because it conveys informal, unofficial knowledge through first-hand stories of treatment experiences. These narratives, often shared on YouTube, serve to educate and transmit culture, much like traditional folklore. They provide insight into mental health consumers' experiences with antidepressants, highlighting where they obtain information, gaps in their knowledge, and obstacles to seeking or continuing treatment. UGC in the form of YouTube reviews reflects dynamic, recurring expressions that function as a modern-day method of passing on informal knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yeh|first1=Marie|last2=Walker|first2=Kristen|last3=Legocki|first3=Kimberly|last4=Eilert|first4=Meike|title=Folklore as a frame for understanding UGC: pharma folklore from YouTube reflections on psychiatric drugs for depression |url= |journal=[[Journal of Marketing Management]] |year=2023 |volume=39 |issue=15–16 |pages=1391–1416|doi=10.1080/0267257X.2023.2209579 |quote=In our study, the folk in the folklore are people with mental disorders who shared their worldview about depression drug treatment. We suggest using folklore as a framework to help capture other groups’ cultural worldviews that can inform consumer understanding.}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{For| a list of folklore of countries|Category:Folklore by country}}
{{For| a list of folklore of European countries|European folklore}}
{{For| a list of folklore by region|Category:Folklore by region}}
{{For| a list of folklore by ethnicity|Category:Folklore by ethnicity}}
{{cmn|
* [[Applied folklore]]
* [[Costumbrismo]]
* [[Intangible cultural heritage]]
* [[Memetics]]
* [[The law of conservation of misery]]
}}
== Notes ==
{{notelist|30em}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}
=== Bibliography ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Abrahams |first1=Roger D. |author1-link=Roger D. Abrahams |chapter=Personal Power and Social Restraint |pages=20–39 |editor1-last=Bauman |editor1-first=Richard |editor1-link=Richard Bauman |editor2-last=Paredes |editor2-first=Américo |editor2-link=Américo Paredes |title=Toward New Perspectives in Folklore |date=1972 |publisher=Trickster Press |location=Bloomington, Indiana}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bascom |first1=William R. |title=Four Functions of Folklore |journal=The Journal of American Folklore |date=1954 |volume=67 |issue=266 |pages=333–349 |doi=10.2307/536411 |publisher=[[American Folklore Society]] |jstor=536411}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bauman |first1=Richard |author1-link=Richard Bauman |title=Differential Identity and the Social Base of Folklore |date=1971 |journal=[[Journal of American Folklore]] |volume=84 |issue=331 |pages=31–41 |jstor=539731 |doi=10.2307/539731}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Bauman |editor1-first=Richard |editor2-last=Paredes |editor2-first=Américo |editor1-link=Richard Bauman |editor2-link=Américo Paredes |title=Toward New Perspectives in Folklore |date=1972 |publisher=Trickster Press |location=Bloomington, Indiana}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Blank |editor1-first=Trevor J. |editor2-last=Howard |editor2-first=Robert Glenn |title=Tradition in the 21st Century: Locating the Role of the Past in the Present |date=2013 |publisher=[[Utah State University Press]] |location=Logan}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bronner |first1=Simon J. |author-link1=Simon J. Bronner |title=American Folklore Studies: An Intellectual History |date=1986 |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]] |location=Lawrence, Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-0313-8}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Dorson |editor1-first=Richard M. |editor1-link=Richard Dorson |title=Folklore and Folklife: an Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/folklorefolklife00dors |url-access=registration |date=1972 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago, Illinois |isbn=978-0226158709}}
** {{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Warren |editor1-last=Dorson |editor1-first=Richard M. |title=Folklore and Folklife: an Introduction |chapter-url-access=registration |date=1972 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago, Illinois |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/folklorefolklife00dors/page/233 |pages=233–252 |chapter=Folk Crafts |isbn=978-0226158709}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dorson |first1=Richard M. |author1-link=Richard Dorson |title=Folklore and Fakelore: Essays Toward a Discipline of Folk Studies |date=1976 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=Cambridge; London |isbn=978-0-674-33020-7}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dorst |first1=John |s2cid=148523716 |title=Folklore's Cybernetic Imaginary, or, Unpacking the Obvious |journal=[[Journal of American Folklore]] |date=2016 |volume=129 |issue=512 |pages=127–145 |jstor=10.5406/jamerfolk.129.512.0127 |doi=10.5406/jamerfolk.129.512.0127}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dundes |first1=Alan |author1-link=Alan Dundes |title=The Study of Folklore |date=1965 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |publisher=[[Prentice-Hall]] |isbn=978-0-13-858944-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/studyoffolklore00dund}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dundes |first1=Alan |author1-link=Alan Dundes |title=The Devolutionary Premise in Folklore Theory |journal=[[Journal of the Folklore Institute]] |date=1969 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=5–19 |doi=10.2307/3814118 |jstor=3814118}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dundes |first1=Alan |author1-link=Alan Dundes |date=1971 |title=Folk Ideas as Units of Worldview |journal=[[Journal of American Folklore]] |volume=84 |issue=331 |pages=93–103 |doi=10.2307/539737 |jstor=539737}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dundes |first1=Alan |author1-link=Alan Dundes |title=Essays in Folkloristics (Kirpa Dai series in folklore and anthropology) |date=1978 |publisher=Folklore Institute}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dundes |first1=Alan |author1-link=Alan Dundes |title=Interpreting Folklore |date=1980 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana |isbn=978-0-253-14307-5}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Gabbert |first1=Lisa |title=The "Text/Context" Controversy and the Emergence of Behavioral Approaches in Folklore |journal=Folklore Forum |date=1999 |volume=30 |issue=112 |pages=119–128 |url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/2326/30(1-2)+119-128.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=12 January 2017 |archive-date=16 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116173656/https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/2326/30(1-2)+119-128.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Georges |first1=Robert A. |last2=Jones |first2=Michael Owen |title=Folkloristics: an Introduction |date=1995 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana |isbn=978-0-253-20994-8}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Glassie |first1=Henry |date=1983 |title=The Moral Lore of Folklore |journal=Folklore Forum |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=123–151 |url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/1873/16(2)%20123-151.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=19 December 2016 |archive-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013224012/https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/1873/16%282%29%20123-151.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Green |editor-first=Thomas A. |title=Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art |year=1997 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=978-0-87436-986-1}}
** {{harvc |last1=Beresin |first1=Ann Richman |chapter=Games |year=1997 |pp=393–400 |in=Green}}
** {{cite news |last1=Ben-Amos |first1=Dan |author1-link=Dan Ben-Amos |title=Performance |year=1997a}} in {{harvp|Green|1997|pp=630–635}}.
** {{cite news |last1=Ben-Amos |first1=Dan |author1-link=Dan Ben-Amos |title=Tradition-Bearer |year=1997b}} in {{harvp|Green|1997|pp=802–803}}.
** {{harvc |last1=El-Shamy |first1=Hasan |author1-link=Hasan M. El-Shamy |chapter=Audience |year=1997 |pp=70–72 |in=Green}}
** {{harvc |last1=Grider |first1=Sylvia |chapter=Children's Folklore |year=1997 |pp=123–128 |in=Green}}
** {{harvc |last1=Sweterlitsch |first1=Richard |chapter=Custom |year=1997 |pp=168–172 |in=Green}}
** {{harvc |last1=Vlach |first1=John |chapter=Material Culture |year=1997 |pp=540–544 |in=Green}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hufford |first1=Mary |date=1991 |title=American Folklife: A Commonwealth of Cultures |journal=Publication of the American Folklife Center |volume=17 |pages=1–23 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |url=https://www.loc.gov/folklife/cwc/?loclr=blogsig |access-date=19 December 2016 |archive-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013224012/https://www.loc.gov/folklife/cwc/?loclr=blogsig |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Michael Owen |title=The Hand Made Object and Its Maker |date=1975 |location=Berkeley, California and Los Angeles, California |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0520026971 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/handmadeobjectit0000jone}}
* {{cite book |last1=Noyes |first1=Dorothy |author1-link=Dorothy Noyes |date=2012 |chapter=The Social Base of Folklore |editor1-last=Bendix |editor1-first=Regina |editor1-link=Regina Bendix |editor2-last=Hasan-Rokem |editor2-first=Galit |title=A Companion to Folklore |location=Malden, Massachusetts |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |pages=13–39}}
* {{cite book |last1=Opie |first1=Iona |author1-link=Iona and Peter Opie |last2=Opie |first2=Peter |author2-link=Iona and Peter Opie |date=1969 |title=Children's Games in Street and Playground |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}
* {{cite book |last1=Propp |first1=Vladimir |author1-link=Vladimir Propp |title=Morphology of the Folktale |date=1968 |orig-date=1928 |edition=Revised |publisher=American Folklore Society / Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics / University of Texas Press |series=Bibliographal and Special Series |volume=9 |translator-last=Scott |translator-first=Laurence |editor-last=Wager |editor-first=Louis A. |isbn=978-0-292-78376-8 |url=https://monoskop.org/images/f/f3/Propp_Vladimir_Morphology_of_the_Folktale_2nd_ed.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last=Schiffer |first=Michael B. |author-link=Michael Brian Schiffer |date=October 2000 |title=Material Culture (review) |journal=[[Technology and Culture]] |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=791–793 |doi=10.1353/tech.2000.0178 |s2cid=109662410}}
* {{cite book |last=Schlinkert |first=Jana C. |title=Lebendige folkloristische Ausdrucksweisen traditioneller Gemeinschaften. Rechtliche Behandlungsmöglichkeiten auf internationaler Ebene (= Schriften zum transnationalen Wirtschaftsrecht) |trans-title=Lively folkloric expressions of traditional communities. Legal treatment options at international level (= writings on transnational business law) |language=de |publisher=BWV–Berliner Wissenschaftsverlag |location=Berlin, Germany |date=2007 |isbn=978-3-8305-1278-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schreiter |first=Robert J. |title=Constructing Local Theologies |year=2015 |edition=30th Anniversary |isbn=978-1-62698-146-1 |oclc=1054909858 |publisher=Orbis Books}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sims |first1=Martha |last2=Stephens |first2=Martine |title=Living Folklore: Introduction to the Study of People and their Traditions |date=2005 |publisher=[[Utah State University Press]] |location=Logan, Utah |isbn=978-0-87421-611-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Toelken |first1=Barre |author1-link=Barre Toelken |title=The Dynamics of Folklore |date=1996 |publisher=[[Utah State University Press]] |location=Logan, Utah |isbn=978-0-87421-203-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=William A. |author-link1=William A. Wilson (folklorist) |date=2006 |title=The Marrow of Human Experience: Essays on Folklore |editor1-last=Rudy |editor1-first=Jill Terry |editor2-last=Call |editor2-first=Diane |publisher=[[Utah State University Press]] |location=Logan, Utah |jstor=j.ctt4cgkmk |url=http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1076&context=usupress_pubs |isbn=978-0-87421-653-0 |access-date=19 December 2016 |archive-date=13 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313172932/http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1076&context=usupress_pubs |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Zumwalt |first1=Rosemary Lévy |author1-link=Rosemary Lévy Zumwalt |last2=Dundes |first2=Alan |author2-link=Alan Dundes |title=American Folklore Scholarship: A Dialogue of Dissent |date=1988 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]}}
{{Refend}}
== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Walter |author1-link=Walter Anderson (folklorist) |editor1-last=Anderson |editor1-first=Walter |editor2-last=Bolte |editor2-first=Johannes |editor2-link=Johannes Bolte |editor-last3=Krohn |editor3-first=Kaarle |editor3-link=Kaarle Krohn |editor4-last=Liestøl |editor4-first=Knut |editor4-link=Knut Liestøl |editor5-last=von Sydow |editor5-first=Carl Wilhelm |editor5-link=Carl Wilhelm von Sydow |name-list-style=amp |year=1923 |title=Kaiser und Abt: die Geschichte eines Schwanks |trans-title=Emperor and Abbot. The story of a farce |series=Folklore Fellows' Communications |language=de |volume=42 |publication-place=Helsinki, Finland |publisher=[[Finnish Academy of Science and Letters]] |hdl=10062/89331 |isbn=9789916217986}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bauman |first1=Richard |author1-link=Richard Bauman |title=Verbal Art as Performance |journal=[[American Anthropologist]] |series=New Series |date=1975 |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=290–311 |jstor=674535 |doi=10.1525/aa.1975.77.2.02a00030 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bauman |first1=Richard |author1-link=Richard Bauman |title=The Philology of the Vernacular |date=2008 |journal=[[Journal of Folklore Research]] |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=29–36 |jstor=40206961 |doi=10.2979/JFR.2008.45.1.29 |s2cid=144402948}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ben-Amos |first1=Dan |author1-link=Dan Ben-Amos |title=On the Final [s] in 'Folkloristics' |journal=[[Journal of American Folklore]] |date=1985 |volume=98 |issue=389 |pages=334–336 |jstor=539940 |doi=10.2307/539940}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bendix |first1=Regina |author1-link=Regina Bendix |title=In Search of Authenticity: The Formation of Folklore Studies |date=1997 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |location=Madison, Wisconsin |isbn=978-0-299-15544-5}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Bendix |editor1-first=Regina |editor1-link=Regina Bendix |editor2-last=Hasan-Rokem |editor2-first=Galit |editor2-link=Galit Hasan-Rokem |title=A Companion to Folklore |date=2012 |location=Malden, Massachusetts |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1-4051-9499-0}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Blank |editor1-first=Trevor J. |title=Folklore and the Internet: Vernacular Expression in a Digital World |date=2009 |publisher=[[Utah State University Press]] |location=Logan, Utah |isbn=978-0-87421-750-6}}
* {{cite book |last1=Frank |first1=Russel |editor1-last=Blank |editor1-first=Trevor J. |title=Folklore and the Internet: Vernacular Expression in a Digital World |date=2009 |pages=98–122 |publisher=[[Utah State University Press]] |location=Logan, Utah |chapter=The Forward as Folklore: Studying E-Mailed Humor}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bronner |first1=Simon J. |title=Following Tradition: Folklore in the Discourse of American Culture |year=1998 |publisher=[[Utah State University Press]] |location=Logan, Utah |isbn=978-0-87421-239-6}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bronner |first1=Simon J. |title=Folklore: The Basics |date=2017 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England; New York |isbn=978-1-138-77495-7}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Bronner |editor1-first=Simon J. |editor1-link=Simon J. Bronner |title=The Meaning of folklore: the Analytical Essays of Alan Dundes |year=2007 |publisher=[[Utah State University Press]] |location=Logan, Utah |isbn=978-0-87421-683-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Brunvand |first1=Jan Harold |author1-link=Jan Harold Brunvand |title=The Study of American Folklore |url=https://archive.org/details/studyofamericanf00brun |url-access=registration |date=1968 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton and Company]] |location=New York; London, England |isbn=978-0-39309957-7}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Burns |first1=Thomas A. |title=Folkloristics: A Conception of Theory |journal=Western Folklore |date=1977 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=109–134 |jstor=1498964 |doi=10.2307/1498964}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Del-Rio-Roberts |first1=Maribel |title=A Guide to Conducting Ethnographic Research: A Review of Ethnography: Step-by-Step (3rd ed.) by David M. Fetterman |date=2010 |journal=The Qualitative Report |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=737–749 |url=http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR15-3/fetterman.pdf |access-date=2016-12-19 |archive-date=2016-05-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508231840/http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR15-3/fetterman.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Deloria Jr. |first1=Vine |author-link1=Vine Deloria Jr. |date=1994 |title=God Is Red: A Native View of Religion |publisher=Fulcrum Publishing |location=Golden, Colorado |isbn=978-1-55591-176-8}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dorst |first1=John |title=Tags and Burners, Cycles and Networks: Folklore in the Telectronic Age |journal=[[Journal of Folklore Research]] |date=1990 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=61–108}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dundes |first1=Alan |author1-link=Alan Dundes |title=Into the Endzone for a Touchdown: A Psychoanalytic Consideration of American Football |journal=Western Folklore |date=1978a |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=75–88 |jstor=1499315 |doi=10.2307/1499315}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dundes |first1=Alan |author1-link=Alan Dundes |title=Life Is like a Chicken Coop Ladder. A Portrait of German Culture through Folklore |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeislikechicke00dund |url-access=registration |date=1984 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-05494-2}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dundes |first1=Alan |author1-link=Alan Dundes |s2cid=161269637 |title=Folkloristics in the Twenty-First Century (AFS Invited Presidential Plenary Address, 2004) |journal=[[Journal of American Folklore]] |date=2005 |volume=118 |issue=470 |pages=385–408 |jstor=4137664 |doi=10.1353/jaf.2005.0044}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ellis |first1=Bill |date=2002 |title=Making a Big Apple Crumble |journal=New Directions in Folklore |issue=6 |url=http://unix.temple.edu/~camille/bigapple/bigapple1.html |access-date=2016-12-19 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022152425/http://unix.temple.edu/~camille/bigapple/bigapple1.html}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fixico |first1=Donald L. |author1-link=Donald Fixico |date=2003 |title=The American Indian Mind in a Linear World |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-94456-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gazin-Schwartz |first1=Amy |date=2011 |chapter=Myth and Folklore |editor1-last=Insoll |editor1-first=Timothy |editor1-link=Timothy Insoll |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion |location=Oxford, England |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=63–75 |isbn=978-0-19-923244-4}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Genzuk |first1=Michael |title=A Synthesis of Ethnographic Research |publisher=Center for Multilingual, Multicultural Research. [[University of Southern California]] |date=2003 |url=https://web-app.usc.edu/web/rossier/publications/33/Ethnographic_Research.pdf |journal=Occasional Papers Series |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712220525/https://web-app.usc.edu/web/rossier/publications/33/Ethnographic_Research.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Glassie |first1=Henry |author1-link=Henry Glassie |date=1975 |title=Folk Housing in Middle Virginia: A Structural Analysis of Historic Artifacts |publisher=[[University of Tennessee Press]] |location=Knoxville, Tennessee}}
* {{cite book |last1=Glassie |first1=Henry |title=Irish Folk History: Folktales from the North |date=1982b |publisher=O'Brien Press |location=Dublin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Goody |first1=Jack |author-link1=Jack Goody |date=1977 |title=The Domestication of the Savage Mind |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-29242-9}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kirshenblatt-Gimblett |first1=Barbara |author1-link=Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett |title=Di folkloristik: A Good Yiddish Word |journal=[[Journal of American Folklore]] |date=1985 |volume=98 |issue=389 |pages=331–334 |jstor=539939 |doi=10.2307/539939}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kirshenblatt-Gimblett |first1=Barbara |title=Performance Studies |journal=Rockefeller Foundation, Culture and Creativity |date=September 1999 |url=http://www.nyu.edu/classes/bkg/issues/rock2.htm |access-date=2016-12-19 |archive-date=2016-10-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001014921/http://www.nyu.edu/classes/bkg/issues/rock2.htm |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mason |first1=Bruce Lionel |journal=Oral Tradition |date=October 1998 |volume=13 |issue=2 |publisher=Center for Studies in Oral Tradition |location=Columbia, Missouri |title=E-Texts: The Orality and Literacy Issue Revisited |url=http://journal.oraltradition.org/issues/13ii/mason |access-date=2016-12-19 |archive-date=2016-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811020457/http://journal.oraltradition.org/issues/13ii/mason |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Noyes |first1=Dorothy |author1-link=Dorothy Noyes |date=2003 |chapter=Group |editor1-last=Feintuch |editor1-first=Burt |title=Eight Words for the Study of Expressive Culture |pages=7–41 |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]] |jstor=10.5406/j.ctt2ttc8f.5 |isbn=978-0-252-07109-6}}
* {{cite book |last1=Oring |first1=Elliott |author1-link=Elliott Oring |date=1986 |title=Folk Groups and Folklore Genres: An Introduction |publisher=[[Utah State University Press]] |location=Logan, Utah |isbn=978-0-87421-128-3}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Raskin |editor1-first=Victor |editor1-link=Victor Raskin |title=Primer of Humor Research: Humor Research 8 |date=2008 |publisher=[[Mouton de Gruyter]] |location=Berlin, Germany; New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Schmidt-Lauber |first=Brigitta |title=A Companion to Folklore |chapter=Seeing, Hearing, Feeling, Writing |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]], Limited |publication-place=Chichester, England, UK |date=22 March 2012 |isbn=978-1-118-37993-6 |doi=10.1002/9781118379936.ch29 |pages=559–578 |editor1-last=Bendix |editor1-first=Regina |editor1-link=Regina Bendix |editor2-last=Hasan-Rokem |editor2-first=Galit |editor2-link=Galit Hasan-Rokem}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Šmidchens |first1=Guntis |title=Folklorism Revisited |date=1999 |journal=[[Journal of American Folklore Research]] |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=51–70 |jstor=3814813}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stahl |first1=Sandra Dolby |author-link1=Sandra Stahl Dolby |date=1989 |title=Literary Folkloristics and the Personal Narrative |url=https://archive.org/details/literaryfolklori00stah |url-access=registration |location=Bloomington |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-33515-9}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wolf-Knuts |first1=Ulrika |title=On the history of comparison in folklore studies |journal=Folklore Fellows' Summer School |date=1999 |url=http://www.hanko.uio.no/planses/Ulrika.html |access-date=19 December 2016 |archive-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013224013/http://www.hanko.uio.no/planses/Ulrika.html |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}
== Further reading ==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Cite web |url=http://www.folklore.ee/Folklore/ |title=Folklore – Electronic Journal of Folklore |website=Folklore.ee}}
== External links ==
* [https://www.ef.co.id/englishfirst/kids/blog/listening-and-speaking/folklore-Indonesia-terbaik/ Folklore Indonesia]
{{Folklore genres}}
{{Narrative modes}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Folklore| ]]
[[Category:1840s neologisms]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]