View source for French expedition to Ireland (1796)

{{Short description|Expedition in the War of the First Coalition}}
{{good article}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Expédition d'Irlande
|partof=the [[War of the First Coalition]]
|image=File:Irish-Invasion-Gillray.jpeg
|caption=''End of the Irish Invasion ; — or – the Destruction of the French Armada'', [[James Gillray]]
|date=December 1796
|place=[[Bantry Bay]], [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]]
|coordinates={{coord|51|40|51|N|9|26|55|W|region:IE_source:kolossus-jawiki|display=inline,title}}
|result=British victory
* French fleet partially destroyed by a storm
* Expedition failure
|combatant1={{flagcountry|Kingdom of Great Britain}} <br> {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Ireland}} [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]]
|combatant2={{flagcountry|French First Republic}} <br> {{Flagicon image|Green harp flag of Ireland.svg}} [[United Irishmen]]
|commander1={{flagdeco|Kingdom of Great Britain|naval}} [[Sir Robert Kingsmill, 1st Baronet|Robert Kingsmill]] <br> {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Great Britain|naval}} [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Sir Edward Pellew]]
|commander2={{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Lazare Hoche]] <br> {{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Morard de Galles]]
|strength1=13 warships
|strength2=15,000–20,000 <br> 44 warships
|casualties1=Light, if any
|casualties2=2,230 killed or drowned,<br>1,000 captured,<br>12 warships captured or wrecked
|map_type=Europe
|map_relief=1
|map_size=300
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox First Coalition}}{{Campaignbox French Revolutionary Wars Naval Battles}}
}}
The '''French expedition to Ireland''', known in [[French language|French]] as the '''''Expédition d'Irlande''''' ("Expedition to Ireland"), was an unsuccessful attempt by the [[First French Republic|French Republic]] to assist the outlawed [[Society of United Irishmen]], a popular rebel [[Irish Republicanism|Irish republican]] group, in their planned rebellion against British rule during the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]. The French intended to land a large expeditionary force in Ireland during the winter of 1796–1797 which would join with the United Irishmen and drive the British out of Ireland. The French anticipated that this would be a major blow to British morale, prestige and military effectiveness, and was also intended to possibly be the first stage of an eventual invasion of Great Britain itself. To this end, the [[French Directory|Directory]] gathered a force of approximately 15,000 soldiers at [[Brest, France|Brest]] under General [[Lazare Hoche]] during late 1796, in readiness for a major landing at [[Bantry Bay]] in December.
The operation was launched during one of the stormiest winters of the 18th century, with the French fleet unprepared for such severe conditions. Patrolling British frigates observed the departure of the fleet and notified the British [[Channel Fleet]], most of which was sheltering at [[Spithead]] for the winter. The French fleet was subject to confused orders as it left port and was scattered across the approaches to Brest: one ship was wrecked with heavy loss of life and the others widely dispersed. Separated, most of the French fleet managed to reach Bantry Bay late in December, but its commanders were driven miles off course and without them the fleet was unsure of what action to take, with [[amphibious landings]] impossible due to the weather conditions, which were the worst recorded since 1708. Within a week the fleet had broken up, small squadrons and individual ships making their way back to Brest through storms, fog and British patrols.
The British were largely unable to interfere with the French fleet before, during or after the attempted invasion. A few ships operating from [[Cork (city)|Cork]] captured isolated French warships and transports, but the only significant British response came from Captain [[Edward Pellew|Sir Edward Pellew]], who was able to drive the French [[ship of the line]] {{ship|French ship|Droits de l'Homme|1794|2}} ashore in the [[action of 13 January 1797]] with the loss of over 1,000 lives. In total, the French lost 12 ships captured or wrecked and thousands of soldiers and sailors drowned, without a single man reaching Ireland except as [[prisoners of war]]. Both navies were criticised by their governments for their behaviour during the campaign, but the French were encouraged to launch a second attempt in 1798, successfully [[Irish Rebellion of 1798#French intervention|landing]] 2,000 men in August but failing to influence the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|Irish Rebellion]] and again losing significant numbers of men and ships.
==Background==
[[File:Portrait of Theobald Wolfe Tone.PNG|thumb|upright|A portrait of [[Wolfe Tone]]]]
Following the [[French Revolution]] which began in 1789, the cause of [[republicanism]] was taken up in many countries, including the [[Kingdom of Ireland]], at that time ruled by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].<ref name="TP27">Pakenham, p. 27</ref> Opposition to British rule had existed in Ireland for centuries, but the French example, combined with the imposition of the [[Penal Laws against Irish Catholics|Penal Laws]] which discriminated against the [[Catholic]] majority and a large [[Presbyterianism in Ireland|Presbyterian]] minority, prompted the creation of the [[Society of United Irishmen]], a broad non-sectarian coalition of groups seeking to create an Irish Republic.<ref name="RB605">Brooks, p. 605</ref> Initially a non-violent political movement, the United Irishmen were forced to operate as a secret society after membership was made illegal in 1793 at the outbreak of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]. Deciding that their only hope of creating the Irish Republic lay in armed revolt, the United Irishmen began secretly organising and arming their forces. In search of external aid, two of their leaders, [[Lord Edward FitzGerald]] and [[Arthur O'Connor (United Irishman)|Arthur O'Connor]] travelled to [[Basel]] to meet with French General [[Lazare Hoche]].<ref name="RW83">Woodman, p. 83</ref> Their efforts were supported by Protestant Dublin lawyer [[Theobald Wolfe Tone]], who travelled to Paris to appeal to the [[French Directory]] in person.<ref name="ODNBTone">{{cite ODNB |last= Elliott|first= Marianne|author-link= Marianne Elliott (historian)|title=Tone, (Theobald) Wolfe |date= 2004 |doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/27532 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27532 |access-date=28 March 2009 }}</ref> During this period, the British government repealed some of the Penal Laws, in an attempt to quell unrest.<ref>David A. Wilson, United Irishmen, United States: immigrant radicals in the early republic, Cornell University Press, 1998. (Ch 7–8, in particular pp. 171–176)</ref>
The [[French First Republic]] had long planned an invasion of the [[British Isles]], but their ambitions had been repeatedly thwarted by other factors, including other fronts of the Revolutionary Wars, the [[War in the Vendée]] and the parlous state of the [[French Navy]].<ref name="DC177">Come, p. 177</ref> This latter problem was a major cause for concern: the Navy had suffered heavily from the removal of its officer corps during the Revolution and then endured a series of military setbacks, culminating in the tactical defeat at the [[Glorious First of June]] in 1794 and the disastrous ''[[Croisière du Grand Hiver]]'' in 1795.<ref name="GR87">Regan, p. 87</ref> After securing peace on several fronts in 1795, the new [[French Directory]] decided that Britain was one of their most dangerous remaining opponents, and they determined to defeat it through invasion.<ref name="DC181"/>
The applications from Tone intrigued the Directory, which understood that by attacking Ireland they would be striking at the least defensible part of the [[British Isles]]. Support for the British government was weakest there and the United Irishmen optimistically claimed to be able to raise an irregular army of as many as 250,000 waiting to join the French once they had landed,<ref name="JH20"/> with the additional attraction that a successful establishment of an Irish Republic would prove an ideological coup for the French Republic.<ref name="GR88">Regan, p. 88</ref> Finally and most significantly, a large expeditionary force in Ireland could provide an ideal springboard for an invasion of Britain, especially in combination with a plan then under development to land 2,000 uniformed criminals in [[Cornwall]], who would distract the [[British Army]] during the invasion of Ireland and could potentially provide a [[beachhead]] for future operations.<ref name="DC181">Come, p. 181</ref>
==Preparation==
{{further|French order of battle in the Expédition d'Irlande}}
With the end of the War in the Vendée and peace with Spain, substantial French forces were made available for the operation, to be led by General Hoche and scheduled for the end of October 1796. Hoche was a successful military commander, who had defeated the Vendée Royalists and been subsequently engaged in planning the Cornish invasion. A body of veteran soldiers and the entire French Atlantic Fleet were placed at his disposal, based in the major Atlantic seaport of [[Brest, France|Brest]].<ref name="WJ5">James, p. 5</ref> The number of soldiers earmarked for the invasion is uncertain; the French Directory suggested 25,000 men would be required, the Irish delegates insisting that 15,000 would be sufficient.<ref name="WJ3"/> Estimates of the number of soldiers eventually embarked range between 13,500 and 20,000.<sup>[[#notea|[Note A]]]</sup>
By August the plan was already behind schedule: severe shortages of stores and wages slowed work at the Brest shipyards, while the troops set aside for the invasion of Cornwall proved unreliable, deserting in large numbers. A practice voyage of the Cornish invasion fleet ended in total failure, as the small ships intended for the operation proved unable to operate in open water. The plan was dropped and the reliable soldiers from the unit were merged into the Ireland expeditionary force and the rest returned to prison.<ref name="DC184"/> Reinforcements from the Mediterranean Fleet were also delayed: seven ships from the [[Richery's expedition|expedition]] under Contre-amiral [[Joseph de Richery]] had to shelter from the British blockade squadron in [[Rochefort, Charente-Maritime|Rochefort]], only arriving in Brest on 8 December, while a second squadron under Contre-amiral [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]] did not arrive until after the expeditionary force had departed.<ref name="WJ3">James, p. 3</ref>
Throughout late 1796, progress on the expedition faltered. Hoche publicly blamed the naval command and specifically Vice-amiral [[Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse|Villaret de Joyeuse]] for the delay, whom he accused of being more interested in the planning of a proposed invasion of India. In October, Villaret was replaced by Vice-amiral [[Justin Bonaventure Morard de Galles|Morard de Galles]] and the India plans were cancelled, while Hoche was placed in direct command of discipline within the fleet.<ref name="DC184"/> By the second week of December the fleet was ready, consisting of 17 ships of the line, 13 [[frigate]]s and 14 other vessels, including several large transports created by removing the [[cannon]]s from old frigates to maximise cargo space.<ref name="WLC298">Clowes, p. 298</ref> Each ship of the line carried 600 soldiers, the frigates 250 and the transports approximately 400. Included were cavalry units, field artillery and substantial military stores with which to arm the thousands of anticipated Irish volunteers. Hoche was still dissatisfied, announcing to the Directory on 8 December that he would rather lead his men in any other operation than the planned attack on Ireland. He was supported by Morard de Galles, who admitted that his men were so inexperienced at sea that encounters with the enemy should be avoided wherever possible.<ref name="DC184">Come, p. 184</ref>
==Departure==
Despite the misgivings of the expedition's commanders, the fleet left Brest as scheduled on 15 December 1796, one day ahead of a message from the Directory calling off the entire operation.<ref name="DC185">Come, p. 185.</ref> De Galles knew that the British would be watching Brest harbour: their frigates were a constant presence as part of the Inshore Squadron of the blockade. In an effort to disguise his force's intentions, he first anchored in [[Camaret Bay]] and issued orders for his ships to pass through the [[Raz de Sein]].<ref name="JH21"/> The Raz was a dangerous narrow channel littered with rocks and sandbanks and subject to heavy surf during bad weather, but would also obscure the size, strength and direction of the French fleet from the British squadron offshore, which French scouts claimed consisted of 30 ships.<ref name="WJ5"/>
Despite the French reports, the principal British blockade squadron was absent from the approaches to Brest during the night of 15 December. Most of the fleet had retired to one of the British Channel Ports to avoid the winter storms, while the remaining squadron under Rear-Admiral [[John Colpoys]] had been forced to retreat {{convert|40|nmi|km}} into the Atlantic to avoid the risk of being driven onto the rocky French Biscay shoreline during a storm.<ref name="ODNBColpoys">{{cite ODNB |last= Laughton |first= J. K.|editor-first1= Tom|editor-last1= Wareham|author-link=John Knox Laughton |title=Colpoys, Sir John |date= 2004|doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/5985|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5985 |access-date=1 April 2009 }}</ref> The only British ships within sight of Brest were a frigate squadron, consisting of {{HMS|Indefatigable|1784|6}}, {{HMS|Amazon|1795|6}}, {{HMS|Phoebe|1795|6}}, {{HMS|Révolutionnaire|1794|6}} and the [[lugger]] HMS ''Duke of York'', under the command of Captain [[Edward Pellew|Sir Edward Pellew]] in ''Indefatigable''.<ref name="WLC299">Clowes, p. 299</ref> Pellew had noted French preparations on 11 December and immediately sent ''Phoebe'' to warn Colpoys and ''Amazon'' to [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]], to alert the [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]]. He remained off Brest with the rest of the squadron, and sighted the main French fleet at 15:30 on 15 December, bringing his frigates inshore towards Camaret Bay to establish its size and purpose.<ref name="RW84">Woodman, p. 84</ref> At 15:30 on 16 December, the French sailed from the Bay, Pellew observing closely and despatching ''Revolutionnaire'' to assist in the search for Colpoys.<ref name="WLC300"/>
[[File:Expédition d'Irlande Map.PNG|thumb|left|The [[Western Approaches]]. The French fleet was scattered across this area during the campaign.]]
Morard de Galles had spent most of 16 December preparing for passage through the ''[[Raz de Sein]]'', situating temporary [[Lightvessel|lightships]] in the channel to warn of hazards and giving instructions on the use of signal rockets during the passage. The fleet was so delayed in this work that darkness began to fall before preparations were complete and he abandoned the plan at approximately 16:00 and signalled for the fleet to leave via the main channel from the port, leading the way in his flagship, the frigate {{ship|French frigate|Fraternité|1788|2}}.<ref name="RW83"/> It was so dark by the time the signal was made that most ships failed to see it, ''Fraternité'' and the [[corvette]] [[French ship Atalante (1794)|''Atalante'']] attempting to notify them by rocket signal. These signals were confusing and many ships failed to understand, sailing for the Raz de Sein rather than the main channel. Pellew added to the problem by weaving ahead of the fleet shining blue lights and firing rockets, further confusing the French captains as to their location.<ref name="JH21">Henderson, p. 21</ref>
When dawn broke on 17 December, most of the French fleet was scattered across the approaches to Brest. The largest intact group was that under Vice-admiral [[François Joseph Bouvet]], which had come through the Raz de Sein with nine ships of the line, six frigates and one transport.<ref name="WLC300">Clowes, p. 300</ref> The other ships, including ''Fraternité'', which also carried General Hoche, were alone or in small groups; the captains forced open their secret orders to discover their destination, in the absence of instructions from any commanding officers. One ship had been lost; the 74-gun ship of the line {{ship|French ship|Séduisant|1783|2}} had driven onto the Grand Stevenent rock during the night and sank with the loss of 680 lives.<ref name="TG40">Grocott, p. 40</ref> She too had fired numerous rockets and signal guns in an effort to attract attention, succeeding only in compounding the confusion in the fleet.<ref name="WJ6">James, p. 6</ref> Pellew, unable now to affect the large French force, sailed for Falmouth to [[Semaphore line|telegraph]] his report to the Admiralty and replenish his supplies.<ref name="RW85">Woodman, p. 85</ref>
==Voyage to Ireland==
By 19 December, Bouvet had gathered 33 ships together and set a course for [[Mizen Head]] in southern Ireland, the designated rendezvous point where he was instructed by his sealed orders to wait five days for further instructions from France. One of the ships still missing was the ''Fraternité''. Despite the disappearance of its commanders the French fleet continued to [[Bantry Bay]], sailing through both high winds and thick fog, which delayed its arrival until 21 December.<ref name="WJ7"/> While Bouvet sailed for Ireland, ''Fraternité'' crossed the [[Western Approaches]] in search of the fleet, accompanied by {{ship|French ship|Nestor|1793|2}}, {{ship|French frigate|Romaine|1794|2}} and {{ship|French frigate|Cocarde||2}}.<ref name="WJ7">James, p. 7</ref> Unwittingly passing Bouvet's fleet in the fog, de Galles separated from his small squadron near the rendezvous on 21 December, only to discover a British frigate immediately ahead. Retreating from the threat, ''Fraternité'' was chased far into the Atlantic before she could escape the unidentified pursuer. On the return journey de Galle found the winds against him, and it took eight days to regain Mizen Head.<ref name="WJ9">James, p. 9</ref>
''Phoebe'' did not find Colpoys until 19 December, deep in the [[Bay of Biscay]]. The following day he sighted the delayed French squadron under Villeneuve and gave chase, but Villeneuve was able to outrun Colpoys' pursuit in a gale, reaching [[Lorient]] ahead of the British, whose ships were badly damaged by the storm. Unable to continue operations, Colpoys was forced to retreat to [[Spithead]] for repairs.<ref name="WJ21">James, p. 21</ref> The response from the Channel Fleet under [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Lord Bridport]] was similarly ineffective. News of the French departure from Brest did not arrive in [[Plymouth]], the most westerly of the British fleet ports, until 20 December. Many of Bridport's ships, based at Spithead, were not ready for sea and it was several days before enough vessels were manned and equipped for service. The order to leave port was issued on 25 December, but the fleet was almost immediately thrown into chaos when the large [[second-rate]] {{HMS|Prince|1788|6}} swung out of control and collided with the 80-gun {{HMS|Sans Pareil|1794|6}}. At almost the same time, another second-rate, {{HMS|Formidable|1777|6}}, was driven into the 100-gun [[first-rate]] [[HMS Ville de Paris|HMS ''Ville de Paris'']] by strong winds while the 98-gun {{HMS|Atlas|1782|6}} grounded.<ref name="TG44">Grocott, p. 44</ref> All five ships were required to enter dock for extensive repairs, denying Bridport his strongest vessels and delaying his departure further. When he eventually reached [[St Helens, Isle of Wight|St Helens]], the departure point from the [[Solent]], the wind was blowing from the west and his remaining eight ships were rendered immobile until 3 January.<ref name="WJ21"/>
In the absence of Morard de Galles and Hoche, Bouvet and his army counterpart, General [[Emmanuel de Grouchy]], gave orders on 21 December for the fleet to anchor in preparation for landings the following day. Local [[maritime pilot]]s, believing the fleet to be British, rowed out to the ships and were seized, providing the French with guides to the best landing sites.<ref name="WJ7"/> During the night of 21 December, the weather suddenly and significantly worsened, Atlantic gales bringing blizzards that hid the shoreline and forced the fleet to anchor or risk being wrecked. They remained in the Bay for four days in the coldest winter recorded since 1708.<ref name="JH22">Henderson, p. 22</ref> The inexperienced French sailors, lacking any winter clothing, were unable to operate their ships. On shore, local militia forces were marshaled by local landowner [[Richard White, 1st Earl of Bantry|Richard White]], taking positions in anticipation of the French landing.<ref name="CL17">Lloyd, p. 17</ref> On 24 December the wind slackened and a council of war was convened among the expedition's senior officers. Together they resolved to force a landing despite the weather, identifying a nearby creek as the safest point and giving orders for the operation to go ahead at first light on 25 December.<ref name="WJ8"/> During the night the weather deteriorated once more, and by morning the waves were so violent that they were breaking over the bows of many ships. Anchors dragged and a number of vessels were blown right out of the Bay and into the Atlantic, unable to return against the wind. In the storm, the largest ship of the line, the ''[[French ship Indomptable (1790)|Indomptable]]'', collided with the frigate {{ship|French frigate|Résolue|1778|2}} and both suffered severe damage.<ref name="WJ8">James, p. 8</ref> [[HMS Monarch (1765)|HMS ''Monarch'']], flagship of Vice-Admiral [[George Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith|Sir George Elphinstone]] returning from the successful [[Invasion of the Cape Colony]], was battered by the storm and passed right through the French fleet without realising the danger, anchoring in a disabled state at [[Crookhaven]].<ref name="CL17"/>
===Collapse of the expedition===
[[File:French armada anchor in Bantry.jpg|thumbnail|right|Anchor from the French expedition of 1796, discovered off northeast of Whiddy island, Bantry Bay, 1981.]]
For four more days Bouvet's ships were battered by the high winds, none able to approach the shore without severe risk of being destroyed on the rocky coast. Losing their anchors as the cables snapped, many ships were forced to run before the wind and scatter into the Western Approaches.<ref name="WJ8"/> Others were destroyed: an American ship named ''Ellis'', passing close to [[Crookhaven]] on 29 December, encountered a vessel wallowing in the waves, dismasted and with the deck strewn with bodies. The American captain, Harvey, reported that he approached the ship but was unable to assist her due to the storm and as he watched, the ship was driven ashore and destroyed. This was the 44-gun frigate {{ship|French frigate|Impatiente|1795|2}}, of which only seven men survived from her complement of 550 crew and passengers.<ref name="TG42">Grocott, p. 42</ref> Harvey also recounted coming across the {{ship|French ship|Révolution|1793|2}} and frigate {{ship|French ship|Scévola|1781|2}}. Captain [[Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley]] was in the process of removing the crew and passengers from ''Scévola'' before she foundered, the heavy weather having reduced the 40-gun [[razee]] frigate to a sinking condition.<ref name="TG43">Grocott, p. 43</ref> ''Ellis'' was not the only ship to discover ''Révolution''; the long-delayed ''Fraternité'' encountered the ships and observed the destruction of the ''Scévola'', which was burnt once she had been abandoned.<ref name="WJ9"/>
Bouvet had been driven offshore in his flagship ''Immortalité'' during the storm, and when the wind fell during 29 December he decided to abandon the operation. Signalling to the ships within view, he ordered his remaining squadron to sail southeast towards Brest. Some ships failed to receive the message and continued to the second rendezvous off the [[River Shannon]], but they were few and scattered and in the continuing storms no landing was possible. With provisions running low, these ships also turned and sailed for Brest, as the weather worsened once more.<ref name="JH22"/> As their expeditionary force sailed home, Morard de Galles and Hoche arrived in Bantry Bay on 30 December, discovering that the fleet had gone. With their own provisions almost exhausted, ''Fraternité'' and ''Révolution'' were forced to return to France as well. The British response to the attempted invasion continued to be inadequate, Colpoys arriving at Spithead on 31 December with only six of his ships still in formation.<ref name="WJ21"/> Only a handful of ships based at [[Cork (city)|Cork]] under Rear-Admiral [[Sir Robert Kingsmill, 1st Baronet|Robert Kingsmill]], principally {{HMS|Polyphemus|1782|6}} under Captain [[George Lumsdaine]] and a frigate squadron, interfered with the French fleet: ''Polyphemus'' seized the transport {{ship|French frigate|Justine||2}} on 30 December and {{HMS|Jason|1794|6}} captured the transport {{ship|French frigate|Suffren||2}} shortly afterwards, although she was later recaptured by the French frigate {{ship|French frigate|Tartu|1793|2}}.<ref name="WLC304"/>
==Retreat==
The first French ships to return to Brest arrived on 1 January, including Bouvet's flagship ''Immortalité'' accompanied by ''Indomptable'', {{ship|French ship|Redoutable|1795|2}}, {{ship|French ship|Patriote|1785|2}}, {{ship|French ship|Mucius|1793|2}}, {{ship|French ship|Fougueux|1785|2}} and some smaller ships. They had avoided any contact with British warships and had been able to make good speed in a period of relatively calm weather. During the following days, the French ships that had gathered off the Shannon limped home, all badly damaged due to the increasingly rough seas and high winds.<ref name="WJ10">James, p. 10</ref> Several ships did not return to France at all, including the frigate {{ship|French frigate|Surveillante|1778|2}}, which was scuttled in Bantry Bay on 2 January; many of those aboard, including General [[Julien Augustin Joseph Mermet|Julien Mermet]] and 600 cavalrymen, were rescued by boats from the remaining French fleet while others scrambled ashore to become [[prisoners of war]].<ref name="TG45">Grocott, p. 45</ref><ref>Breen and Forsythe, p.42</ref> On 5 January, ''Polyphemus'' outran and captured the frigate ''Tartu'', of 44 guns and 625 men (including troops),<ref name=LG13696/> after four hours of intermittent combat. The Royal Navy later took her into service as HMS ''Uranie''. ''Polyphemus'' also captured another transport, but the weather being bad and night falling, she did not take possession. Captain Lumsdaine of ''Polyphemus'' reported that the transport was leaky and making distress signals, but that he was unable to assist. He thought it highly likely that she had sunk.<ref name=LG13696>{{London Gazette|issue=13969|page=22|date=7 January 1797}}</ref> This may have been the transport ''Fille-Unique'', which sank in the Bay of Biscay on 6 January, although the fate of the 300 soldiers aboard is unknown.<ref name="TG45"/>
On 7 January, the British frigates {{HMS|Unicorn|1794|6}} under Captain [[Thomas Williams (Royal Navy officer)|Sir Thomas Williams]], {{HMS|Doris|1795|6}} under Captain [[Charles Jones, 5th Viscount Ranelagh|Charles Jones]] and {{HMS|Druid|1783|6}} under Captain [[Sir Richard King, 2nd Baronet|Richard King]], captured the transport {{ship|French frigate|Ville de Lorient||2}}, ''Druid'' escorting the prize back to Cork. The following day ''Unicorn'' and ''Doris'' encountered some of the force that had attempted to land at the Shannon. Outnumbered, the frigates retreated westwards and encountered the battered ''Révolution'' and ''Fraternité'', which withdrew before them.<ref name="WJ9"/> This prevented Morard de Galles and Hoche from belatedly joining their squadron and took them away from the route back to France. When ''Unicorn'' and ''Doris'' reappeared the following morning, they were operating as scouts for Bridport's fleet, which had finally left port at the start of the new year and had encountered the frigates during the night. Escaping pursuit in a fog, ''Révolution'' and ''Fraternité'' sailed directly for France and arrived at Rochefort on 13 January.<ref name="WJ10"/>
The majority of the remaining French ships had reached Brest on 11 January, including {{ship|French ship|Constitution|1795|2}}, {{ship|French ship|Trajan|1792|2}}, {{ship|French ship|Pluton|1778|2}}, {{ship|French ship|Wattignies|1794|2}} and {{ship|French ship|Pégase|1781|2}}, the latter towing the dismasted ''Résolue''. On 13 January most of the remainder returned, including ''Nestor'', {{ship|French ship|Tourville|1788|2}}, {{ship|French ship|Éole|1789|2}} and {{ship|French ship|Cassard|1795|2}} with their attendant frigates, while the frigate {{ship|French frigate|Bravoure|1795|2}} arrived at Lorient alone.<ref name="WJ10"/> Losses had continued as the French neared Brest, the disarmed ''Suffren'' recaptured by {{HMS|Daedalus|1780|6}} off [[Ushant]] and burnt on 8 January, while ''Atalante'' was outrun and captured by HMS ''Phoebe'' on 10 January. On 12 January, the storeship ''Allègre'' was captured by the [[brig]] {{HMS|Spitfire|1782|6}}.<ref name="WLC304"/>
===''Droits de l'Homme''===
{{further|Action of 13 January 1797}}
By 13 January, all of the French fleet had been accounted for except the small brig ''Mutine'', which was blown all the way to [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife (City)|Santa Cruz]] and was captured there in July,<ref name="WLC304"/> and the 74-gun [[French ship Droits de l'Homme (1794)|''Droits de l'Homme'']]. ''Droits de l'Homme'' had been among the ships under Bouvet in Bantry Bay and then with those that carried on to the Shannon, but as the fleet broke up she became separated.<ref name="JH22" /> With provisions running low and landings still impossible, Captain [[Jean-Baptiste Raymond de Lacrosse]] determined to return to France independently. Progress was slow as ''Droits de l'Homme'' was overloaded with 1,300 men, including 800 soldiers under General [[Jean Joseph Amable Humbert|Jean Humbert]]. She was further delayed when she encountered and captured a small British [[privateer]] named ''Cumberland''.<ref name="RW86">Woodman, p. 86</ref> As a result, La Crosse had only reached Ushant by 13 January, where he encountered the same fog that had enabled ''Révolution'' and ''Fraternité'' to reach safety.<ref name="WJ11">James, p. 11</ref>
[[File:Vaisseau-Droits-de-lHomme.jpg|thumb|left|''Battle between the French warship Droits de l'Homme and the frigates HMS Amazon and Indefatigable, 13 & 14 January 1797'', Leopold Le Guen]]
At 13:00, two ships emerged from the gloom to the east and Lacrosse turned away rather than risk his passengers in a pointless engagement. The ships persisted and were soon revealed to be the frigates ''Indefatigable'' under Captain Sir Edward Pellew, and ''Amazon'' under Captain [[Robert Carthew Reynolds]], which had taken on supplies at Falmouth and then returned to their station off Brest.<ref name="WJ11"/> As ''Droits de l'Homme'' steered southwest, the winds increased once more and the sea became choppy, preventing Lacrosse from opening the gunports on his lower deck without severe risk of flooding and snapping his topmasts, which reduced his ship's stability.<ref name="RG159">Gardiner, p. 159</ref> Realising his opponent's difficulties, Pellew closed with the larger ship and began a heavy fire. At 18:45, ''Amazon'' came within range and the frigates combined to repeatedly [[raking fire|rake]] the French ship. The combat continued throughout the night, punctuated by short breaks in which the more mobile British ships repaired their battle damage out of range of Lacrosse's guns.<ref name="RW88">Woodman, p. 88</ref>
At 04:20 on 14 January, lookouts on all three ships sighted waves breaking immediately eastwards. Desperate to escape the heavy surf, ''Indefatigable'' turned north and ''Amazon'' turned south, while the battered ''Droits de l'Homme'' was unable to make any manoeuvre and drove straight onto a sandbar near the town of [[Plozévet]], the force of the waves rolling her onto her side.<ref name="WJ18">James, p. 18</ref> ''Amazon'' too was wrecked, although in a more sheltered position which enabled the frigate to remain upright. The only surviving ship was ''Indefatigable'', which was able to round the [[Penmarck rocks]] and reach open water.<ref name="WJ16">James, p. 16</ref> While Reynolds fashioned rafts to bring his men safely to shore, the French officers on ''Droits de l'Homme'' were unable to launch their boats, their exposed position in the heavy surf destroying every attempt to reach shore and drowning hundreds of men.  Losses on board the wreck mounted as the storm continued, breaking open the stern of the ship and flooding the interior.<ref name="WJ19">James, p. 19</ref> On the morning of 15 January a group of prisoners from ''Cumberland'' reached the shore in a small boat, but subsequent attempts failed and it was not until 17 January that the sea calmed enough for the small naval vessel ''Arrogante'' to approach the wreck and remove the remaining 290 survivors.<ref name="NT170">Pipon in Tracy, p. 170</ref>
==Aftermath==
The French attempt to invade Ireland had ended in total failure. With the exception of a handful of prisoners of war, not one French soldier had successfully landed in Ireland, despite some ships remaining off the coast for almost two weeks. Twelve ships had been lost and over two thousand soldiers and sailors drowned.<ref name="WLC304">Clowes, p. 304</ref> The invasion was abandoned, Hoche and his remaining men were returned to the army for service in Germany, and the general died nine months later from natural causes.<ref name="DC199">Chandler, p. 199</ref> The French Navy, although criticised for failing to land the expeditionary force, was also praised for successfully reaching Ireland and returning without encountering the main body of the British fleet. This achievement encouraged further invasion attempts, including [[Last Invasion of Britain|a landing]] at [[Fishguard]] in Wales in February 1797 ([[Battle of Fishguard]]) and a second invasion of Ireland in mid-1798.<ref name="DC186">Come, p. 186</ref>
In Britain, the Royal Navy's response to the French campaign was heavily criticised; both fleets assigned to intercept the invasion fleet had failed, the only losses inflicted on the French coming from the small Cork squadron or Pellew's independent frigates.<ref name="WJ22">James, p. 22</ref> White was rewarded for his service on shore with the title [[Baron Bantry]].<ref name="CL17"/> At sea, Colpoys was replaced in command of the blockade of Brest by Rear-Admiral [[Roger Curtis|Sir Roger Curtis]], and extensive deployments to the Bay of Biscay were made in February and March to prevent any further French operations.<ref name="WJ23">James, p. 23</ref> In addition, reinforcements were also sent to the fleet off [[Cádiz]] under Vice-Admiral [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Sir John Jervis]], who had won the [[Battle of Cape St Vincent (1797)|Battle of Cape St Vincent]] on 14 February. These extended deployments were unpopular with the regular seamen and in April the [[Spithead Mutiny]] broke out, paralysing the [[Channel Fleet]]. The French, still recovering from their losses in the winter campaign, were unable to respond.<ref name="WLC305">Clowes, p. 305</ref>
In Ireland, the failure of the French expeditionary force was the source of great frustration: Wolfe Tone, who was aboard ''Indomptable'' throughout the voyage, reported that he felt that he could have touched either side of the bay with both hands.<ref name="TP18">Pakenham, p. 18</ref> Postponing the uprising, Tone continued to rally support in Europe, raising a fleet in the Netherlands for an attempted invasion that ended in destruction at the [[Battle of Camperdown]].<ref name="BI147">Ireland, p. 147</ref> In May 1798, a British crackdown arrested the leaders of the United Irishmen in Ireland and provoked the [[Irish rebellion of 1798|Irish Rebellion]]. By the time the French had managed to gather a small force and reach Ireland in August, the rebellion was almost over and the inadequate French army, led by Jean Humbert, surrendered in September at the [[Battle of Ballinamuck]].<ref name="DS141">Smith, p. 141</ref> A subsequent invasion attempt the following month also ended in failure, when the invasion squadron was intercepted and defeated at the [[Battle of Tory Island]].<ref name="RG114">Gardiner, p. 114</ref> Wolfe Tone was captured at the action off Tory Island and committed suicide in prison. His death, combined with military defeat and reprisals against the Irish rebels, ended both the Society of United Irishmen and French invasion plans.<ref name="RB626">Brooks, p. 626</ref>
==See also==
* [[Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Spanish Armada]]
==Notes==
{{refbegin}}
<ol class="references" style="list-style-type:upper-alpha;">
<li id="notea">'''[[#inlinea|^]]''' Sources vary on the exact number of French troops that eventually participated in the campaign. [[Thomas Pakenham (historian)|Pakenham]] gives 12,000,<ref name="TP23">Pakenham, p. 23</ref> [[William Laird Clowes|Clowes]], [[William James (Naval historian)|James]], [[Richard Woodman|Woodman]] and Henderson suggest 18,000 (although James quotes estimates between 16,200 and 25,000),<ref name="RW83"/><ref name="JH20">Henderson, p. 20</ref><ref name="WJ5"/><ref name="WLC297">Clowes, p. 297</ref> while Regan and Come indicate approximately 20,000,<ref name="GR88"/> although Come comments that they were of low quality.<ref name="DC185"/></li>
</ol>
{{refend}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* {{cite journal |last1=Breen |first1=Colin |last2=Forsythe |first2=Wes |date=2007 |title=The French Shipwreck La Surveillante, Lost in Bantry Bay, Ireland, in 1797 |jstor=25617454|journal=Historical Archaeology |publisher=Society for Historical Archaeology |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=41–42 |doi=10.1007/BF03377053 |s2cid=162814509 }}
* {{cite book
|last= Brooks
|first= Richard
|year= 2005
|title= Cassell's Battlefields of Britain & Ireland
|publisher= Weidenfeld & Nicolson
|location= London
|isbn= 978-0-304-36333-9
| oclc = 60793995
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Chandler
| first = David
| author-link = David G. Chandler
| year = 1999
| orig-year = 1993
| title = Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars
| publisher = Wordsworth Military Library
| isbn = 1-84022-203-4
| oclc = 43582494
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Clowes
| first = William Laird
| author-link = William Laird Clowes
| year = 1997
| orig-year = 1900
| title = The Royal Navy, A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, Volume IV
| publisher = Chatham Publishing
| location = London
| isbn = 1-86176-013-2
| oclc = 59659759
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Come
|first=Donald R.
|date=Winter 1952
|title= French Threat to British Shores, 1793–1798
|journal= Military Affairs
|volume= 16
|issue= 4
|pages= 174–88
|issn= 3703-2240
|doi=10.2307/1982368
|jstor=1982368
}}
* {{cite book
| editor-last= Gardiner
| editor-first=Robert
| year = 2001
| orig-year = 1996
| title = Fleet Battle and Blockade
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| oclc = 50264868
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Grocott
| first = Terence
| year = 2002
| orig-year = 1997
| title = Shipwrecks of the Revolutionary & Napoleonic Era
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| oclc = 50101032
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Henderson CBE
| first = James
| year = 1994
| orig-year = 1970
| title = The Frigates: An Account of the Lighter Warships of the Napoleonic Wars 1793–1815
| publisher = Leo Cooper
| isbn = 0-85052-432-6
| oclc = 32584549
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/frigatesaccounto0000hend
}}
* {{cite book
|last= Ireland
|first= Bernard
|year = 2000
|title= Naval Warfare in the Age of Sail: War at Sea, 1756–1815
|publisher= Harper Collins
|location= London
|isbn= 978-0-00-414522-8
| oclc = 44652866
}}
* {{cite book
| last = James
| first = William
| author-link = William James (naval historian)
| year = 2002
| orig-year = 1827
| title = The Naval History of Great Britain, Volume 2, 1797–1799
| publisher = Conway Maritime Press
| location= London
| isbn = 0-85177-906-9
| oclc = 255340498
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Lloyd
| first = Christopher
| author-link = Christopher Lloyd (naval historian)
| year = 1963
| title = St Vincent & Camperdown
| publisher = B. T. Batsford Ltd
| location = London
}}
* {{cite book
|last= Pakenham
|first= Thomas
|author-link= Thomas Pakenham (historian)
|year= 2000
|orig-year= 1997
|edition = Rev.
|title= The Year of Liberty: The Story of the Great Irish Rebellion of 1798
|publisher= Abacus
|location= London
|isbn= 978-0-349-11252-7
| oclc = 59362609
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Regan
| first = Geoffrey
| author-link = Geoffrey Regan
| year = 2001
| title = Geoffrey Regan's Book of Naval Blunders
| publisher = Andre Deutsch
| isbn = 0-233-99978-7
| oclc = 49892294
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/geoffreyregansbo0000rega
}}
* {{cite book
|last= Smith
|first= Digby
|year= 1998
|title= The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book
|publisher= Greenhill
|location= London
|isbn= 978-1-85367-276-7
| oclc = 37616149
}}
* {{cite book
| editor = Tracy, Nicholas
| year = 1998
| chapter = Narrative of the dreadful Shipwreck of Les Droits de L'Homme, a French ship, of 74 guns, driven on shore on the 14th February 1797, after a severe Action with the Indefatigable and Amazon Frigates, under the Command of Sir Edward Pellew and Captain Reynolds. By Elias Pipon, Lieutenant. 63rd Regiment.
| title = The Naval Chronicle, Volume 1, 1793–1798
| publisher = Chatham Publishing
| isbn = 1-86176-091-4
| oclc = 248862507
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Woodman
| first = Richard
| author-link = Richard Woodman
| year = 2001
| title = The Sea Warriors: Fighting Captains and Frigate Warfare in the Age of Nelson
| publisher = Constable Publishers
| location= London
| isbn = 1-84119-183-3
| oclc = 59550064
}}
==External links==
* {{commons-inline}}
{{Irish Rebellion of 1798}}
{{Sequence
| prev = [[Battle of Arcole]]
| list = French Revolution: Revolutionary campaigns
| curr = French expedition to Ireland (1796)
| next = [[Action of 13 January 1797]]
}}
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[[Category:1796 in Ireland]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars involving France]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars involving Great Britain]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1796]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1797]]
[[Category:Military expeditions]]
[[Category:Expeditions from France]]
[[Category:Invasions of Ireland]]
[[Category:Invasions by France]]