View source for Gender of the Holy Spirit

{{Short description|none}}
{{main|Gender of God in Christianity}}
{{Cleanup rewrite|date=March 2011}}
In [[Christian theology]], the [[gender]] of the [[Holy Spirit]] has been the subject of some debate in recent times.
The grammatical gender of the word for "spirit" is feminine in Hebrew ([[wikt:רוח#Hebrew|רוּחַ]], ''{{transliteration|he|rūaḥ}}''),<ref>[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7833-holy-spirit Jacobs, Joseph and Blau, Ludwig. "Holy Spirit", ''Jewish Encyclopedia'', 1906]</ref> neutral in Greek ([[wikt:πνεῦμα#Ancient Greek|πνεῦμα]], ''{{transliteration|grc|pneûma}}'') and masculine in Latin ([[wikt:spiritus#Latin|spiritus]]). The neutral Greek ''πνεῦμα'' is used in the [[Septuagint]] to translate the Hebrew ''רוּחַ''.
The Holy Spirit was furthermore equated with the (grammatically feminine) [[Holy Wisdom|Wisdom of God]] by two early Church fathers, [[Theophilus of Antioch]] (d. 180) and by [[Irenaeus]] (d. 202/3). However, the majority of theologians have, historically, identified Wisdom with [[Logos (Christianity)|Christ the Logos]].
[[Gregory of Nazianzus]] in the fourth century wrote that terms like "Father" and "Son" in reference to the persons of the trinity are not to be understood as expressing [[essence–energies distinction|essences or energies]] of God but are to be understood as metaphors. The same position is still held in the 1992 [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]].<ref>"In no way is God in man's image. He is neither man nor woman. God is pure spirit in which there is no place for the difference between the sexes. But the respective 'perfections' of man and woman reflect something of the infinite perfection of God: those of a mother and those of a father and husband."
[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p6.htm CCC 370].</ref>
==Grammatical gender==
Even in the same language, a difference may arise relating to what word is chosen to describe the Holy Spirit. In Greek the word ''pneuma'' is grammatically neuter<ref name=cathex/> and so, in that language, the pronoun referring to the Holy Spirit under that name is also grammatically neuter. However, when the Holy Spirit is referred to by the grammatically masculine word ''[[Paraclete|Parakletos]]'' "counselor", the pronoun is masculine (since the pronoun refers to ''[[Paraclete|Parakletos]]'' rather than ''pneuma''), as in John 16:7-8.<ref>{{bibleverse||John|16:7-8}}</ref>
[[William D. Mounce]] argues that in the [[Gospel of John]], when Jesus referred to the Holy Spirit as ''Comforter'' (masculine in Greek), the grammatically necessary masculine form of the Greek pronoun ''autos'' is used,<ref name="Mounce">[[William D. Mounce]], ''The Morphology of Biblical Greek'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994), pp. 241-242</ref> but when Jesus speaks of the Holy Spirit as ''Spirit'', grammatically neuter in Greek,<ref>John 14:26; 15:26; 16:13-14.</ref> the masculine form of the demonstrative pronoun ''ekeinos'' ("that masculine one") is used.<ref name="Mounce"/> This breaking of the grammatical agreement expected by native language readers is an indication of the author's intention to convey the personhood of the Holy Spirit.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Grudem|first=Wayne|title=Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine|year=1995|publisher=Zondervan|location=Grand Rapids|isbn=0-310-28670-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/systematictheolo00grud_0/page/232 232]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/systematictheolo00grud_0/page/232}}</ref> [[Daniel B. Wallace]], however, disputes the claim that ''ekeinos'' is connected with ''pneuma'' in John 14:26 and 16:13-14, asserting instead that it belongs to ''parakletos''. Wallace concludes that "it is difficult to find ''any'' text in which πνευμα is grammatically referred to with the masculine gender".<ref>[[Daniel B. Wallace]], ''Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of New Testament Greek'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 332.</ref>
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] the word for Spirit (רוח) (''ruach'') is feminine, (which is used in the [[Hebrew Bible]], as is the feminine word "[[shekhinah]]" in [[rabbinic literature]], to indicate the [[divine presence|presence of God]], {{langx|ar|سكينة}} [[sakina]], a word mentioned six times in the [[Quran]]).
In the [[Syriac language]] too, the grammatically feminine word ''rucha'' means "spirit", and writers in that language, both orthodox and Gnostic, used maternal images when speaking of the Holy Spirit. This imagery is found in the fourth-century theologians [[Aphrahat]] and [[Ephrem the Syrian]]. It is found in earlier writings of Syriac Christianity such as the [[Odes of Solomon]]<ref>Susan Ashbrook Harvey, "Feminine Imagery for the Divine: The Holy Spirit, the Odes of Solomon, and Early Syriac Tradition," ''St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly'' 37, nos. 2-3 (1993): 111-120.</ref> and in the [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] early-third-century [[Acts of Thomas]].<ref>Acts of Thomas 5:50, quoted in [http://www.theology.edu/journal/volume3/spirit.htm More Than Just a Controversy: All About The Holy Spirit]</ref>
Historian of religion [[Susan Ashbrook Harvey]] considers the grammatical gender to have been significant for early [[Syriac Christianity]]: "It seems clear that for the Syrians, the cue from grammar—''ruah'' as a feminine noun—was not entirely gratuitous. There was real meaning in calling the Spirit 'She'."<ref>Harvey, "Feminine Imagery," 136.</ref>
In the Catholic Church, the Holy Spirit is referred to in English as "He" in liturgical texts;<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fEmaqHANzXsC&pg=PA8 |first1=John |last1=Trigilio |first2=Kenneth |last2=Brighenti |title=The Catholicism Answer Book |publisher=Sourcebooks |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-4022-0806-5 |pages=7–8}}</ref> however, the [[Holy See]] directs that "the established gender usage of each respective language [is] to be maintained."<ref>''[https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccdds/documents/rc_con_ccdds_doc_20010507_liturgiam-authenticam_en.html Liturgiam Authenticam] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118125820/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccdds/documents/rc_con_ccdds_doc_20010507_liturgiam-authenticam_en.html |date=January 18, 2012 }}'', 31 (a)</ref>
==Discussion in mainstream Christianity==
===Ancient church===
For Semitic languages, such as ancient Syriac, the earliest liturgical tradition and established gender usage for referring to the Holy Spirit is feminine.<ref>''[https://stpaulcenter.com/documents/scripture/9_Kani_low.pdf Feminine-Maternal Images of the Spirit in Early Syriac Tradition, by Emmanuel Kaniyamparampil, O.C.D.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305031541/https://stpaulcenter.com/documents/scripture/9_Kani_low.pdf |date=2016-03-05 }}''</ref>
The [[Syriac language|Syriac]] language, which was in common use around AD 300, is derived from Aramaic. In documents produced in Syriac by the early [[Miaphysite]] church (which later became the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]]) the feminine gender of the word for ''spirit'' gave rise to a theology in which the Holy Spirit was considered feminine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theology.edu/journal/volume3/spirit.htm|title = Quartz Hill School of Theology}}</ref>
=== Recent discussions ===
Some recent authors (1980s to present), while retaining masculine reference to Father and Son, have used feminine language for the Holy Spirit. These authors include [[Clark Pinnock|Clark H. Pinnock]],<ref>Clark H. Pinnock, "The Role of the Spirit in Creation," ''Asbury Theological Journal'' 52 (Spring 1997), 47-54.</ref> Thomas N. Finger,<ref>Thomas N. Finger, ''Christian Theology:An Eschatological Approach''  vol. 2 (Scottdale, Penn.:Herald, 1987), 483-490.</ref> [[Jürgen Moltmann]],<ref>Jurgen Moltmann, ''The Spirit of Life: A Universal Affirmation'' (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), 157-158.</ref> Yves M.J. Congar,<ref>Yves M.J. Congar, ''I Believe in the Holy Spirit,'' vol. 3 (New York: Seabury, 1983), 155-164.</ref> John J. O'Donnell,<ref>John J. O'Donnell, ''The Mystery of the Triune God'' (London:Sheed & Ward, 1988), 97-99.</ref> Donald L. Gelpi,<ref>Donald L. Gelpi, ''The Divine Mother: A Trinitarian Theology of the Holy Spirit'' (New York:University Press of America, 1984).</ref> and R.P. Nettlehorst.<ref>[http://www.theology.edu/journal/volume3/spirit.htm More Than Just a Controversy: All About The Holy Spirit - by R.P. Nettelhorst]</ref><ref>[http://www.theology.edu/pneumato.htm Chapter Seven - Pneumatology: Doctrine of the Holy Spirit]</ref><ref>[http://www.theology.edu/theology/appen03.htm Appendix 3 -The Holy Spirit in the Old Testament - The Occurrences of Spirit]</ref>
''Discovering Biblical Equality'' maintains that viewing God in masculine terms is merely a way in which we speak of God in figurative language. The author reiterates that God is ''spirit'' and that the Bible presents God through personification and anthropomorphism which reflects only a likeness to God.<ref name="House">"God is not a sexual being, either male or female─something that was considered to be true in ancient Near Eastern religion. He even speaks specifically against such a view in {{Bibleref2|Num|23:19}}, where the text has Balaam saying God is not a man [ish], and in {{Bibleref2|Deut|4:15-16}}, in which he warns against creating a graven image in "the likeness of male or female." But though he is not a male, the "formless" deity ({{Bibleref2|Deut|4:15}}) has chosen to reveal himself largely in masculine ways." House, H. Wayne (reviewer). "God, Gender and Biblical Metaphor." ''J of Biblical Manhood and Womanhood,'' 10:1 (Spring 2005) p. 64</ref>
There are some churches (see below) who teach that the Holy Spirit is feminine based on the fact that both feminine nouns and verbs, as well as feminine analogies, are thought to be used by the Bible to describe the Spirit of God in passages such as Genesis 1:1-2, Genesis 2:7, Deut. 32:11-12, Proverbs 1:20, Matthew 11:19, Luke 3:22, and John 3:5-6.  These are based on the grammatical gender of both the nouns and verbs used by the original authors for the Spirit, as well as maternal analogies used by the prophets and Jesus for the Spirit in the original Bible languages.
There are biblical translations where the pronoun used for the Holy Spirit is masculine, in contrast to the gender of the noun used for ''spirit'' in Hebrew and Aramaic.<ref name="cathex">{{cite web
| title = Catholic Exchange
| date=24 June 2006
| url=http://catholicexchange.com/2006/06/24/83561/
| accessdate = 2009-05-13 }}</ref> In [[Aramaic]] also, the language generally considered to have been spoken by Jesus, the word is feminine. However, in Greek the word (''pneuma'') is neuter.<ref name="cathex" /> Most English translations of the New Testament refer to the Holy Spirit as masculine in a number of places where the masculine Greek word "Paraclete" occurs, for "Comforter", most clearly in the [[Gospel of John]], chapters 14 to 16.<ref>Nestle and others, ''[[Novum Testamentum Graece]]'', 27th ed. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgeselschaft, 1993)</ref> These texts were particularly significant when Christians were debating whether the New Testament teaches that the Holy Spirit is a fully divine hypostasis, as opposed to a created force.
==Feminine gender in other faith traditions==
===Latter-day Saints===
In [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] gender is seen "as an essential characteristic of eternal identity and purpose".<ref>[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/2008/10/gender-is-an-essential-characteristic-of-eternal-identity-and-purpose?lang=eng "Gender Is an Essential Characteristic of Eternal Identity and Purpose", Ensign, Oct. 2008, 67]</ref> The LDS Church believes that before humans lived on earth, they [[Premortal existence|existed spiritually]], with a spirit body with defined gender,<ref>[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/2005/01/strengthening-the-family-created-in-the-image-of-god-male-and-female?lang=eng "Strengthening the Family: Created in the Image of God, Male and Female", Ensign, Jan. 2005, 48–49]</ref> and that the Holy Spirit had a similar body, but was to become a member of the three personage [[Godhead (Latter Day Saints)|Godhead]]<ref>[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/topics/godhead?lang=eng The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]</ref> (Godhead consisting of God, or Heavenly Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost).
===Branch Davidians===
Some small Christian groups regard the gender of the Holy Spirit to be female, based on their understanding that the Hebrew word for Spirit, ''ruach'', can be feminine or masculine. Their views derive from skepticism toward [[Greek primacy]] for the New Testament.{{clarify|date=August 2016}} Foremost among these groups, and the most vocal on the subject are the [[Branch Davidians|Branch Davidian Seventh-day Adventists]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2016}}
In 1977, one of their leaders, [[Lois Roden]], began to formally teach that a feminine Holy Spirit is the heavenly pattern of women. In her many studies and talks she cited numerous scholars and researchers from Jewish, Christian, and other sources. They see in the creation of Adam and Eve a literal image and likeness of the invisible Godhead, male and female, who is "clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made".<ref>{{bibleverse||Romans|1:20|}}</ref>
They take the Oneness of God to mean the "familial" unity which exists between them, which unity is not seen in any other depiction of the Godhead by the various non-Hebrew peoples. Thus, having a Father and Mother in heaven, they see that the Bible shows that those Parents had a Son born unto them before the creation of the world, by Whom all things were created.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.the-branch.org/Spirit_Feminine_Mother_Hebrew_Greek_Jesus_Born_Doug_Mitchell |title=It's all Greek to Them The Holy Spirit He, She, or It? |access-date=2009-06-04 |archive-date=2019-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201212725/http://www.the-branch.org/Spirit_Feminine_Mother_Hebrew_Greek_Jesus_Born_Doug_Mitchell |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.the-branch.org/Holy_Ghost_Daughter_Holy_Spirit_Mother_Eloah_Doug_Mitchell The Real Ghost Story]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.the-branch.org/She_A_Tree_of_Life_Proverbs_3-18_New_Moons_Doug_Mitchell |title=She is a Tree of Life |access-date=2009-06-04 |archive-date=2009-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501162059/http://www.the-branch.org/She_A_Tree_of_Life_Proverbs_3-18_New_Moons_Doug_Mitchell |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.the-branch.org/Shelter_From_Storm_HolyGhost_She_Bob_Dylan_Doug_Mitchell |title=Shelter from the Storm |access-date=2009-06-04 |archive-date=2009-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501163122/http://www.the-branch.org/Shelter_From_Storm_HolyGhost_She_Bob_Dylan_Doug_Mitchell |url-status=dead }}</ref>
===Unity Church===
The [[Unity Church]]'s co-founder [[Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)|Charles Fillmore]] considered the Holy Spirit a distinctly feminine aspect of God considering it to be "the love of Jehovah" and "love is always feminine".<ref>{{Cite book|author=Charles Fillmore|author-link=Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)|title=Jesus Christ Heals|pages=182–183}}</ref>
===Messianic Jews===
The B'nai Yashua Synagogues Worldwide,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://yourarmstoisrael.org/BYSW/directory/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2009-06-04 |archive-date=2009-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416141701/http://yourarmstoisrael.org/BYSW/directory/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> a [[Messianic Judaism|Messianic]] group headed by Rabbi Moshe Koniuchowsky, holds to the feminine view of the Holy Spirit.<ref>[http://yourarmstoisrael.org/Articles_new/notes/index.php?page=what_is Who/What is the Ruach HaKodesh? Sermon Delivered 12-25-04 Part One]</ref><ref>[http://yourarmstoisrael.org/Articles_new/notes/index.php?page=Who_RuachHaKadosh2 Who/What is the Ruach HaKadosh? Sermon Delivered 1-1-05 Part Two]</ref> [[Messianic Judaism]] is considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity.
There are also some other independent Messianic groups with similar teachings. Some examples include Joy In the World;<ref>[http://www.joyintheworld.info Joy In the World]</ref><ref>[http://www.joyintheworld.info/teachings/ruachkodesh.html The Ruach HaKodesh: Him Or Her?]</ref> The Torah and Testimony Revealed;<ref>[http://www.tntrevealed.org/radioshow.cfm?c=27&l=33 The Torah and Testimony Revealed]</ref> Messianic Judaism - The Torah and the Testimony Revealed;<ref>[http://www.tntrevealed.org/qanda.cfm?c=7 Messianic Judaism - The Torah and the Testimony Revealed - Haas genealogy]</ref> and the Union of Nazarene Jewish Congregations/Synagogues,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nazarene.net/html |title=The Union of Nazarene Jewish Congregations/Synagogues |access-date=2010-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210104941/http://www.nazarene.net/html |archive-date=2007-12-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unjs.org/ |title=Home |website=unjs.org |access-date=2009-06-04 |archive-date=2009-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325234545/http://www.unjs.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> who also count as canonical the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]] which has the unique feature of referring to the Holy Spirit as Jesus' Mother.<ref>[[Gospel of the Hebrews#Content]]</ref>
Some scholars associated with mainline denominations, while not necessarily indicative of the denominations themselves, have written works explaining a feminine understanding of the third member of the Godhead.<ref>For example, R.P. Nettlehorst, professor at the [[Quartz Hill]] School of Theology (associated with the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]) has written on the subject. [http://www.theology.edu/journal/volume3/spirit.htm][http://www.theology.edu/pneumato.htm][http://www.theology.edu/theology/appen03.htm].</ref>
===Moravian Brethren===
There was a well established place in liturgy, prayer and doctrine for the Holy Spirit as the Mother amongst the [[Moravian Church|Moravian Brethren]], exemplified by [[Nicolaus Zinzendorf|Count Zinzendorf]] especially.<ref>{{cite web| first=Craig D. |last=Atwood|title= Lecture at Moravian Theological Seminary| date= 2011-11-19| url=http://zinzendorf.com/pages/index.php?id=Holy-spirit-as-mother}}</ref>
===Gnosticism===
In the [[Apocryphon of John|Secret Book of John]], an ancient codex from the [[Nag Hammadi Library]] used in Christian [[Gnosticism]], the divine female principle [[Barbelo]] is referred to as the Holy Spirit.<ref>{{cite book|author1=[[Marvin Meyer]]|author2=[[Willis Barnstone]]|title=The Gnostic Bible|publisher=[[Shambhala Publications|Shambhala]]|chapter=The Secret Book of John|url=http://gnosis.org/naghamm/apocjn-meyer.html|date=June 30, 2009|access-date=2021-10-15}}</ref>
==In art==
{{main|The Trinity in art}}
In Christian iconography, the Holy Spirit is most often represented as a [[dove]]. There is also a far less common tradition of depicting the Holy Spirit in human form, usually as male. Thus, [[Andrei Rublev]]'s ''[[Trinity (Andrei Rublev)|The Trinity]]'' represents the Trinity as the "three men" who visited Abraham at the oak of Mamre<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2018&version=9; Genesis 18]</ref> often considered a [[theophany]] of the [[Trinity]].<ref>{{Cite web| url = http://www.wellsprings.org.uk/rublevs_icon/rublev.htm | title =Rublev's Icon of the Trinity  | accessdate = 2008-12-23| publisher=wellsprings.org.uk}}</ref> In at least one medieval fresco, however, in the [[:de:St. Jakobus (Urschalling)|St. Jakobus church in Urschalling]], Germany, the Holy Spirit is depicted as a female.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://divinebalance.org/ebooks/finding_holy_spirit_mother.php|title = Divine Balance}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Maid of Heaven]], representation of the Holy Spirit in the Bahá'í Faith
==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}
==External links==
* [http://www.theology.edu/journal/volume3/spirit.htm More Than Just a Controversy: All About the Holy Spirit]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gender Of The Holy Spirit}}
[[Category:Conceptions of God]]
[[Category:Holy Spirit]]
[[Category:Pneumatology]]
[[Category:Gender and Christianity]]