View source for Gigaku

{{Short description|Historic Japanese drama-dance performance}}
{{Italic title}}
{{for multi|the genre of Japanese court music|Gagaku|the style of {{transl|ja|gagaku}} adopted from Tang-dynasty China|Tōgaku}}
{{Nihongo||伎楽|'''Gigaku'''}}, also known as {{Nihongo||呉楽|'''kure-gaku'''}},<ref name=shincho>{{Harvnb|Shinchosha|1985}}, p.357-8, on ''gigaku men'' (mask)</ref> refers to an extinct genre of masked drama-dance performance, imported into Japan during the [[Asuka period]].
==History==
Records state that {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} was introduced during the 20th year of the reign of [[Empress Suiko]] (612 AD)<ref name=shincho/><ref name=cambridge>{{cite book|last=Banham|first=Martin|title=The Cambridge Guide to Theatre|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/559 559]|format=preview|isbn=9780521434379}}</ref> by a certain {{nihongo|Mimaji|味摩之}}<ref name=shincho/><ref name=heibonsha>{{Harvnb|Heibonsha|1969}} volume=5, page=483-4, article on gigaku by [[:ja:吉川英史]] (Kikkawa, Eishi, 1909~2006, traditional music related art historian)</ref> from Kudara kingdom ([[Baekje]]), one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]]. According to accounts, Mimaji arrived in Sakurai and taught {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} to the Japanese youth.<ref name="benito">{{cite book |last=Ortolani |first=Benito |title=The Japanese Theatre: from Shamanistic Ritual to Contemporary Pluralism |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=1995}}</ref> It is said that he had studied {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} in [[Wu (region)|Wu]] (China), showing that the origins of {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} can be traced back to China, as during the [[Suiko period]] (593/604–658 AD), the Japanese court took heavy influence from Chinese and Korean culture.<ref>Lattimore, Owen. "A Treasury of Inner Asian History and Culture: A Review Article."Pacific Affairs, vol. 50, no. 3, 1977, pp. 426, Periodicals Archive Online</ref> The regent at the time, [[Prince Shōtoku]], played a decisive role in allowing and diffusing [[Buddhist]] culture within Japan; this spread of culture allowed {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} to be performed and viewed by many Japanese individuals, as it promoted the religion.<ref name="benito"/> {{transliteration|ja|Gigaku}} peaked during the first half of the 8th century, but began to disappear when {{transliteration|ja|[[bugaku]]}} took over as the official entertainment of the imperial palace, though {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} was still performed and taught in areas far from the capital and continued to play a role in Japanese entertainment until up to the 14th century.<ref name="benito"/> Many wooden {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} masks were painted at this time, most dating from the [[Nara period]] (710–784), and are now preserved at the [[Hōryūji]] and [[Tōdaiji]] temples and the imperial treasure house ([[Shōsōin]]), all in Nara.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Dennis |title=The Oxford Companion to Theatre and Performance |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2010}}</ref> Masks were an integral aspect of {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} theatre and represented various characteristics and properties and later influenced other parts of Japanese theatre.
The history of {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} is often widely debated, as there is no documentation of {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} in mainland Asia aside from a few extant masks. This lack of strong evidence often makes it difficult for researchers to decipher the true origins of {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}}, and its processes, characters, plots, and performances.
==Performance==
{{transliteration|ja|Gigaku}} was performed in silent [[mime]],<ref name=shincho/> to the accompaniment of music.<ref name=shincho/> The flute, [[waist drum]] (or {{nihongo|hip drum|腰鼓|yōko}},<ref name=araki/> also known as {{Nihongo3|'Wu drum'|呉鼓|kuretsuzumi}}),<ref name=shincho/> and {{Nihongo||鉦盤|shōban}}, a type of [[gong]], were the three instruments used in the Nara period, though the gong was superseded by a type of cymbal ({{Nihongo||銅鈸子|dobyōshi}}) in the early [[Heian period]] (9th century).<ref name=tokyomus>{{cite book|author=Tokyo National Museum|script-title=ja:伎楽面: 法隆寺献納宝物 |trans-title=Gigaku men: Horyuji kenno homotsu|year=1984|publisher=Benridō|isbn=9784892730238|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsBXAAAAMAAJ|format=snippet}}, p.207</ref>
About the only surviving description of the performance comes from the musical treatise forming a part of the {{Interlanguage link multi|Kyōkunshō|ja|3=教訓抄|vertical-align=sup}} ({{lang|ja|教訓抄}}; 'Selections for Instructions and Admonition')<ref name=araki>{{harvnb|Araki|1964}}, p.37-</ref> authored by {{Interlanguage link multi|Koma no Chikazane|ja|vertical-align=sup}} (died 1242).<ref name=shincho/> According to this, the {{transliteration|ja|netori}}, or tuning of instruments, signals the start, followed by a prelude of instruments.<ref name=araki/> Then there is a parading of the whole cast, both dancers and instrumentalists.<ref name=heibonsha/> It has been speculated that the character mask named {{Nihongo|Chidō|治道}} probably took position at the front of the parade,<ref name=shincho-chido>{{Harvnb|Shinchosha|1985}}, p.914 on "Chido""</ref> especially as this mask is listed first off in the assets ledgers ({{Nihongo||資材帳|Shizaichō}}) for some of the temples that house {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} masks.<ref name=shincho-chido/> The program opens with the Lion Dance ({{transliteration|ja|[[Lion dance|Shishimai]]}}),<ref name=araki/> and solo dances by the Duke of Wu,<ref name=araki/> wrestler, the birdman {{transliteration|ja|[[karura]]}}, and the Brahman priest.
==Archetypes==
There are two wrestler archetype characters, the {{Nihongo|'''Kongō'''|金剛}} or "Vajra-yakṣa" who is open-mouthed,<ref name=shincho-kongo>{{Harvnb|Shinchosha|1985}}, p562, on "Kongō" and p.1559 on "Rikishi"</ref> and the {{Nihongo|'''[[Rikishi]]'''|力士}} who is closed mouthed.<ref name=shincho-kongo/><ref name=hayashiya>{{Harvnb|Hayashiya|1988}}, p.85, p.101, etc.</ref> These two are said to be analogous to the two [[Nio (Buddhism)|Niō]] or guardian gate statues, who respectively form the open and closed [[A-un]] shapes in their mouths.<ref name=shincho-kongo/><ref name=hayashiya/> Rikishi and Konron masks are often mixed up due to their similar features, they possess a darker complexion, bulging eyes, large mouths and jutting teeth.<ref name="benito"/> These masks can be differentiated through their facial expressions as the Konron is less aggressive than Rikishi.
With the exaggerated features of many of the masks, the content of the play is described as being farcical.<ref name=araki/> Indeed, the two-part play of the {{Nihongo|'''Kuron'''|崑崙}} (or Konron; Chinese: [[Kunlun nu]] which denotes a [[Black people|black man]] or [[negrito]])<ref>{{harvnb|Araki|1964}}, p.37n, quote:"Konron (Chinese: K'un-lun) is an ithyphallic being who presumbably represents the dark-skinned native of South Asia.." etc.</ref> and the Rikishi (wrestler or "Strong Man") is outright obscene.<ref name=araki/>
In the ribald performance, the lascivious Kuron falls in lust for the Gojo (Wu woman or Chinese maiden), and expresses his desire by holding up his [[phallic]] prop called {{Nihongo||陽物(マラカタ)|marakata}}, and beating it with his [[hand fan]].<ref name=hayashiya/> The comic dance maneuvers are referred to as {{Nihongo3|'phallus-swinging dance'|マラフリ舞|marafuri-mai}}. In subsequent development, the Kuron is subdued by the Rikishi who binds the Kuron by his equipment ({{transliteration|ja|marakata}}), and drags him along by the noose around his manhood.<ref name=hayashiya/>
==Masks==
[[File:Masque 01.jpg|thumb|right|{{transliteration|ja|Gigaku}} masks from [[Horyuji]] temple]]
* {{Nihongo|Chidō|治道}} "Govern the way" – Leads the procession part. This mask has been suggested as precursor of the depiction of [[Tengu]] masks;<ref name=shincho-chido/><ref>[http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0000666 TNM (ex-Horyuji)]{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [http://bunka.nii.ac.jp/SearchDetail.do?heritageId=208209&imageNum=1 quarter view]</ref> it was a red headed mask with a wide mouth, long nose, wide bulging eyes, dark brows and sometimes contained few whiskers on the chin.<ref name="benito"/>
* {{Nihongo|Shishi|師子}} "lion" – Lion mask with movable jaw, ear, eyes,<ref name=shincho-shishi>{{Harvnb|Shinchosha|1985}}, p.633 on 'shishimen"</ref> similar in appearance to the mask from [[Shishimai]] lion dance. The mask contained tiny ears applied to a large circular face, a red tongue and snout, white teeth, brown, red, or green.<ref name="benito"/>
* {{Nihongo|Shishiko|師子児}} "lion tamers" – Usually two tamers accompany each lion<ref name=shincho-shishiko>{{Harvnb|Shinchosha|1985}}, p.633 on 'shishiko-men"</ref><ref>[http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0007649 TNM (ex-Horyuji)] (ex-Horyuji) and [http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0007695 another tamer, TNM (ex-Horyuji)]</ref>
* {{Nihongo|Gokō|呉公}} "Duke of Wu"<ref name=araki/><ref>[http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0000663 TCM (ex-Horyuji)]{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* {{Nihongo|Kongō|金剛}} "Vajra-yakṣa)" – Topknotted wrestler, wide-eyed and flexed eyebrows, open-mouthed. Serves Lord of Wu.<ref name=shincho-kongo/><ref>[http://bunka.nii.ac.jp/SearchDetail.do?heritageId=208209&imageNum=3 ex-Horyuji, Cultural Heritage Online]</ref>
* {{Nihongo|Karura|迦楼羅}} "[[Garuda|Garuḍa]]"<ref name=araki/><ref>[http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0007671 TNM (ex-Horyuji)]</ref>
* {{Nihongo|Kuron|崑崙}} "Kunlun (black man)"<ref> [http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0007667 TNM]</ref>
* {{Nihongo|Gojo|呉女}} "Wu woman" or "Chinese maiden"<ref name=araki/><ref>[http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0007698 TNM (8th century)]</ref>
* {{Nihongo|Rikishi|力士}} "wrestler" or "Strong Man"<ref name=araki/> – Topknotted wrestler like Kongo, but closed-mouthed.<ref name=shincho-kongo/><ref>[http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0007702  TNM (ex-Horyuji)]</ref>
* {{Nihongo|Baramon|波羅門}} – "Brāhmaṇa" priests<ref name=araki/><ref>[http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0007679 TNM (ex-Horyuji)]</ref>
* {{Nihongo|Taikofu|太弧父}} "old widower"<ref>{{Harvnb|Shinchosha|1985}}, p.862 on "Taiko"</ref><ref>[http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0007672 TNM]</ref>
* {{Nihongo|Taikoji|太弧児}} "old widower's child"<ref>[http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0007674 TNM]</ref>
* {{Nihongo|Suikoō|酔胡王}} "drunken Persian king" or "Drunken Hu barbarian"<ref name=araki/><ref>[http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0007711 TNM]</ref>
* {{Nihongo|Suikojū|酔胡従}} "drunken Persian's followers" – about 6–8 of them accompany the drunken Persian king.<ref>{{Harvnb|Shinchosha|1985}}, p.752 on "Suiko"</ref><ref>[http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/show/C0007715 TNM]</ref>
==Influence==
Many of these masks also influenced other Japanese theatre forms; [[Noh]], for example particularly has masks very similar to the {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}} masks of {{transliteration|ja|goko}} and {{transliteration|ja|gojo}}.<ref name="chinese nuo"> Tian, Min. "Chinese Nuo and Japanese Noh: Nuo's role in the origination and formation of Noh." Comparative Drama, vol. 37, no. 3-4, 2003, p. 343+. Literature Resource Center</ref> The well resemblance of {{transliteration|ja|gojo}} can be seen in the well known Noh mask of Koomote as well as Chido and Konron to the ghost and demon masks with their stark, exaggerated, and frightening features.<ref name="chinese nuo"/> Though these masks share similarities it is important to note that there are also differences with them, for example the masks of Noh are much smaller in comparison to {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}}, this is also the case with {{transliteration|ja|bugaku}} (the emerging theatre form after {{transliteration|ja|gigaku}}).
==See also==
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Gagaku]]}}
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Karura]]}}
* [[Kunlun Mountain (mythology)]]
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Menreiki]]}}
* [[Noh mask]]
* [[Sangaku (theater)]]
* [[Theatre in Japan]]
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|author=Shinchosha|title=新潮世界美術事典 (Shincho Encyclopedia of World Art)|year=1985|publisher=Shinchosha|isbn=4-10-730206-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Heibonsha|title=世界百科事典 (Sekai hyakka jiten)|orig-year=1964|year=1969}} (world encyclopedia, in Japanese)
* {{cite book|last=Hayashiya|first=Tatsusaburō (林屋辰三郎)|title=芸術の周辺 (Geijutsu no shūhen)|publisher=Iwanami|year=1988|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UmuwAAAAIAAJ|format=snippet|series=日本史論聚|volume=8|isbn=9784000034883}}, p.&nbsp;85
* {{cite book|last=Araki|first=James T.|title=The Ballad-Drama of Medieval Japan|publisher=University of California Press|year=1964|url=https://archive.org/details/balladdramaofmed0000arak|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/balladdramaofmed0000arak/page/39 39]|format=preview|series=Publications of the Center for Japanese and Korean Studies
|lccn=64-24887}}, p.&nbsp;36ff, illustrated.
{{Refend}}
==External links==
* [http://webarchives.tnm.jp/imgsearch/index Tokyo National Museum (TNM) image search]
* [http://bunka.nii.ac.jp/SearchDetail.do?heritageId=208209&imageNum=0 Cultural Heritage Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121219140725/http://bunka.nii.ac.jp/SearchDetail.do?heritageId=208209&imageNum=0 |date=2012-12-19 }}
{{Music of Japan}}
[[Category:Japanese styles of music]]
[[Category:Classical and art music traditions]]
[[Category:Japanese traditional music]]
[[Category:Masked dances]]
[[Category:Masquerade ceremonies in Asia]]
[[Category:Japanese words and phrases]]