View source for Health and environmental impact of the petroleum industry

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[[File:An oil rig offshore Vungtau.jpg|right|thumb|[[routine flaring|Flaring]] of gas from offshore oil extraction platforms]]
[[File:Oil-spill.jpg|right|thumb|A beach after an [[oil spill]].]]
[[File:Plastic Pollution in Ghana.jpg|right|thumb|Accumulation of [[plastic waste]] on a beach.]]
The [[environmental impact]] of the [[petroleum industry]] is extensive and expansive due to [[petroleum]] having many uses.
[[Crude oil]] and [[natural gas]] are [[primary energy]] and [[raw material]] sources that enable numerous aspects of modern daily life and the [[world economy]].
Their supply has grown quickly over the last 150 years to meet the demands of the rapidly increasing [[human population]], creativity, knowledge, and [[consumerism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/business/BERA/issue5/history.html |author=The Library of Congress |title=History of the Oil and Gas Industry |journal=Business and Economics Research Advisor |issue=5/6 |date=2006}}</ref>
Substantial quantities of [[toxic]] and non-toxic waste are generated during the [[oil extraction|extraction]], [[oil refinery|refinement]], and [[petroleum transport|transportation]] stages of oil and gas.
Some industry by-products, such as [[volatile organic compounds]], [[nitrogen dioxide|nitrogen]] & [[sulfur compounds]], and [[oil spill|spilled oil]] can pollute the air, water and soil at levels that are harmful to life, when improperly managed.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/documents/flaringviolations.pdf |title=EPA enforcement targets flaring efficiency violations |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |date=2012-08-01 |access-date=2020-02-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/documents/flaring.pdf |title=Frequent, routine flaring may cause excessive, uncontrolled sulfur dioxide releases |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |date=2000-10-01 |access-date=2020-02-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bautista |first1=H. |last2=Rahman |first2=K.M.M. |title=Review On the Sundarbans Delta Oil Spill: Effects On Wildlife and Habitats |journal=International Research Journal |volume=1 |issue=43 |pages=93–96 |date=25 January 2016 |doi=10.18454/IRJ.2016.43.143}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bautista | first1 = H. | last2 = Rahman | first2 = K. M. M. | year = 2016 | title = Effects of Crude Oil Pollution in the Tropical Rainforest Biodiversity of Ecuadorian Amazon Region | journal = Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 249–254 }}</ref>
[[Climate warming]], [[ocean acidification]], and [[sea level rise]] are global changes enhanced by the industry's emissions of [[greenhouse gases]] like [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) and [[methane]], and micro-particulate [[aerosols]] like [[black carbon]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eggleton|first1=Tony|title=A Short Introduction to Climate Change|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=52|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jeSwRly2M_cC&q=280&pg=PA52|isbn=9781107618763}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |author=Stohl, A. |author2=Klimont, Z. |author3=Eckhardt, S. |author4=Kupiainen, K. |author5=Chevchenko, V.P. |author6=Kopeikin, V.M. |author7=Novigatsky, A.N. |title=Black carbon in the Arctic: the underestimated role of gas flaring and residential combustion emissions |journal=Atmos. Chem. Phys. |volume=13 |issue=17 |pages=8833–8855 |year=2013 |doi=10.5194/acp-13-8833-2013 |bibcode=2013ACP....13.8833S |doi-access=free |hdl=11250/2383886 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://arctic-council.org/images/PDF_attachments/COP24_2018/2018-11-10-COP24-Stanley-flaring-World-Bank-BC.pdf |title=Gas flaring: An industry practice faces increasing global attention |author=Michael Stanley |publisher=World Bank |date=2018-12-10 |access-date=2020-02-08}}</ref> Vehicle [[tailpipe emissions]] kill many people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Air pollution from vehicle-tailpipe emissions and diagnostic approaches through cyber–physical platform - a review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0141933123000510}}</ref>
Among all human activities, [[fossil fuel]] [[combustion]] is the largest contributor to the ongoing [[carbon cycle|buildup of carbon]] in the Earth's [[biosphere]].<ref name="heede">{{Cite journal |author=Heede, R. |title=Tracing anthropogenic carbon dioxide and methane emissions to fossil fuel and cement producers, 1854–2010 |journal=Climatic Change |volume=122 |pages=229–241 |year=2014 |issue=1–2 |doi=10.1007/s10584-013-0986-y|bibcode=2014ClCh..122..229H |doi-access=free }}</ref>
The [[International Energy Agency]] and others report that oil & gas use comprises over 55% (18 billion tons) of the recorded 32.8 billion tons (BT) of {{CO2}} released into the atmosphere from all energy sources in year 2017.<ref name="ieaco2">{{Cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics?country=WORLD&fuel=CO2%20emissions&indicator=CO2%20emissions%20by%20energy%20source |title=Data and Statistics: CO₂ emissions by energy source, World 1990-2017 |publisher=International Energy Agency (Paris) |access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions#co2-emissions-by-fuel |title=CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: CO₂ Emissions by Fuel |author1=Hannah Ritchie |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |author2=Max Roser |author2-link=Max Roser |journal=Our World in Data |publisher=Published online at OurWorldInData.org. |year=2020 |access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>
[[Coal]] use comprised most of the remaining 45%.  Total [[Air pollution|emissions]] continue to rise nearly every year: from 1.7% to 33.1&nbsp;BT in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-co2-status-report-2019 |title=Global Energy & CO2 Status Report 2019: The latest trends in energy and emissions in 2018 |publisher=International Energy Agency (Paris) |date=2019-03-01 |access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>
Through its operations, the petroleum industry directly contributed about 8% (2.7&nbsp;BT) of the 32.8&nbsp;BT in 2017.<ref name="ieaco2" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/methane-tracker/methane-from-oil-gas#abstract |title=Methane Tracker - Methane from oil and gas |publisher=International Energy Agency (Paris) |date=2020-01-01 |access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref><ref name="ieach4">{{Cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/tracking-fuel-supply-2019/methane-emissions-from-oil-and-gas |title=Tracking Fuel Supply - Methane emissions from oil and gas |publisher=International Energy Agency (Paris) |date=2019-11-01 |access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>
Also, due to its intentional and other releases of natural gas, the industry directly contributed at least<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Alvarez, R.A. |display-authors=etal |title=Assessment of methane emissions from the U.S. oil and gas supply chain |journal=Science |volume=361 |issue=6398 |pages=186–188 |doi=10.1126/science.aar7204 |date=2018-07-13|doi-access=free |bibcode=2018Sci...361..186A |pmid=29930092 |pmc=6223263 }}</ref> 79 million tons of methane (2.4&nbsp;BT CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalent) that same year; an amount equal to about 14% of all known [[Anthropogenic hazard|anthropogenic]] and natural emissions of the potent warming gas.<ref name="ieach4" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/methane-tracker/country-and-regional-estimates |title=Methane Tracker - Country and regional estimates |publisher=International Energy Agency (Paris) |date=2019-11-01 |access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/methane-tracker |title=Methane Tracker - Analysis |publisher=International Energy Agency (Paris) |date=2019-11-01 |access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>
Along with fuels like [[gasoline]] and [[liquified natural gas]], petroleum enables many consumer chemicals and products, such as [[fertilizer]]s and [[plastic]]s.
Most alternative technologies for energy generation, transportation, and storage can only be realized at this time because of its diverse usefulness.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/to-get-wind-power-you-need-oil |author=Vaclav Smil |title=To Get Wind Power You Need Oil |publisher=IEEE Spectrum |date=2016-02-29 | access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>
[[conservation (ethic)|Conservation]], [[economic efficiency|efficiency]], and [[waste reduction|minimizing waste impacts]] of petroleum products are effective industry and consumer actions toward achieving better [[environmental sustainability]].<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Amory Lovins |title=How big is the energy efficiency resource? |journal=Environmental Research Letters |publisher=IOP Science |volume=13 |number=9 |date=2018-09-18 |page=090401 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aad965|bibcode=2018ERL....13i0401L |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Asim |first1=Nilofar |last2=Badiei |first2=Marzieh |last3=Torkashvand |first3=Mohammad |last4=Mohammad |first4=Masita |last5=Alghoul |first5=Mohammad A. |last6=Gasaymeh |first6=Shawkat S. |last7=Sopian |first7=Kamaruzzaman |date=2021-02-15 |title=Wastes from the petroleum industries as sustainable resource materials in construction sectors: Opportunities, limitations, and directions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652620355050 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=284 |pages=125459 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125459 |s2cid=230552246 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=twall |date=2022-12-08 |title=What oil and gas companies are doing to promote environmental sustainability |url=https://www.plantengineering.com/articles/what-oil-and-gas-companies-are-doing-to-promote-environmental-sustainability/ |access-date=2023-06-13 |website=Plant Engineering |language=en-US}}</ref>
==General Issues==
{{See also|Environmental issues with energy}}
===Toxic compounds===
[[Image:Dieselrainbow.jpg|thumb|right|Petroleum distillates can create a sheen on the surface of water as a thin layer creating an optical phenomenon called interphase.]]
Petroleum is a complex mixture of many components . These components include straight chained, branched, cyclic, monocyclic [[Aromatic hydrocarbon|aromatic]] and [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s. The toxicity of oils can be understood using the toxic potential or the toxicity of each individual component of oil at the water solubility of that component.<ref name="Di Toro-2007">{{Cite journal|last1=Di Toro|first1=Dominic M.|last2=McGrath|first2=Joy A.|last3=Stubblefield|first3=William A.|date=2007-01-01|title=Predicting the toxicity of neat and weathered crude oil: Toxic potential and the toxicity of saturated mixtures|journal=Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry|language=en|volume=26|issue=1|pages=24–36|doi=10.1897/06174r.1|pmid=17269456|s2cid=7499541|issn=1552-8618}}</ref> There are many methods that can be used to measure the toxicity of crude oil and other petroleum related products. Certain studies analyzing levels of toxicity can use the target lipid model or colorimetric analysis using colored-dyes in order to assess toxicity and [[Biodegradation|biodegradability]].<ref name="Montagnolli-2015">{{Cite journal|last1=Montagnolli|first1=Renato Nallin|last2=Lopes|first2=Paulo Renato Matos|last3=Bidoia|first3=Ederio Dino|date=2015-02-01|title=Screening the Toxicity and Biodegradability of Petroleum Hydrocarbons by a Rapid Colorimetric Method|journal=Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology|language=en|volume=68|issue=2|pages=342–353|doi=10.1007/s00244-014-0112-9|pmid=25537922|s2cid=5249816|issn=0090-4341}}</ref>
Different oils and petroleum-related products have different levels of toxicity. Levels of toxicity are influenced by many factors such as [[weathering]], solubility, as well as chemical properties such as persistence. Increased weathering tends to decrease levels of toxicity as more soluble and lower [[Molecular Weight|molecular weight]] substances are removed.<ref name="Di Toro-2007" /> Highly [[Solubility|soluble]] substances tend to have higher levels of toxicity than substances that are not very soluble in water.<ref name="Montagnolli-2015" /> Generally oils that have longer carbon chains and with more benzene rings have higher levels of toxicity. [[Benzene]] is the petroleum-related product with the highest level of toxicity. Other substances other than benzene which are highly toxic are [[toluene]], methylbenzene and [[xylene]]s (BETX).<ref name="Montagnolli-2015" /> Substances with the lowest toxicity are [[Petroleum|crude oil]] and [[motor oil]].<ref name="Montagnolli-2015" />
Despite varying levels of toxicity amongst different variants of oil, all petroleum -derived products have adverse impacts on human [[health]] and the [[ecosystem]]. Examples of adverse effects are oil emulsions in digestive systems in certain mammals might result in decreased ability to digest nutrients that might lead to death of certain mammals.  Further symptoms include capillary ruptures and hemorrhages. Ecosystem food chains can be affected due to a decrease in [[algae]] productivity therefore threatening certain species.<ref name="Montagnolli-2015" /> Oil is "acutely lethal" to fish - that is, it kills fish quickly, at a concentration of 4000 parts per million ([[Parts per million|ppm]])<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Prasad | first1 = M. S. | last2 = Kumari | first2 = K. | doi = 10.1002/aheh.19870150106 | title = Toxicity of Crude Oil to the Survival of the Fresh Water FishPuntius sophore (HAM.) | journal = Acta Hydrochimica et Hydrobiologica | volume = 15 | pages = 29–36 | year = 1987 }}</ref> (0.4%).  The toxicity of petroleum related products threaten human health. Many compounds found in oil are highly toxic and can cause cancer ([[carcinogen]]ic) as well as other diseases.<ref name="Di Toro-2007" /> Studies in [[Taiwan]] link proximity to oil refineries to [[Preterm birth|premature births]].<ref name="Lin-2001">{{Cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=Meng-Chaio|last2=Chiu|first2=Hui-Fen|last3=Yu|first3=Hsin-Su|last4=Tsai|first4=Shang-Shyue|last5=Cheng|first5=Bi-Hua|last6=Wu|first6=Trong-Neng|last7=Sung|first7=Fung-Sung|last8=Yang|first8=Chun-Yuh|date=2001|title=Increased Risk of Preterm Deliveries in Areas with Air Pollution From a Petroleum Refinery Plant in Taiwan|journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A|volume=64|issue=8|pages=637–644|doi=10.1080/152873901753246232|pmid=11766170|s2cid=29365261}}</ref> Crude oil and petroleum distillates cause [[birth defects]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.burke-eisner.com/petroleum-solvents/|title=Petroleum Solvents Overview|publisher=www.burke-eisner.com}}</ref>
[[Benzene]] is present in both crude oil and gasoline and is known to cause [[leukaemia]] in humans.<ref name="oxford">{{cite journal |title=Benzene Exposure on a Crude Oil Production Vessel -- KIRKELEIT et al. 50 (2): 123 -- Annals of Occupational Hygiene |journal=The Annals of Occupational Hygiene |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=123–9 |doi=10.1093/annhyg/mei065 |pmid=16371415 |year=2005 |last1=Kirkeleit |first1=J. |last2=Riise |first2=T. |last3=Bråtveit |first3=M. |last4=Moen |first4=B. E. |doi-access=free }}</ref> The compound is also known to lower the [[white blood cell]] count in humans, which would leave people exposed to it more susceptible to [[infection]]s.<ref name="oxford" /> "Studies have linked benzene exposure in the mere parts per billion (ppb) range to terminal leukaemia, [[Hodgkin's lymphoma]], and other blood and [[immune system]] diseases within 5-15 years of exposure."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.laleva.org/eng/2010/05/benzene_pollution_-_a_health_risk_in_gulf_bp_oil_drilling_disaster.html |title=Benzene pollution - a health risk in Gulf BP Oil drilling disaster - La Leva di Archimede (ENG) |publisher=www.laleva.org |access-date=2010-06-07 }}</ref>
Fossil gas and oil naturally contain small amounts of [[radioactive element]]s which are released during mining.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ajayi|first1=T. R.|last2=Torto|first2=N.|last3=Tchokossa|first3=P.|last4=Akinlua|first4=A.|date=2009-02-01|title=Natural radioactivity and trace metals in crude oils: implication for health|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-008-9155-z|journal=Environmental Geochemistry and Health|language=en|volume=31|issue=1|pages=61–69|doi=10.1007/s10653-008-9155-z|pmid=18320332|s2cid=30306228|issn=1573-2983}}</ref> High concentration of these elements in [[brine]] is a technological and environmental concern.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Syrian Job: Uncovering the Oil Industry's Radioactive Secret|url=https://desmog.co.uk/2020/04/29/syrian-job-oil-industry-radioactive-secret|website=DeSmog UK|date=29 April 2020 |language=en|access-date=2020-05-19}}</ref>
{{See also|Radioactive waste#Oil and gas}}
===Greenhouse gases===
{{Main|Greenhouse gases}}
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Petroleum extraction disrupts the equilibrium of earth's [[carbon cycle]] by transporting sequestered geologic carbon into the biosphere. The carbon is used by consumers in various forms and a large fraction is combusted into the atmosphere; thus creating massive amounts of the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, as a waste product. Natural gas (mostly methane) is an even more potent greenhouse gas when it escapes into the atmosphere prior to being burned.
Since the [[industrial age]] began circa 1750–1850 with growing wood and coal use, the [[atmospheric methane|atmospheric concentration]] of carbon dioxide and methane have increased about 50% and 150%, respectively, above their relatively stable levels of the prior 800,000+ years.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions#co2-concentrations |title=CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: CO₂ Concentrations |author=Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser |journal=Our World in Data |publisher=Published online at OurWorldInData.org. |year=2020 |access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions#ch4-concentrations |title=CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: CH4 Concentrations |author=Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser |journal=Our World in Data |publisher=Published online at OurWorldInData.org. |year=2020 |access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>
Each is currently increasing at a rate of about 1% every year, since about half of the added carbon has been absorbed by Earth's land vegetation and ocean sinks.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eggleton|first1=Tony|title=A Short Introduction to Climate Change|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=153|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jeSwRly2M_cC&q=280&pg=PA52|isbn=9781107618763}}</ref>
The [[greenhouse gas emissions|growth in annual emissions]] has also been so rapid that the total amount of [[fossil fuel|fossil carbon]] extracted in the last 30 years exceeds the total amount extracted during all prior human history.<ref name="heede" />
===Microplastics===
{{Main|Microplastics}}
[[File:Microplastics in Mljet National Park in Croatia (48738883061).jpg|thumb|Microplastics in Mljet National Park, Croatia]]
Petroleum has enabled plastics to be used to create a wide range and massive quantity of consumer items at extremely low production costs.  Annual growth rates in production have been near 10%, and are driven largely by [[disposable product|single-use]] plastics for which improper disposal is common.<ref>{{cite news |title=The known unknowns of plastic pollution |url=https://www.economist.com/news/international/21737498-so-far-it-seems-less-bad-other-kinds-pollution-about-which-less-fuss-made |access-date=17 June 2018 |newspaper=The Economist |date=3 March 2018}}</ref>
The majority of plastic is not recycled, and it fragments into smaller and smaller pieces over time. Microplastics are particles that are smaller than 5&nbsp;mm in size.  Microplastics are observable in air, water, and soil samples gathered from nearly every location on earth's surface,   and also increasingly within biological samplings. Long-term effects from the environmental buildup of plastic waste are under scientific evaluation but thus far mostly unknown.<ref name="SAPEA Scientific Advice for Policy by European Academies 2019">{{Cite book |last= |url=https://www.sapea.info/topics/microplastics/ |title=A scientific perspective on microplastics in nature and society |publisher=SAPEA (Scientific Advice for Policy by European Academies) |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-9820301-0-4}}</ref>   Microplastics are concern because they have a tendency to adsorb pollutants on their surface, as well as an ability to [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Batel|first1=Annika|last2=Linti|first2=Frederic|last3=Scherer|first3=Martina|last4=Erdinger|first4=Lothar|last5=Braunbeck|first5=Thomas|date=July 2016|title=Transfer of benzo[ a ]pyrene from microplastics to Artemia nauplii and further to zebrafish via a trophic food web experiment: CYP1A induction and visual tracking of persistent organic pollutants: Trophic transfer of microplastics and associated POPs|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/etc.3361|journal=Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry|language=en|volume=35|issue=7|pages=1656–1666|doi=10.1002/etc.3361|pmid=26752309|s2cid=4300481 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rillig|first=Matthias C.|date=2012-06-19|title=Microplastic in Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Soil?|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/es302011r|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=46|issue=12|pages=6453–6454|doi=10.1021/es302011r|pmid=22676039|bibcode=2012EnST...46.6453R|issn=0013-936X}}</ref>
[[File:Microplastic.jpg|thumb|Microplastics can be found in the ocean and marine habitats.]]
When particles are ingested by marine organisms they usually end up in tissues such as the digestive glands, circulatory system, gills and guts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Watts|first1=Andrew J. R.|last2=Lewis|first2=Ceri|last3=Goodhead|first3=Rhys M.|last4=Beckett|first4=Stephen J.|last5=Moger|first5=Julian|last6=Tyler|first6=Charles R.|last7=Galloway|first7=Tamara S.|date=2014-08-05|title=Uptake and Retention of Microplastics by the Shore Crab Carcinus maenas|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/es501090e|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=48|issue=15|pages=8823–8830|doi=10.1021/es501090e|pmid=24972075|bibcode=2014EnST...48.8823W|issn=0013-936X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lusher|first1=A. L.|last2=McHugh|first2=M.|last3=Thompson|first3=R. C.|date=2013-02-15|title=Occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract of pelagic and demersal fish from the English Channel|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X12005668|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=67|issue=1|pages=94–99|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.11.028|pmid=23273934|bibcode=2013MarPB..67...94L |issn=0025-326X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=von Moos|first1=Nadia|last2=Burkhardt-Holm|first2=Patricia|last3=Köhler|first3=Angela|date=2012-10-16|title=Uptake and Effects of Microplastics on Cells and Tissue of the Blue Mussel Mytilus edulis L. after an Experimental Exposure|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es302332w|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|language=en|volume=46|issue=20|pages=11327–11335|doi=10.1021/es302332w|pmid=22963286|bibcode=2012EnST...4611327V|issn=0013-936X}}</ref> When these organisms are consumed and shifted upwards in the food chain, they end up creating an exposure risk towards bigger organisms and ultimately humans. Microplastics possess many risks to various organisms. They are known to disrupt algal feeding, increase mortality and lower fertility in copepods.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cole|first1=Matthew|last2=Lindeque|first2=Pennie|last3=Fileman|first3=Elaine|last4=Halsband|first4=Claudia|last5=Goodhead|first5=Rhys|last6=Moger|first6=Julian|last7=Galloway|first7=Tamara S.|date=2013-06-18|title=Microplastic Ingestion by Zooplankton|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/es400663f|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=47|issue=12|pages=6646–6655|doi=10.1021/es400663f|pmid=23692270|bibcode=2013EnST...47.6646C|issn=0013-936X|hdl=10871/19651|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Kyun-Woo|last2=Shim|first2=Won Joon|last3=Kwon|first3=Oh Youn|last4=Kang|first4=Jung-Hoon|date=October 2013|title=Size-Dependent Effects of Micro Polystyrene Particles in the Marine Copepod Tigriopus japonicus|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es401932b|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|language=en|volume=47|issue=19|pages=11278–11283|doi=10.1021/es401932b|pmid=23988225|bibcode=2013EnST...4711278L|issn=0013-936X}}</ref> Amongst mussels, microplastics are known to interrupt filtration and induce inflammatory responses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=von Moos|first1=Nadia|last2=Burkhardt-Holm|first2=Patricia|last3=Köhler|first3=Angela|date=2012-09-27|title=Uptake and Effects of Microplastics on Cells and Tissue of the Blue Mussel Mytilus edulis L. after an Experimental Exposure|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es302332w|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=46|issue=20|pages=11327–11335|doi=10.1021/es302332w|pmid=22963286|bibcode=2012EnST...4611327V|issn=0013-936X}}</ref> There is still a lack of data in how these particles ultimately affect humans because most marine organisms are gutted before consumed. In spite of that, their environmental effects are well documented and the extent of their damage is well understood.
==Local and regional impacts==
[[File:2021 Death rates, by energy source.svg |thumb |Deaths caused by use of fossil fuels such as oil (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly exceed those resulting from production of [[renewable energy]] (rectangles barely visible in chart).<ref name=OWID_SafestEnergy_2021>{{cite journal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |last2=Roser |first2=Max |title=What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy |journal=Our World in Data |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115112316/https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy |archive-date=15 January 2024 |date=2021 |url-status=live }} Data sources: Markandya & Wilkinson (2007); UNSCEAR (2008; 2018); Sovacool et al. (2016); IPCC AR5 (2014); Pehl et al. (2017); Ember Energy (2021).</ref>]]
Some harmful impacts of petroleum can be limited to the geographic locations where it is produced, consumed, and/or disposed. In many cases, the impacts may be reduced to safe levels when consumers practice responsible use and disposal. Producers of specific products can further reduce the impacts through [[life cycle assessment]] and [[Design for the Environment|environmental design]] practices.
===Air pollution===
{{Main|Air pollution}}
[[Image:Diesel-smoke.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Petroleum [[diesel exhaust]] from a truck]]
====Exhaust emissions====
Emissions from the petroleum industry occur in every chain of the oil-producing process from the extraction to the consumption phase . In the extraction phase, [[gas venting]] and [[routine flaring|flaring]] release not only [[methane]] and [[carbon dioxide]],  but various other pollutants like [[nitrous oxide]]s and [[aerosol]]s.<ref name="Tuccella-2017">{{Cite journal|last1=Tuccella|first1=P.|last2=Thomas|first2=J. L.|last3=Law|first3=K. S.|last4=Raut|first4=J.-C.|last5=Marelle|first5=L.|last6=Roiger|first6=A.|last7=Weinzierl|first7=B.|last8=Gon|first8=H. A. C. Denier van der|last9=Schlager|first9=H.|date=2017-06-07|title=Air pollution impacts due to petroleum extraction in the Norwegian Sea during the ACCESS aircraft campaign|journal=Elem Sci Anth|language=en|volume=5|pages=25|doi=10.1525/elementa.124|issn=2325-1026|doi-access=free|hdl=2027.42/146562|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Certain by-products include [[carbon monoxide]] and [[methanol]].  When oil or petroleum distillates are combusted, usually the [[combustion]] is not complete and the chemical reaction leaves by-products which are not water or carbon dioxide. However, despite the large amounts of pollutants, there is variation in the amount and concentration of certain pollutants.<ref name="Tuccella-2017" /> In the refinement stages of petroleum also contributes to large amounts of pollution in urban areas. This increase in pollution has adverse effects on human health due to the toxicity of oil. A study investigating the effects of oil refineries in Taiwan. The study found an increased occurrence of premature births in mothers that lived in close proximity to oil refineries than mothers who lived away from oil refineries. There were also differences observed in sex ratios and the [[birth weight]] of the children.<ref name="Lin-2001" /> Also, fine [[Atmospheric particulate matter|particulates]] of [[soot]] blacken humans' and other animals' lungs and cause heart problems or death. Soot is [[cancer]] causing ([[carcinogen]]ic)<ref name="Di Toro-2007" />
====Vapor intrusion====
{{Main|Vapor intrusion}}
[[Volatile organic compound]]s (VOCs) are gases or vapours emitted by various solids and liquids.<ref>{{cite web|last=HDOH|title=Field Investigation of the Chemistry and Toxicity of TPH in Petroleum Vapors: Implications for Potential Vapor Intrusion Hazards|url=http://www.hawaiidoh.org/tgm-content/2600a.aspx?m=True|publisher=Hawai'i Department of Health|access-date=8 December 2012}}</ref> Petroleum hydrocarbons such as gasoline, diesel, or jet fuel intruding into indoor spaces from underground storage tanks or brownfields threaten safety (e.g., explosive potential) and causes adverse health effects from inhalation.<ref name=vapor>{{cite web|author1=U.S.EPA|title=Vapor Intrusion|url=http://www.epa.gov/oswer/vaporintrusion/|publisher=U.S.EPA|access-date=13 June 2015|date=11 June 2015}}</ref>
===Acid rain===
{{Main|Acid rain}}
[[File:Waldschaeden Erzgebirge 3.jpg|thumb|right|Trees killed by acid rain, an unwanted side effect of burning petroleum]]
The combustion process of [[petroleum]], [[coal]] and [[wood]] is responsible for increased occurrence of acid rain. Combustion causes an increased amount of [[nitrous oxide]], along with [[sulfur dioxide]] from the sulfur in the oil. These by-products combine with water in the atmosphere to create acid rain. The increased concentrations of nitrates and other acidic substances have significant effects on the [[PH|pH levels]] of rainfall. Data samples analyzed from the [[United States]] and [[Europe]] from the past 100 years and showed an increase in nitrous oxide emissions from combustion. The emissions were large enough to acidify the rainfall. The acid rain has adverse impacts on the larger ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brimblecombe|first1=P.|author1-link=Peter Brimblecombe|last2=Stedman|first2=D.H|date=1982|title=Historic Evidence of Dramatic Increase in Nitrate Component of Acid Rain|journal=Nature|volume=298|pages=460–463|doi=10.1038/298460a0|hdl=2027.42/62831|s2cid=4120204|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For example, acid rain can kill trees, and can kill fish by acidifying lakes. [[Coral reef]]s are also destroyed by acid rain. Acid rain also leads to the corrosion of machinery and structures (large amounts of capital) and to the slow destruction of archeological structures like the marble ruins of [[Rome]] and [[Greece]].
===Oil spills===
{{Main|Oil spill}}
An oil spill is the release of a [[liquid]] [[petroleum]] [[hydrocarbon]] into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution.  The term is usually applied to [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] oil spills, where oil is released into the [[ocean]] or [[coastal waters]], but spills may also occur on land.  Oil spills may be due to releases of [[crude oil]] from [[oil tanker|tankers]], pipelines, railcars, [[Oil platform|offshore platforms]], [[drilling rig]]s and [[Oil well|wells]], as well as spills of [[Oil refinery|refined petroleum products]] (such as [[gasoline]], [[diesel fuel|diesel]]) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as [[bunker fuel]], or the spill of any oily refuse or [[waste oil]].
Major oil spills include, [[Lakeview Gusher]], [[Gulf War oil spill]], and the [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill]]. Spilt oil penetrates into the structure of the [[plumage]] of birds and the [[fur]] of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less [[buoyancy|buoyant]] in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved.<ref>[http://www.commondreams.org/views04/0322-04.htm Lingering Lessons of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613042140/http://www.commondreams.org/views04/0322-04.htm |date=June 13, 2010 }}</ref> Other factors influencing the rate of long-term contamination is the continuous inputs of petroleum residues and the rate at which the environment can clean itself<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nicodem|first1=David E.|last2=Fernandes|first2=Conceicao|last3=Guedes|first3=Carmen L.B|last4=Correa|first4=Rodrigo J.|date=1997|title=Photochemical processes and the environmental impact of petroleum spills|journal=Biogeochemistry|volume=39|issue=2|pages=121–138|doi=10.1023/A:1005802027380|s2cid=97354477}}</ref> Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://vimeo.com/10216588 |title=Hindsight and Foresight, 20 Years After the Exxon Valdez Spill| access-date=2010-04-30  | date=2010-03-16 |publisher=NOAA Ocean Media Center }}</ref>
===Waste oil===
{{Main|Waste oil}}
[[File:Oil Change oil pan 2005 gmc suv.JPG|thumb|right|Waste oil in the form of [[motor oil]] ]]
Waste oil is oil containing not only breakdown products but also impurities from use. Some examples of waste oil are used oils such as [[hydraulic oil]], transmission oil, brake fluids, [[motor oil]], [[crankcase]] oil, [[gear box]] oil and [[synthetic oil]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.maine.gov/dep/rwm/wasteoil/wasteoil.htm |title=State of Maine (www.maine.gov) |access-date=2010-10-16 |archive-date=2010-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021151103/http://maine.gov/dep/rwm/wasteoil/wasteoil.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Many of the same problems associated with natural petroleum exist with waste oil. When waste oil from vehicles drips out engines over streets and roads, the oil travels into the water table bringing with it such toxins as [[benzene]]. This poisons both soil and drinking water. Runoff from storms carries waste oil into rivers and oceans, poisoning them as well.
=== Produced water and drilling waste discharges ===
{{Main|Produced water}}
[[File:North Sea oil rig.jpg|thumb|North Sea Oil Rig]]
[[Produced water]] (PW) discharges from petroleum extraction results in PAH ([[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon|Poly-aromatic Hydrocarbon]]) emission in the ocean. Approximately 400 million tons of PW discharge is released annually from oil-fields in the North Sea, UK and Norwegian discharges combined.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sundt|first1=Rolf C.|last2=Baussant|first2=Thierry|last3=Beyer|first3=Jonny|date=2009-01-01|title=Uptake and tissue distribution of C4–C7 alkylphenols in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua): Relevance for biomonitoring of produced water discharges from oil production|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X08004529|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|language=en|volume=58|issue=1|pages=72–79|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.09.012|pmid=18945454|bibcode=2009MarPB..58...72S |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> PW discharge is the largest emission event in the marine environment world and it is a result of offshore oil and gas production.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-01-01|title=North sea produced water PAH exposure and uptake in early life stages of Atlantic Cod|journal=Marine Environmental Research|language=en|volume=163|pages=105203|doi=10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105203|issn=0141-1136|doi-access=free|last1=Nepstad|first1=Raymond|last2=Hansen|first2=Bjørn Henrik|last3=Skancke|first3=Jørgen|pmid=33160645|bibcode=2021MarER.16305203N |hdl=11250/2723189|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The composition of materials in the PW depends on the characteristics of the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bakke|first1=Torgeir|last2=Klungsøyr|first2=Jarle|last3=Sanni|first3=Steinar|date=December 2013|title=Environmental impacts of produced water and drilling waste discharges from the Norwegian offshore petroleum industry|journal=Marine Environmental Research|language=en|volume=92|pages=154–169|doi=10.1016/j.marenvres.2013.09.012|pmid=24119441|bibcode=2013MarER..92..154B |doi-access=free|hdl=11250/2508041|hdl-access=free}}</ref> However, PW mainly contains a mixture of a few select products such as formation water, oil, gas, brine water and added chemicals. Just like PW, formation water composition also depends on its surroundings although, it mainly consists of dissolved inorganic and organic compounds.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Neff|first1=Jerry|title=Produced Water: Overview of Composition, Fates, and Effects|date=2011|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0046-2_1|work=Produced Water: Environmental Risks and Advances in Mitigation Technologies|pages=3–54|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Kenneth|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-0046-2_1|isbn=978-1-4614-0046-2|access-date=2021-02-21|last2=Lee|first2=Kenneth|last3=DeBlois|first3=Elisabeth M.|editor2-last=Neff|editor2-first=Jerry}}</ref> PW was responsible for releasing 129 tons of PAHs in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018|title=MILJØRAPPORT|url=https://www.norskoljeoggass.no/globalassets/dokumenter/miljo/miljorapporter/miljorapporten-2018.pdf|access-date=February 25, 2021|website=Norsk olje og gass|archive-date=June 23, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623112025/https://www.norskoljeoggass.no/globalassets/dokumenter/miljo/miljorapporter/miljorapporten-2018.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the presence of harmful chemicals in PW, it is responsible for evoking toxic responses in the surrounding environment.<ref>{{Cite book|last=N.L.)|first=Aquatic Toxicity Workshop (27th : 2000 : St. John's|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/46839398|title=Proceedings of the 27th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop : October 1-4, 2000, St. John's, Newfoundland = Comptes rendus du 27e atelier annuel sur la toxicité aquatique: du 1 au 4 octobre 2000, St. John's, Newfoundland|date=2000|publisher=Fisheries and Oceans Canada|oclc=46839398}}</ref> For example, surveys done in the [[Norwegian continental shelf|Norwegian Continental Shelf]] (NCS) found that PAHs released by PW were responsible for biological changes in mussel and Atlantic cod. Formation of PAH burden caused DNA damage and digestive-gland histochemistry in mussel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=Steven J.|last2=Harman|first2=Christopher|last3=Grung|first3=Merete|last4=Farmen|first4=Eivind|last5=Ruus|first5=Anders|last6=Vingen|first6=Sjur|last7=Godal|first7=Brit F.|last8=Baršienė|first8=Janina|last9=Andreikėnaitė|first9=Laura|last10=Skarphéðinsdóttir|first10=Halldóra|last11=Liewenborg|first11=Birgitta|date=2011-03-09|title=Water Column Monitoring of the Biological Effects of Produced Water from the Ekofisk Offshore Oil Installation from 2006 to 2009|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2011.550566|journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A|volume=74|issue=7–9|pages=582–604|doi=10.1080/15287394.2011.550566|pmid=21391100|s2cid=205865843|issn=1528-7394}}</ref> PAHs also pose a serious threat to human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boström|first1=Carl-Elis|last2=Gerde|first2=Per|last3=Hanberg|first3=Annika|last4=Jernström|first4=Bengt|last5=Johansson|first5=Christer|last6=Kyrklund|first6=Titus|last7=Rannug|first7=Agneta|last8=Törnqvist|first8=Margareta|last9=Victorin|first9=Katarina|last10=Westerholm|first10=Roger|date=June 2002|title=Cancer risk assessment, indicators, and guidelines for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the ambient air.|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|language=en|volume=110|issue=suppl 3|pages=451–488|doi=10.1289/ehp.110-1241197|issn=0091-6765|pmc=1241197|pmid=12060843}}</ref> Long term exposure to PAHs have been linked to a series of health problems such as [[Lung cancer|lung]], [[Skin cancer|skin]], [[Bladder cancer|bladder]], [[gastrointestinal cancer]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Ki-Hyun|last2=Jahan|first2=Shamin Ara|last3=Kabir|first3=Ehsanul|last4=Brown|first4=Richard J. C.|date=2013-10-01|title=A review of airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their human health effects|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412013001633|journal=Environment International|language=en|volume=60|pages=71–80|doi=10.1016/j.envint.2013.07.019|pmid=24013021|issn=0160-4120}}</ref>
==Global impacts==
===Climate change===
{{Main|Attribution of recent climate change}}
The emissions from the extraction, refinement, transportation, and consumption of petroleum have caused changes in Earth's natural greenhouse gas levels, most significantly human [[carbon dioxide]] emissions. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that attracts heat in order to keep Earth's temperature from below freezing<ref name="Lindsey-2022">{{Cite web|title=Climate Change: Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide {{!}} NOAA Climate.gov|url=https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide|access-date=2020-12-08|website=www.climate.gov|language=en}}</ref> but the excess amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from things like the petroleum industry have caused an imbalance. Swedish Nobel chemist [[Svante Arrhenius]] created a mathematical model that showed an increase of carbon dioxide results in an increase in surface temperature.<ref name="Ramanathan-2009">{{Cite journal|last1=Ramanathan|first1=V.|last2=Feng|first2=Y.|date=2009-01-01|title=Air pollution, greenhouse gases and climate change: Global and regional perspectives|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231008008583|journal=Atmospheric Environment|series=Atmospheric Environment - Fifty Years of Endeavour|language=en|volume=43|issue=1|pages=37–50|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.09.063|bibcode=2009AtmEn..43...37R|issn=1352-2310}}</ref> Furthermore, these emissions are at a record high<ref name="Lindsey-2022" /> and the IPCC (2007) states that Earth's climate system will heat up by 3 degrees [[Celsius]] for a doubling of carbon dioxide.<ref name="Ramanathan-2009" /> These numbers are troubling as the resulting climate change will cause more intense hurricanes and storms, increased droughts and heat waves, frequent flooding, and more severe wildfires.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OAR|date=2015-05-27|title=Air Pollution: Current and Future Challenges|url=https://www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/air-pollution-current-and-future-challenges|access-date=2020-12-08|website=US EPA|language=en}}</ref> For low-income communities that have inadequate infrastructure, they are often less likely to recover from infrastructure damage due to [[Environmental health|climate disasters]] as quickly.<ref>"Creating the Healthiest Nation: Water and Health Equity". American Public Health Association.</ref>
===Ocean acidification===
{{Main|Ocean acidification}}
Following the [[carbon cycle]], carbon dioxide enters our oceans where it reacts with the water molecules and produces a substance called [[carbonic acid]].<ref name="Lindsey-2022" /> This increase in carbonic acid had dropped the pH of Earth's oceans, causing increased acidity. Since the [[Industrial Revolution]], the start of the petroleum industry, the pH of the oceans has dropped from 8.21 to 8.10.<ref name="Lindsey-2022" /> It may not seem like much but this change shows a 30% increase in acidity<ref name="NOAA-2020">{{Cite web|title=Ocean acidification {{!}} National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|url=https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-acidification|access-date=2020-12-08|website=www.noaa.gov}}</ref> which has caused a lot of problems for sea life. As Earth's oceans continue to acidify there are less [[Carbonate|carbonate ions]] available for calcifying meaning that organisms have a hard time building and maintaining their shells and skeletons.<ref name="NOAA-2020" /> Based on current levels of carbon dioxide Earth's oceans could have a pH level of 7.8 by the end of the 21st century.<ref name="NOAA-2020" />
==Subsidies==
{{Main|Fossil fuel subsidies}}
Modern human societies utilize cheap and abundant energy to promote [[economic growth]] and maintain [[political stability]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2015/04/14/imf-growth-forecast/25722539/ |title=IMF: Low oil prices will spur global economy |author=Paul Davidson |publisher=USA Today |date=2015-04-14 |access-date=2020-02-15}}</ref>
Government's and economic institutions around the world lower prices and increase supplies of [[fossil fuels]] for both consumers and producers by providing various forms of financial support to the industry.  These include such traditional [[subsidies]] as direct payments, [[tax incentive|tax preferences]], [[depletion (accounting)|depletion allowances]], research & development [[grant (money)|grants]], and the removal of existing [[environmental protection]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://eelp.law.harvard.edu/2017/09/epa-voc-and-methane-standards-for-oil-and-gas-facilities/ |title=EPA VOC and Methane Standards for Oil and Gas Facilities |publisher=Harvard Law - Environmental & Energy Law Program |author=Hana Vizcarra and Robin Just |date=27 September 2017 |access-date=2020-02-08}}</ref>  Considering all forms of support, the largest assistance to fossil fuels arises from the failure of governments to pass along most costs from the environmental and human-health impacts of the waste.<ref name="imfsub">{{Cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2019/05/02/Global-Fossil-Fuel-Subsidies-Remain-Large-An-Update-Based-on-Country-Level-Estimates-46509 |title=Global Fossil Fuel Subsidies Remain Large: An Update Based on Country-Level Estimates |author=David Cody |display-authors=etal |publisher=International Monetary Fund |date=2019-05-02 |access-date=2020-02-11}}</ref>
Accounting by the International Energy Agency and [[OECD]] indicates that traditional subsidies throughout the world amounted to about $400–600&nbsp;Billion annually during years 2010–2015,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/oecd-fossil-fuel-subsidies-373-billion-2015 |title=OECD: Fossil fuel subsidies added up to at least $373bn in 2015 |author=Jocelyn Temperly |publisher=CarbonBrief.org |date=2018-02-28 |access-date=2020-02-15}}</ref> and remained near $400&nbsp;Billion in year 2018 with 40% going to oil.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/commentaries/fossil-fuel-consumption-subsidies-bounced-back-strongly-in-2018 |title=Fossil fuel consumption subsidies bounced back strongly in 2018 |author=Wataru Matsumura and Zakia Adam |publisher=International Energy Agency |date=2019-06-13 |access-date=2020-02-15}}</ref>   By comparison,  a working group at the [[International Monetary Fund]] estimates that all support to the fossil-fuel industry totaled about $5.2&nbsp;Trillion (6.4% of global [[gross domestic product]]) during year 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.vox.com/2019/5/17/18624740/fossil-fuel-subsidies-climate-imf |title=Fossil fuels are underpriced by a whopping $5.2 trillion |author=Umair Irfan |publisher=vox.com |date=2019-05-19 |access-date=2020-02-11}}</ref>
The largest subsidizers were China, the United States, Russia, the European Union, and India which together accounted for about 60% of the total.<ref name="imfsub" />
According to the theory of ideal [[market competition]], accurate prices could act to drive more responsible industry and [[consumer choice]]s that [[waste reduction|reduce waste]] and long-term [[scarcity]].  Eliminating subsidies and implementing [[carbon fee and dividend|carbon fees]] to realize accurate prices would have their most direct effects from the [[supply-side economics|supply side]] of the industry.  By contrast, the objective of some [[carbon tax]] and [[carbon trading]] mechanisms is to enforce pricing accuracy from the [[demand-side economics|consumption side]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/09/everything-you-need-to-know-about-carbon-trading/ |title=How does carbon trading work |publisher=World Economic Forum |author=Teresa Hartmann |date=2017-09-28 |access-date=2020-02-11}}</ref>
==Mitigation==
{{Main|Sustainable energy|Energy conservation}}
===Conservation and phasing out===
Many countries across the World have subsidies and policies designed to reduce the use of petroleum and fossil fuels. Examples include [[China]] which switched from providing subsidies for fossil fuels to providing subsidies for [[renewable energy]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ouyang|first1=Xiaoling|last2=Lin|first2=Boqiang|title=Impacts of increasing renewable energy subsidies and phasing out fossil fuel subsidies in China|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|volume=37|pages=933–942|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2014.05.013|year=2014}}</ref> Other examples include [[Sweden]] which created laws which are designed to eventually phase out the use of petroleum, which is known as the 15-year plan.<ref name="Vidal-2006" /> These policies have their benefits and their challenges and every country has had their different experiences. In China, positive benefits were observed in the energy system due to higher renewable energy subsidies in three ways. It made consumption of energy cleaner due to moving for cleaner sources. Secondly, it helped increase the efficiency and third it resolved the issue of imbalanced distribution and consumption.  However, from the Chinese experience, there were challenges observed. These challenges included economic challenges like initially lower economic benefits for subsidies from renewable energy than for oil. Other challenges included a high cost of research and development, the uncertainty of cost and potentially high-risk investments. These factors make the development of renewable energy very dependent on government support. However, aims of phasing out fossil fuels and petroleum use may also present economic benefits such as increased investment. This strategy may help achieve social goals for example reduction in pollution which might translate to better environmental and health outcomes.<ref name="Vidal-2006">[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2006/feb/08/frontpagenews.oilandpetrol Article on Sweden's Phasing Out of Petrol Use (www.guardian.co.uk)]</ref>
Another option for conserving energy and phasing out petroleum use is adopting new technologies in order to increase efficiency. This can include changing production methods and modes of transportation.
===Substitution of other energy sources===
Alternatives to petroleum can include using other “cleaner” energy sources such as renewable energy, [[nuclear power]], [[natural gas]] or [[biodiesel]]. Some of the alternatives have their strengths and limitations that might impact on the possibility of adopting them in the future.
Using [[Corn ethanol|corn-based ethanol]] might be an alternative to using petroleum. However, studies that concluded that corn-based ethanol uses less net energy do not factor in the co-products of production. Current corn-ethanol technologies are much less petroleum intensive than gasoline however have the GHG emission levels similar to gasoline.<ref name="Farrell-2006">{{Cite journal|last1=Farrell|first1=Alexander E.|last2=Plevin|first2=Richard J.|last3=Turner|first3=Brian T.|last4=Jones|first4=Andrew D.|last5=O'Hare|first5=Michael|last6=Kammen|first6=Daniel M.|date=2006|title=Ethanol Can Contribute to Energy and Environmental Goals|jstor=3843407|journal=Science|volume=311|issue=5760|pages=506–508|doi=10.1126/science.1121416|pmid=16439656|bibcode=2006Sci...311..506F|s2cid=16061891}}</ref> The literature is mainly unclear what the GHG emission changes would be by adopting corn-based ethanol for biodiesel. Some studies report a 20% increase in GHG emissions and some report a 32% decrease. However, the actual number might be a 13% decrease in GHG emissions which is not a significant decrease. The future of biodiesel might be adopting [[Cellulosic ethanol|cellulose ethanol]] technology to produce biodiesel as that technology will contribute to a decrease in emissions''.''<ref name="Farrell-2006" />
Renewable energy alternatives also exist. These include solar energy, wind energy, geothermal and hydroelectricity as well as other sources. These sources are said to have much lower emissions, and almost minimal secondary by products. The production of renewable energy is projected to grow in nearly every region in the World.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Panwar|first1=N.L.|last2=Kaushik|first2=S.C.|last3=Kothari|first3=Surendra|title=Role of renewable energy sources in environmental protection: A review|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|volume=15|issue=3|pages=1513–1524|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.037|year=2011}}</ref> Natural gas is also seen as a potential alternative to oil. Natural gas is much cleaner than oil in terms of emissions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chong|first1=Zheng Rong|last2=Yang|first2=She Hern Bryan|last3=Babu|first3=Ponnivalavan|last4=Linga|first4=Praveen|last5=Li|first5=Xiao-Sen|title=Review of natural gas hydrates as an energy resource: Prospects and challenges|journal=Applied Energy|volume=162|pages=1633–1652|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.12.061|year=2016}}</ref> However natural gas has its limitation in terms of mass production. For example, in order to switch from crude oil to natural gas there are technical and network changes that need to occur before the implementation can be complete.  Two possible strategies are to first develop the end use technology first or second is to completely change the fuel infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hekkert|first1=Marko P.|last2=Hendriks|first2=Franka H.J.F.|last3=Faaij|first3=Andre P.C.|last4=Neelis|first4=Maarten L.|title=Natural gas as an alternative to crude oil in automotive fuel chains well-to-wheel analysis and transition strategy development|journal=Energy Policy|volume=33|issue=5|pages=579–594|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2003.08.018|year=2005|hdl=1874/385276|s2cid=155030566 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
===Use of biomass instead of petroleum===
[[Biomass]] is becoming a potential option as a substitute for petroleum. This is due to the increased environmental impacts of petroleum and the desire to reduce the use of petroleum. Potential substitutes include cellulose from fibrous plant materials as a substitute for oil-based products. [[Plastic]]s can be created by cellulose instead of oil and plant fat can be substituted for oil to fuel cars.  In order for biomass to succeed there needs to be an integration of different technologies to different biomass feedstock in to produce different bioproducts. Incentives for biomass are a decrease of carbon dioxide, need for a new energy supply and need to revitalize rural areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cherubini|first=Francesco|title=The biorefinery concept: Using biomass instead of oil for producing energy and chemicals|journal=Energy Conversion and Management|volume=51|issue=7|pages=1412–1421|doi=10.1016/j.enconman.2010.01.015|year=2010}}</ref>
===Safety measures===
There is also the potential to implement many technologies as safety measures to mitigate safety and health risks of the petroleum industry. These include measures to reduce oil spills, false floors to prevent gasoline drips in the water table and double-hulled tanker ships. A relatively new technology that can mitigate air pollution is called bio-filtration. [[Biofilter|Bio filtration]] is where off-gasses that have biodegradable VOCs or inorganic air toxins are vented out through a biologically active material.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Zouboulis|first1=Anastasios I.|title=Groundwater and Soil Pollution: Bioremediation☆|date=2019-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095489112461|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Environmental Health (Second Edition)|pages=369–381|editor-last=Nriagu|editor-first=Jerome|place=Oxford|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.11246-1|isbn=978-0-444-63952-3|access-date=2021-02-11|last2=Moussas|first2=Panagiotis A.|last3=Psaltou|first3=Savvina G.|s2cid=239112021}}</ref> This technology successfully used in [[Germany]] and the [[Netherlands]] mainly for [[odor]] control. There are lower costs and environmental benefits include low energy requirements<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Leson|first1=Gero|last2=Winer|first2=Arthur|date=1991|title=Bio filtration : An Innovative Air Pollution Control Technology for VOC emissions|journal=Journal of Air and Waste Management Association|volume=41|issue=8|pages=1045–1054|doi=10.1080/10473289.1991.10466898|pmid=1958341|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Arctic Refuge drilling controversy]]
* [[Environmental impact of the oil shale industry]]
* [[Environmental impact of the petroleum industry in Nigeria]]
* [[Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing]]
* [[Energy and the environment]]
* [[Oil sands#Environmental issues|Environmental issues of oil sands]]
* [[List of environmental issues]]
* [[Peak oil]]
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==External links==
*[http://www.state.nj.us/dep/watershedmgt/waterbook_chp10.htm Information about petroleum spills in water] from the State of New Department of Environmental Protection
*[https://fscimage.fishersci.com/msds/05545.htm Safety Data Sheet -- Crude Oil (fscimage.fishersci.com)]
*[http://www.hurricane-katrina.org Beyond Katrina: Disaster on the Gulf Coast Continues] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013224853/https://hurricane-katrina.org/ |date=2019-10-13 }} --- 2010 Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill News, Information & Resources, 2008 Mississippi River Oil Spill Coverage
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[[Category:Environmental impact of the petroleum industry| ]]