View source for History of Poland during the Piast dynasty

{{Short description|Period of Polish history from 960 to 1370}}
{{Infobox historical era
| name      = Kingdom of Poland ([[Piast dynasty|Piast]])
| start     = [[960]]
| end       = [[1385]]
| image     = Royal coat of arms of the Kingdom of Poland.svg
| alt       =
| caption   = [[Banner of arms]] of the [[Kingdom of Poland]]
| before    = [[Civitas Schinesghe]]
| after     = [[History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty|Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)]]
| monarch   = {{Unbulleted list|
|[[Bolesław I the Brave]] (first)
|[[Jadwiga of Poland]] (last)}}
|year_start=960|year_end=1385
}}
{{History of Poland}}
The period of rule by the [[Piast dynasty]] between the 10th and 14th centuries is the first major stage of the [[history of Poland|history of the Polish state]]. The dynasty was founded by a series of dukes listed by the chronicler [[Gall Anonymous]] in the early 12th century: [[Siemowit]], [[Lestek]] and [[Siemomysł]]. It was [[Mieszko I of Poland|Mieszko I]], the son of Siemomysł, who is now considered the proper founder of the Polish state at about 960 AD.<ref name="Kronika Słowian II 95"/> The [[dynasty|ruling house]] then remained in power in the Polish lands until 1370. Mieszko converted to [[Christianity]] of the Western [[Latin Church]] in an event known as the [[Baptism of Poland]] in 966, which established a major cultural boundary in Europe based on religion. He also completed a unification of the [[Lechites|Lechitic]] tribal lands that was fundamental to the existence of the new country of Poland.<ref name="Wyrozumski"/>
Following the emergence of the Polish state, [[List of Polish monarchs|a series of rulers]] converted the population to Christianity, created a [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|kingdom of Poland]] in 1025 and integrated Poland into the prevailing [[culture of Europe]]. Mieszko's son [[Bolesław I the Brave]] established a [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gniezno|Roman Catholic Archdiocese in Gniezno]], pursued territorial conquests and was officially crowned in 1025 as the first [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|king of Poland]]. The first Piast monarchy collapsed with the death of [[Mieszko II Lambert]] in 1034, followed by its restoration under [[Casimir I the Restorer|Casimir I]] in 1042. In the process, the royal dignity for Polish rulers was forfeited, and the state reverted to the status of a duchy. Duke Casimir's son [[Bolesław II the Bold]] revived the military assertiveness of Bolesław I, but became fatally involved in a conflict with Bishop [[Stanislaus of Szczepanów]] and was expelled from the country.<ref name="Wyrozumski"/>
[[Bolesław III Wrymouth|Bolesław III]], the last duke of the early period, succeeded in defending his country and recovering territories previously lost. Upon his death in 1138, Poland was [[Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty|divided among his sons]]. The resulting internal fragmentation eroded the initial Piast monarchical structure in the 12th and 13th centuries and caused fundamental and lasting changes.
[[Konrad I of Masovia]] invited the [[Teutonic Knights]] to help him fight the [[Balts|Baltic]] [[Old Prussians|Prussian]] pagans, which led to centuries of Poland's warfare with the Knights and the [[Duchy of Prussia|German Prussian state]].<ref name="Wyrozumski"/>
In 1320, the kingdom was restored under [[Władysław I the Elbow-high]], then strengthened and expanded by his son [[Casimir III the Great]]. The western provinces of [[Silesia]] and [[Pomerania]] were lost after the fragmentation, and Poland began expanding to the east. The period ended with the reigns of two members of the [[Capetian House of Anjou]] between 1370 and 1384. The consolidation in the 14th century laid the base for the new powerful [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|kingdom of Poland]] that was to follow.<ref name="Wyrozumski"/>
== 10th–12th century ==
=== Mieszko I and the adoption of Christianity in Poland (ca. 960–992) ===
[[File:Ostrów Tumski Poznań RB1.JPG|thumb|right|250 px|Important early stages in the history of the Polish state and church took place on the island of [[Ostrów Tumski, Poznań|Ostrów Tumski]]. Remnants of the original ''[[palace|palatium]]''–chapel complex of Poland's first Christian ruling couple have been found beneath the church in the foreground. The [[Archcathedral Basilica of St. Peter and St. Paul, Poznań|Poznań Cathedral]] is located on the right.<ref name="The history of Ostrów Tumski stronghold"/>]]
The tribe of the [[Polans (western)|Polans]] (''Polanie'', lit. "people of the fields") in what is now [[Greater Poland]] gave rise to a tribal predecessor of the Polish state in the [[Poland in the Early Middle Ages|early part of the 10th century]], with the Polans settling in the flatlands around the emerging strongholds of [[Giecz]], [[Poznań]], [[Gniezno]] and [[Ostrów Lednicki]]. Accelerated rebuilding of old tribal fortified settlements, construction of massive new ones and territorial expansion took place during the period {{circa|920}}–950.<ref>Various authors, ed. [[Marek Derwich]] and [[Adam Żurek]], ''U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038)'' (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), [[Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie]], Wrocław 2002, {{ISBN|83-7023-954-4}}, [[Zofia Kurnatowska]], pp. 147–149, Adam Żurek and [[Wojciech Mrozowicz]], p. 226</ref> The Polish state developed from these tribal roots in the second half of the century. According to the 12th-century chronicler [[Gallus Anonymus]], the Polans were ruled at this time by the [[Piast dynasty]]. In existing sources from the 10th century, Piast ruler [[Mieszko I of Poland|Mieszko I]] was first mentioned by [[Widukind of Corvey]] in his ''[[Res gestae saxonicae sive annalium libri tres|Res gestae saxonicae]]'', a chronicle of events in Germany. Widukind reported that Mieszko's forces were twice defeated in 963 by the [[Veleti]] tribes acting in cooperation with the [[Saxons|Saxon]] exile [[Wichmann the Younger]].<ref name="Chronology 29"/> Under Mieszko's rule ({{circa|960}} to 992), his tribal state accepted [[Christianity]] and became the Polish state.<ref>Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, ''U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038)'' (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), pp. 144–159</ref>
The viability of the [[Poland in the Early Middle Ages#10th-century developments in Greater Poland; Mieszko's state|Mieszko's emerging state]] was assured by the persistent territorial expansion of the early Piast rulers. Beginning with a very small area around Gniezno (before the town itself existed), the Piast expansion lasted throughout most of the 10th century and resulted in a territory approximating that of present-day Poland. The [[Polans (western)|Polanie]] tribe conquered and merged with other [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] tribes and first formed a tribal federation, then later a centralized state. After the addition of [[Lesser Poland]], the country of the [[Vistulans]], and of [[Silesia]] (both taken by Mieszko from the [[Czech lands|Czech]] state during the later part of the 10th century), Mieszko's state reached its mature form, including the main regions regarded as ethnically Polish.<ref name="Kurnatowska"/> The Piast lands totaled about {{convert|250000|km²|0|abbr=on}} in area,<ref>[[Francis W. Carter]], ''Trade and urban development in Poland'', Cambridge University Press, 1993, {{ISBN|0-521-41239-0}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-XdByzq85zMC&pg=PA47&vq=million&dq=Mieszko+million&source=gbs_search_s&cad=0 Google Print, p. 47]</ref> with an approximate population of under one million.<ref>[[Jerzy Lukowski]], [[Hubert Zawadzki]], ''A Concise History of Poland'', Cambridge University Press, 2001, {{ISBN|0-521-55917-0}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NpMxTvBuWHYC&pg=PA6&vq=million&dq=Mieszko+million&source=gbs_search_s&cad=0 Google Print, p. 6]</ref>
[[File:Grody w okresie Mieszka I.png|thumb|left|250px|Expansion of the [[Western Polans|Polans]] territory under the [[Piast dynasty]] in the 10th century]]
Initially a pagan, Mieszko I was the [[list of Polish monarchs|first ruler]] of the Polans tribal union known from contemporary written sources. A detailed account of aspects of Mieszko's early reign was given by [[Abraham ben Jacob|Ibrâhîm ibn Ya`qûb]], a [[Jew]]ish traveler, according to whom Mieszko was one of four Slavic "kings" established in central and southern Europe in the 960s.<ref>Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Dzieje Polski piastowskiej'' (VIII w. – 1370) (History of Piast Poland (8th century – 1370)), p. 77, [[Fogra]], Kraków 1999, {{ISBN|83-85719-38-5}}</ref><ref>[[Norman Davies]], ''[[Europe: A History]]'', p. 325, 1998 New York, HarperPerennial, {{ISBN|0-06-097468-0}}</ref> In 965, Mieszko, who was allied with [[Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia]] at the time, married the duke's daughter [[Dobrawa of Bohemia|Doubravka]], a Christian princess. Mieszko's conversion to [[Latin Church|Latin Christianity]] followed on 14 April 966,<ref name="Kłoczowski2000">{{cite book|last=Kłoczowski|first=Jerzy|title=A history of Polish Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecdye8hk_tgC&pg=PA11|access-date=12 April 2011|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-36429-4|page=11}}</ref> an event known as the [[Baptism of Poland]] that is considered to be the founding event of the Polish state. In the aftermath of Mieszko's victory over a force of the [[Velunzani]] in 967, which was led by Wichmann, the first missionary bishop was appointed: [[Jordan (Bishop of Poland)|Jordan, bishop of Poland]]. The action counteracted the intended eastern expansion of the [[Archbishopric of Magdeburg|Magdeburg Archdiocese]], which was established at about the same time.<ref name="Kurnatowska"/><ref name="JB"/><ref name="Wyrozumski 80–88"/>
Mieszko's state had a complex political relationship with the German [[Holy Roman Empire]], as Mieszko was a "friend", ally and [[vassal]] of [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Otto I]] and paid him [[tribute]] from the western part of his lands. Mieszko fought wars with the [[Polabian Slavs]], the Czechs, [[Margrave]] [[Gero]] of the [[Saxon Eastern March]] in 963–964 and Margrave [[Odo I, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark|Odo I]] of the Saxon Eastern March in 972 in the [[Battle of Cedynia]]. The victories over Wichmann and Odo allowed Mieszko to extend his [[Pomerania]]n possessions west to the vicinity of the [[Oder|Oder River]] and its mouth. After the death of Otto I, and then again after the death of [[Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Otto II]], Mieszko supported [[Henry II, Duke of Bavaria|Henry the Quarrelsome]], a pretender to the [[Holy Roman Emperor|imperial crown]]. After the death of Doubravka in 977, Mieszko married [[Oda of Haldensleben|Oda von Haldensleben]], daughter of [[Dietrich of Haldensleben|Dietrich]], Margrave of the [[Northern March]], ca. 980. When fighting the Czechs in 990, Mieszko was helped by the Holy Roman Empire. By about the year 990, when Mieszko I officially submitted his country to the authority of the [[Holy See]] (''[[Dagome iudex]]''), he had transformed Poland into one of the strongest powers in [[Eastern Europe|central-eastern Europe]].<ref name="Kurnatowska"/><ref name="Wyrozumski 80–88"/>
=== The reign of Bolesław I and establishment of a Kingdom of Poland (992–1025) ===
[[File:Drzwi gnieznienskie wykupienie zwlok Wojciecha.jpg|right|thumb|250 px|An image on the [[Gniezno Doors]] at the entrance to [[Gniezno Cathedral]] depicts [[Bolesław I the Brave|Bolesław]] buying [[Adalbert of Prague|Adalbert's]] body back from the [[Old Prussians|Prussians]]]][[File:Polska 992 - 1025.png|250px|thumb|left|Poland (992–1025); area within dark pink color represents the borders at the end of the rule of [[Mieszko I of Poland|Mieszko I]] (992); dark red border comprises the area at the end of the reign of [[Bolesław I the Brave|Bolesław I]] (1025) ]]
One of the most important concerns of Bolesław's early reign was building up the Polish church. Bolesław cultivated [[Adalbert of Prague]] of the [[Slavník dynasty|Slavník family]], a well-connected [[Czechs|Czech]] bishop in exile and missionary who was killed in 997 while on a mission in [[Prussia (region)|Prussia]]. Bolesław skillfully took advantage of his death: his [[Christian martyrs|martyrdom]] led to his elevation as patron saint of Poland and resulted in the creation of an independent Polish province of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]] with [[Radim Gaudentius]] as [[Archbishop of Gniezno]]. In the year 1000, the young [[Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] came as a pilgrim to visit St. Adalbert's grave and lent his support to Bolesław during the [[Congress of Gniezno]]; the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gniezno|Gniezno Archdiocese]] and several subordinate [[diocese]]s were established on this occasion. The Polish [[ecclesiastical province]] effectively served as an essential anchor and an institution to fall back on for the Piast state, helping it to survive in the troubled centuries ahead.<ref name="Wyrozumski 88–93"/><ref name="Pleszczyński 1"/>
Bolesław at first chose to continue his father's policy of cooperation with the [[Holy Roman Empire]] but when Emperor Otto III died in 1002, Bolesław's relationship with his successor [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]] turned out to be much more difficult, and it resulted in a series of wars (1002–1005, 1007–1013, 1015–1018). From 1003 to 1004, Bolesław intervened militarily in Czech dynastic conflicts. After his forces were removed from [[Bohemia]] in 1018,<ref>Makk, Ferenc (1993). Magyar külpolitika (896–1196) ("The Hungarian External Politics (896–1196)"). Szeged: Szegedi Középkorász Műhely. pp. 48–49. {{ISBN|963-04-2913-6}}.</ref> Bolesław retained [[Moravia]].<ref name="Chronology 33"/> In 1013, the marriage between Bolesław's son [[Mieszko II Lambert|Mieszko]] and [[Richeza of Lotharingia]], the niece of Emperor Otto III and future mother of [[Casimir I the Restorer]], took place. The conflicts with Germany ended in 1018 with the [[Peace of Bautzen]] on favorable terms for Bolesław. In the context of the 1018 [[Boleslaw I's intervention in the Kievan succession crisis, 1018|Kiev expedition]], Bolesław took over the western part of [[Red Ruthenia]]. In 1025, shortly before his death, Bolesław I finally succeeded in obtaining the papal permission to crown himself, and he became the first [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|king of Poland]].<ref name="Wyrozumski 88–93"/><ref name="Pleszczyński 1"/>
Bolesław's expansionist policies were costly to the Polish state and were not always successful. He lost, for example, the economically crucial [[Farther Pomerania]] in 1005 together with its new [[diocese|bishopric]] in [[Kołobrzeg]]; the region had previously been conquered with great effort by Mieszko.<ref name="Wyrozumski 88–93"/><ref name="Pleszczyński 1">Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, ''U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038)'' (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), pp. 168–183, [[Andrzej Pleszczyński]]</ref>
=== Mieszko II and the collapse of the Piast kingdom (1025–1039) ===
[[File:Darstellung Mieszkos und Mathildes von Schwaben.jpg|right|thumb|200 px|[[Mieszko II Lambert|Mieszko II]] shown allegorically with Duchess [[Matilda of Swabia]]]]
King [[Mieszko II Lambert]] (r. 1025–1034) tried to continue the expansionist politics of his father. His actions reinforced old resentment and hostility on the part of Poland's neighbors, and his two dispossessed brothers took advantage of it by arranging for invasions from Germany and [[Kievan Rus']] in 1031. Mieszko was defeated and forced to leave Poland. Mieszko's brother [[Bezprym]] was murdered in 1032, whereas his brother Otto died in unclear circumstances in 1033, events that permitted Mieszko to recover his authority partially. The first Piast monarchy then collapsed with Mieszko's death in 1034. Deprived of a government, Poland was ravaged by an [[pagan reaction in Poland|anti-feudal and pagan rebellion]], and in 1039, there was an invasion by the forces of [[Bretislaus I of Bohemia]]. The country suffered territorial losses, and the functioning of the Gniezno archdiocese was disrupted.<ref name="Wyrozumski 93–96"/><ref name="Pleszczyński 2">Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, ''U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038)'' (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), pp. 182–187, Andrzej Pleszczyński</ref>
=== Reunification of Poland under Casimir I (1039–1058) ===
[[File:Krakow kosciol 20071229 1246.jpg|left|thumb|180px|[[St. Andrew's Church, Kraków|St. Andrew's Church]] in [[Kraków]] (built in the 11th century)]]
Poland made a recovery under Mieszko's son, Duke [[Casimir I of Poland|Casimir I]] (r. 1039–1058), known to history as the Restorer. After returning from exile in 1039, Casimir rebuilt the Polish monarchy and the country's territorial integrity through several military campaigns: in 1047, [[Masovia]] was taken back from [[Miecław]], a Polish noble who tried to detach the region from the rule of the Polish monarch, and in 1054 [[Silesia]] was recovered from the Czechs. Casimir was aided by recent adversaries of Poland, the Holy Roman Empire and Kievan Rus', both of whom disliked the chaos in Poland left after the dismemberment of the country beginning in the reign of Mieszko II. Casimir introduced a more mature form of [[feudalism]] and relieved the burden of financing large army units from the duke's treasury by settling his warriors on feudal estates. Faced with the widespread destruction of [[Greater Poland]] after the Czech incursion, Casimir moved his court to [[Kraków]] and replaced the old Piast capitals of Poznań and Gniezno; Kraków would function as the capital of the realm for several centuries.<ref name="Wyrozumski 96–98"/><ref name="Szczur Średniowiecze 106-107"/>
=== Bolesław II and the conflict with Bishop Stanisław (1058–1079) ===
[[File:Wawel St Leonard.JPG|220 px|right|thumb|[[St. Leonard's Crypt]] is all that remains of the second [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] [[Wawel Cathedral]] of [[Władysław I Herman|Władysław Herman]]]]
Casimir's son [[Bolesław II the Bold]], also known as the Generous (r. 1058–1079), developed Polish military strength and waged several foreign campaigns between 1058 and 1077. As an active supporter of the papacy in its [[Investiture Controversy]] with the German emperor, Bolesław crowned himself king in 1076 with the blessing of Pope [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]]. In 1079, there was an anti-Bolesław conspiracy or conflict that involved the Bishop of Kraków. Bolesław had Bishop [[Stanislaus of Szczepanów|Stanisław of Szczepanów]] executed; subsequently Bolesław was forced to abdicate the Polish throne due to pressure from the Catholic Church and the pro-imperial faction of the nobility. Stanisław would become the second martyr and patron saint of Poland (known in English as St. Stanislav), [[canonization|canonized]] in 1253.<ref name="Wyrozumski 98–100"/>
=== Reign of Władysław I Herman (1079–1102) ===
[[File:Plock Cathedral aerial photograph 2019 P01.jpg|left|thumb|240px|[[Płock Cathedral]] is the burial place of [[Władysław I Herman]] and [[Bolesław III Wrymouth]]]]
After Bolesław's exile, the country found itself under the unstable rule of his younger brother [[Władysław I Herman]] (r. 1079–1102). Władysław was strongly dependent on [[Count Palatine]] [[Sieciech]], an advisor from the ranks of the Polish nobility who acted much as the power behind the throne. When Władysław's two sons, [[Zbigniew of Poland|Zbigniew]] and [[Bolesław III Wrymouth|Bolesław]], finally forced Władysław to remove his hated protégé, Poland was divided among the three of them from 1098, and after the father's death, from 1102 to 1106, it was divided between the two brothers.<ref name="Wyrozumski 100–101"/>
=== Reign of Bolesław III (1102–1138) ===
[[File:Polska 1102 - 1138.png|right|thumb|225px|Poland during the rule of [[Bolesław III Wrymouth]]]]
After a power struggle, [[Bolesław III Wrymouth]] (r. 1102–1138) became the duke of Poland by defeating his half-brother Zbigniew in 1106–1107. Zbigniew had to leave the country, but received support from Holy Roman Emperor [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]], who attacked Bolesław's Poland in 1109. Bolesław was able to defend his realm due to his military abilities, determination and alliances, and also because of a societal mobilisation across the social spectrum (see [[Battle of Głogów]]). Zbigniew, who later returned, died in mysterious circumstances, perhaps in the summer of 1113. Bolesław's other major achievement was the conquest of all of [[Mieszko I of Poland|Mieszko I's]] [[Pomerania]] (of which the remaining eastern part had been lost by Poland from after the death of Mieszko II), a task begun by his father [[Władysław I Herman]] and completed by Bolesław around 1123. [[Szczecin]] was subdued in a bloody takeover and Western Pomerania up to [[Rügen]], except for the directly incorporated southern part, became Bolesław's [[fiefdom|fief]],<ref>''Atlas historyczny Polski'' (Atlas of Polish History), 14th ed., {{ISBN|83-7000-016-9}}, PPWK Warszawa–Wrocław 1998, p. 5</ref> to be ruled locally by [[Wartislaw I, Duke of Pomerania|Wartislaw I]], the first duke of the [[House of Pomerania|Griffin dynasty]].<ref name="Wyrozumski 101–104"/>
At this time, [[Christianization]] of the region was initiated in earnest, an effort crowned by the establishment of the Pomeranian [[Wolin]] Diocese after Bolesław's death in 1140.<ref name="Wyrozumski 101–104"/>
=== Fragmentation of the realm (1138–1320)===
{{Anchor|Fragmentation_of_the_realm_(1138_–_c._1314)}}{{Campaignbox Feudal fragmentation of Poland (1138–1320)}}
[[File:Tum - Kolegiata 01.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Collegiate church in Tum]]]]
Before he died, Bolesław III Wrymouth divided the country, in a limited sense, [[testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty|among four of his sons]]. He made complex arrangements intended to prevent fratricidal warfare and preserve the Polish state's formal unity, but after Bolesław's death, the implementation of the plan failed and a long period of fragmentation was ushered in. For nearly two centuries, the Piasts would spar with each other, the clergy, and the nobility for the control over the divided kingdom. The stability of the system was supposedly assured by the institution of the senior or high duke of Poland, based in Kraków and assigned to the special [[Seniorate Province]] that was not to be subdivided. Following his concept of seniorate, Bolesław divided the country into five principalities: [[Duchy of Silesia|Silesia]], [[Duchy of Greater Poland|Greater Poland]], [[Duchy of Masovia|Masovia]], [[Duchy of Sandomierz|Sandomierz]] and [[Seniorate Province|Kraków]]. The first four provinces were given to his four sons, who became independent rulers. The fifth province, the Seniorate Province of Kraków, was to be added to the senior among the princes who, as the Grand Duke of Kraków, was the representative of the whole of Poland. This principle broke down already within the generation of Bolesław III's sons, when [[Władysław II the Exile]], [[Bolesław IV the Curly]], [[Mieszko III the Old]] and [[Casimir II the Just]] fought for power and territory in Poland, and in particular over the throne of Kraków.<ref name="Wyrozumski 104–111"/>
The external borders left by Bolesław III at his death closely resembled the borders left by [[Mieszko I of Poland|Mieszko I]]; this original early Piast monarchy configuration had not survived the fragmentation period.<ref>''Atlas historyczny Polski'' (Atlas of Polish History), 14th ed., pp. 4 & 5</ref>
=== Culture ===
[[File:Battle of Legnica1241-From Legend of Saint Hedwig.jpg|thumb|right|275 px|[[First Mongol invasion of Poland|Mongol invasion of Poland]] (late 1240–1241) culminated in the [[Battle of Legnica]]]]
From the time of the conversion of Poland's ruling elite to Christianity in the 10th century, foreign churchmen had been arriving and the [[culture of medieval Poland|culture of early Medieval Poland]] was developing as a part of European [[Christendom]]. However, it would be a few generations from the time of Mieszko's conversion until significant numbers of native clergymen appeared. After the establishment of numerous [[monastery|monasteries]] in the 12th and 13th centuries, Christianization of the populace was accomplished on a larger scale.<ref>Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, ''A Concise History of Poland''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 2006, {{ISBN|0-521-61857-6}}, p. 9</ref>
Intellectual and artistic activity was concentrated around the institutions of the Church, the courts of the kings and dukes, and emerged around the households of the rising hereditary elite. Written [[annals]] began to be generated in the late 10th century; leaders such as Mieszko II and Casimir the Restorer were considered literate and educated. Along with the ''[[Dagome iudex]]'' act, the most important written document and source of the period is the ''[[Gesta principum Polonorum]]'', a chronicle by [[Gallus Anonymus]], a foreign cleric from the court of Bolesław Wrymouth. [[Bruno of Querfurt]] was one of the pioneering [[Western culture|Western]] clergymen spreading Church literacy; some of his prominent writings had been produced in [[hermit|eremitic]] monasteries in Poland. Among the preeminent early [[Christian monasticism|monastic]] religious orders were the [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictines]] (the [[abbey]] in [[Tyniec]] founded in 1044)<ref name="Chronology 37"/> and the [[Cistercians]].<ref name="Wyrozumski 111–115"/><ref>Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, ''U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038)'' (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), pp. 196–209</ref>
== 13th century ==
=== State and society; German settlement ===
[[File:Sachsenspiegel-Ostsiedlung.jpg|275 px|thumb|right|[[Ostsiedlung]] or German settlement in the east, miniature from [[Sachsenspiegel]]]]
The 13th century brought fundamental changes to the structure of Polish society and its political system. Because of constant internal conflicts, the Piast dukes were unable to stabilize Poland's external borders. Western [[Farther Pomerania]] broke its political ties with Poland in the second half of the 12th century and from 1231 became a [[fiefdom|fief]] of the [[Margraviate of Brandenburg]], which in 1307 extended its Pomeranian possessions even further east, taking over the [[Sławno]] and [[Słupsk]] areas. [[Pomerelia]] or [[Gdańsk Pomerania]] became independent of the Polish dukes from 1227. In mid-13th century, [[Bolesław II the Bald]] granted [[Lubusz Land]] to the Margraviate, which made possible the creation of the [[Neumark]] and had far reaching negative consequences for the integrity of the western border. In the south-east, [[Leszek I the White|Leszek the White]] was unable to preserve Poland's supremacy over the [[Halych]] area of [[Rus (name)|Rus']], a territory that had changed hands on a number of occasions.<ref name="Wyrozumski 116–128"/>
The social status was becoming increasingly based on the size of feudal land possessions. Those included the lands controlled by the Piast princes, their rivals the great lay land owners and church entities, and the knightly class. The work force ranged from hired "free" people to [[serfdom|serfs]] attached to the land, to slaves (either purchased, forced into slavery after capture in war or forced into slavery as prisoners). The upper layer of the feudal lords, first the Church and then others, was able to acquire economic and [[Sovereign immunity|legal immunity]], which it exempt to a significant degree from court jurisdiction and economic obligations such as taxation that had previously been imposed by the ruling dukes.<ref name="Wyrozumski 116–128"/>
[[File:Torun panorama zza Wisly 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|250 px |[[Toruń|Thorn (Toruń)]], established by the [[Teutonic Knights]] became a member of the [[Hanseatic League]]]]
Civil strife and foreign invasions, such as the [[Mongol invasions]] in [[First Mongol invasion of Poland|1240/1241]], [[Second Mongol invasion of Poland|1259/1260]] and [[Third Mongol invasion of Poland|1287/1288]], weakened and depopulated many of the small Polish principalities, as the country was becoming progressively more subdivided. Depopulation and increasing demand for labor caused a massive immigration of West European peasants into Poland, mostly [[Ostsiedlung|German settlers]]; the early waves from Germany and [[Flanders]] occurred in the 1220s.<ref>[[John Radzilowski]], ''A Traveller's History of Poland''; Northampton, Massachusetts: Interlink Books, 2007, {{ISBN|1-56656-655-X}}, p. 260</ref> The German, Polish and other new rural settlements represented a form of feudal tenancy with legal immunity and [[German town law]]s were often utilized as its legal bases. German immigrants were also important in the rise of the cities and the establishment of the Polish [[bourgeoisie|burgher]] (city dwelling merchants) class; they brought with them West European laws ([[Magdeburg rights]]) and customs that the Poles adopted. From that time, the Germans, who created early strong establishments (led by [[Patrician (post-Roman Europe)|patriciates]]) especially in the urban centers of Silesia and other regions of western Poland, were an increasingly influential minority in Poland.<ref name="Wyrozumski 116–128"/><ref>Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, ''A Concise History of Poland'', pp. 14–16</ref><ref>Norman Davies, ''Europe: A History'', p. 366</ref>
In 1228, the Acts of Cienia were passed and signed into law by [[Władysław III Spindleshanks|Władysław III Laskonogi]]. The titular Duke of Poland promised to provide a "just and noble law according to the council of bishops and barons." Such legal guarantees and privileges included the lower level land owners and knights, who were evolving into the lower and middle nobility class known later as ''[[szlachta]]''. The period of fragmentation weakened the rulers and established a permanent trend in Polish history, whereby the rights and role of the nobility were expanded at the monarch's expense.<ref name="Wyrozumski 116–128"/>
=== Relations with the Teutonic Knights ===
[[File:Codex Manesse Heinrich von Breslau.jpg|thumb|right|175 px|[[Henry IV Probus|Henry IV of Wrocław]] in the [[Codex Manesse]], about 1300]]
In 1226, Duke [[Konrad I of Masovia]] invited the [[Teutonic Knights]] to help him fight the pagan, Baltic [[Old Prussians]], who lived in a territory adjacent to his lands; substantial border warfare was taking place and Konrad's province was suffering from Prussian invasions. On the other hand, the [[Old Prussians]] themselves were at that time being subjected to increasingly forced, but largely ineffective Christianization efforts, including [[Northern Crusades]] sponsored by the papacy. The [[Teutonic Knights|Teutonic Order]] soon overstepped their authority and moved beyond the area granted them by Konrad ([[Chełmno]] Land or [[Kulmerland]]). In the following decades, they conquered large areas along the [[Baltic Sea]] coast and established their own [[Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights|monastic state]]. As virtually all of the Western Baltic pagans became converted or exterminated (the Prussian conquests were completed by 1283), the Knights confronted Poland and [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]], then the last pagan state in Europe. Teutonic wars with Poland and Lithuania continued for most of the 14th and 15th centuries. The Teutonic state in Prussia, increasingly populated by German settlers beginning in the 13th century, but still retaining a majority Baltic population, had been claimed as a [[fiefdom|fief]] and protected by the popes and Holy Roman Emperors.<ref name="Wyrozumski 128–129"/><ref>John Radzilowski, ''A Traveller's History of Poland'', pp. 39–41</ref>
=== Reunification attempts and the reigns of Przemysł II and Václav II (1232–1305) ===
[[File:Jakub Świnka.PNG|thumb|left|185 px|Archbishop [[Jakub Świnka]]]]
As the disadvantages of political division were becoming increasingly apparent in various segments of the society, some of the Piast dukes began to make serious efforts aimed at the reunification of the Polish state. Important among the earlier attempts were the activities of the [[Silesian Piasts|Silesian dukes]] [[Henry I the Bearded]], his son [[Henry II the Pious]], who was killed in 1241 while fighting the Mongols at the [[Battle of Legnica]], and [[Henry IV Probus]]. In 1295, [[Przemysł II]] of [[Greater Poland]] became the first Piast duke crowned as King of Poland since Bolesław II, but he ruled over only a part of the territory of Poland (including [[Pomerelia|Gdańsk Pomerania]] from 1294) and was assassinated soon after his coronation. A more extensive unification of Polish lands was accomplished by a foreign ruler, [[Wenceslaus II of Bohemia|Václav II of Bohemia]] of the [[Přemyslid dynasty]], who married [[Elisabeth Richeza of Poland|Przemysł's daughter Richeza]] and became King of Poland in 1300. Václav's heavy-handed policies soon caused him to lose whatever support he had earlier in his reign; he died in 1305.<ref name="Wyrozumski 129–141, 154–155"/>
[[File:Wroclaw Archicathedral.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] [[Wrocław Cathedral|Cathedral of St. John the Baptist]] in [[Wrocław]]]]
An important factor in the unification process was the Polish Church, which remained a single ecclesiastical province throughout the fragmentation period. Archbishop [[Jakub Świnka]] of Gniezno was an ardent proponent of Poland's reunification; he performed the crowning ceremonies for both Przemysł II and [[Wenceslaus II of Bohemia|Wenceslaus II]]. Świnka supported [[Władysław I the Elbow-high|Władysław I Łokietek]] at various stages of the duke's career.<ref name="Wyrozumski 129–141, 154–155"/>
=== Culture ===
[[culture of medieval Poland|Culturally]], the social impact of the Church was considerably broader in the 13th century, as networks of parishes were established and cathedral-type schools became more common. The [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] and the [[Franciscan]]s were the leading monastic orders at this time, and they interacted closely with the general population. A proliferation of narrative [[annals]] characterized the period, as well as other written records, laws and documents. More of the clergy were of local origin; others were expected to know the Polish language. [[Wincenty Kadłubek]], the author of an [[Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae|influential chronicle]], was the most recognized representative in the intellectual sphere. ''Perspectiva'', a treatise on [[optics]] by [[Witelo]], a Silesian monk, was one of the finest achievements of [[Science in the Middle Ages|medieval science]]. The construction of churches and castles in the [[Gothic architecture]] style predominated in the 13th century; native elements in art forms were increasingly important, with significant advances taking place in agriculture, manufacturing and crafts.<ref name="Wyrozumski 141–144"/>
== 14th century ==
=== The reunited kingdom of the last Piast rulers; Jewish settlement ===
[[File:Władysław I sarcophagus figure.jpg|thumb|left|190 px|A fragment of a sandstone [[sarcophagus]] depicting [[Władysław I the Elbow-high]] in [[Wawel Cathedral]], Kraków]]
[[Władysław I the Elbow-high]] and his son [[Casimir III the Great|Casimir III, "the Great"]] were the last two rulers of the Piast dynasty, who ruled over a reunified kingdom of Poland in the 14th century. Their rule was not a return to the Polish state as it existed before the period of fragmentation, because of the loss of internal cohesion and territorial integrity. The regional Piast princes remained strong, and for economic and cultural reasons, some of them gravitated toward Poland's neighbors. The kingdom lost Pomerania and Silesia, the most highly developed and economically important regions of the original ethnically Polish lands, which left half of the Polish population outside the kingdom's borders. The western losses had to do with the failure of the unification efforts undertaken by the [[Silesian Piasts|Silesian Piast]] dukes and the German expansion processes. These included the Piast principalities developing (or falling into) dependencies in respect to the German political structures, [[Ostsiedlung|settler colonization]] and gradual [[Germanisation|Germanization]] of the Polish ruling circles. The lower [[Vistula]] was controlled by the Teutonic Order. [[Masovia]] was not to be fully incorporated into the Polish state in the near future. Casimir stabilized the western and northern borders, tried to regain some of the lost territories, and partially compensated the losses by new eastern expansion that placed within his kingdom regions that were [[East Slavs|East Slavic]], thus ethnically non-Polish.<ref name="Lukowski 15–34"/><ref name="Wyrozumski 145–154"/>
Despite the territorial truncation, 14th-century Poland experienced a period of accelerated economic development and increasing prosperity. This included further expansion and modernization of agricultural settlements, the development of towns and their greater role in briskly growing trade, mining and metallurgy. A great monetary reform was implemented during the reign of Casimir III.<ref name="Lukowski 15–34"/><ref name="Wyrozumski 145–154"/>
[[History of the Jews in Poland|Jewish settlement]] was taking place in Poland since very early times. In 1264, Duke [[Bolesław the Pious]] of Greater Poland granted the privileges of the [[Statute of Kalisz]], which specified a broad range of freedoms of religious practices, movement, and trading for the Jews. It also created a legal precedent for the official protection of Jews from local harassment and exclusion. The act exempted the Jews from enslavement or serfdom and was the foundation of future Jewish prosperity in the Polish kingdom; it was later followed by many other comparable legal pronouncements.<ref>Davies, Norman (2005). ''God's Playground: A History of Poland'', Volume I. New York: Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-231-12817-9}}, p. 66</ref> Following a series of expulsions of Jews from Western Europe, Jewish communities were established in [[Kraków]], [[Kalisz]] and elsewhere in western and southern Poland in the 13th century. Another series of communities were established at [[Lviv]], [[Brest, Belarus|Brest-Litovsk]] and [[Grodno]] further east in the 14th century.<ref name="Overy 116–117">[[Richard Overy]] (2010), ''The Times Complete History of the World'', Eights Edition, pp. 116–117. London: Times Books. {{ISBN|978-0-00-788089-8}}.</ref> King Casimir received Jewish refugees from Germany in 1349.<ref>Norman Davies, ''Europe: A History'', p. 429</ref>
=== The reign of Władysław I the Elbow-high (1305–1333) ===
[[File:Krakow nagrobek Kazimierza W.jpg|thumb|220 px|right|Sarcophagus of [[Casimir III the Great|Casimir the Great]] at Wawel Cathedral]]
[[Władysław I the Elbow-high]] (r. 1305–1333), who began as an obscure Piast duke from [[Kuyavia]], pursued a lifelong, persistently challenging struggle with powerful adversaries with persistence and determination. When he died as the king of a partially reunited Poland, he left the kingdom in a precarious situation. Although the area under King Władysław's control was limited and many unresolved issues remained, he may have saved Poland's existence as a state.<ref name="Wyrozumski 155–160"/>
Supported by his ally [[Charles I of Hungary]], Władysław returned from exile and challenged [[Wenceslaus II of Bohemia|Václav II]] and his successor [[Wenceslaus III of Bohemia|Václav III]] in the period 1304–1306. Václav III's murder in 1306 terminated the Bohemian Přemyslid dynasty and its involvement in Poland. Afterwards, Władysław completed the takeover of [[Lesser Poland]], entering Kraków, and took the lands north of there, through Kuyavia all the way to [[Pomerelia|Gdańsk Pomerania]]. In 1308, Pomerania was conquered by the Brandenburg state. In a recovery effort, Władysław agreed to ask for help from the Teutonic Knights; the Knights brutally [[Teutonic takeover of Danzig (Gdańsk)|took over Gdańsk Pomerania]] and kept it for themselves.<ref name="Wyrozumski 155–160"/>
In 1311–1312, a [[rebellion of wójt Albert|rebellion in Kraków]] instigated by the city's [[patricianship|patrician]] leadership seeking rule by the [[House of Luxembourg]] was put down. This event may have had a limiting impact on the emerging political power of towns.<ref>Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, ''A Concise History of Poland'', pp. 23–24</ref>
In 1313–1314, Władysław conquered [[Greater Poland]]. In 1320, he became the first king of Poland crowned in Kraków's [[Wawel Cathedral]] instead of [[Gniezno]]. The coronation was hesitantly agreed to by [[Pope John XXII]] in spite of the opposition of King [[John of Bohemia]], who had also claimed the Polish crown. John undertook an expedition aimed at Kraków in 1327, which he was compelled to abort; in 1328, he waged a crusade against Lithuania, during which he formalized an alliance with the Teutonic Order. The Order was in a state of [[Polish–Teutonic War (1326–1332)|war with Poland]] from 1327 to 1332 (see [[Battle of Płowce]]). As a result, the Knights captured [[Dobrzyń Land]] and [[Kujawy]]. Władysław was helped by his alliances with Hungary (his daughter [[Elisabeth of Poland|Elizabeth]] was married to King [[Charles I of Hungary|Charles I]] in 1320) and Lithuania (in a pact of 1325 against the [[State of the Teutonic Order|Teutonic State]] and the marriage of Władysław's son [[Casimir III the Great|Casimir]] to [[Aldona of Lithuania|Aldona]], daughter of the Lithuanian ruler [[Gediminas]]).<ref name="Chronology 74–75"/> After 1329, a peace agreement with Brandenburg also assisted his efforts. A lasting achievement of King [[John of Bohemia]] (and a great loss to Poland) was his success in forcing most of the Piast Silesian principalities, often ambivalent about their loyalties, into [[allegiance]] between 1327 and 1329.<ref name="Wyrozumski 155–160"/><ref>Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, ''A Concise History of Poland'', pp. 14–26</ref>
=== The reign of Casimir III the Great (1333–1370) ===
[[File:Polska 1333 - 1370.png|250px|thumb|left|Poland during ruling of [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III]] (1333–1370) is shown within the red line; Silesia (yellow) and Pomerania (purple) were lost, while the kingdom had expanded to the southeast]]
After the death of Władysław I, the old monarch's 23-year-old son became King Casimir III, later known as [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir the Great]] (r. 1333–1370). Unlike his father, the new king demonstrated no attraction for the hardships of military life. Casimir's contemporaries did not give him much of a chance of overcoming the country's mounting difficulties or succeeding as a ruler. But from the beginning, Casimir acted prudently, and in 1335, he purchased the claims of King John of Bohemia to the Polish throne. In 1343, Casimir settled several high-level arbitration disputes with the Teutonic Order by a territorial compromise that culminated in the [[Treaty of Kalisz (1343)|Treaty of Kalisz]] of 1343. [[Dobrzyń Land]] and [[Kuyavia]] were recovered by Casimir. At that time, Poland started to expand to the east and through a series of military campaigns between 1340 and 1366, Casimir annexed the [[Halych]]–[[Volodymyr-Volynskyi|Volodymyr]] [[Galicia-Volhynia|area of Rus']]. The town of [[Lviv]] there attracted newcomers of several nationalities, was granted [[Magdeburg rights|municipal rights]] in 1356, and had thus begun its career as [[Lviv|Lwów]], the main Polish centre in the midst of a [[Rus' (people)|Rus']] [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] population. Supported by Hungary, the Polish king in 1338 promised the [[Capetian House of Anjou|Hungarian ruling house]] the Polish throne in the event he dies without male heirs.<ref>Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, ''A Concise History of Poland'', pp. 26–34</ref><ref name="Wyrozumski 160–171"/>
[[File:Casimir III of Poland.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Foundation of the [[Collegiate church in Wiślica]] by [[Casimir III the Great]]]]
Casimir, who formally gave up his rights to several [[Silesia]]n principalities in 1339, unsuccessfully tried to recover the region by conducting military activities against the [[House of Luxembourg]] (the rulers of Bohemia) between 1343 and 1348, but then blocked the attempted separation of Silesia from the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gniezno|Gniezno Archdiocese]] by Holy Roman Emperor [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]]. Later, until his death, he pursued the Polish claim to Silesia legally by petitioning the pope; his successors did not continue his efforts.<ref name="Wyrozumski 160–171"/>
Allied with Denmark and Western Pomerania (Gdańsk Pomerania was granted to the Order as an "eternal charity"), Casimir was able to impose some corrections on the western border. In 1365, [[Drezdenko]] and [[Santok]] became Poland's [[fiefdom|fiefs]], while the [[Wałcz]] district was taken outright in 1368. The latter action severed the land connection between Brandenburg and the Teutonic state and connected Poland with [[Farther Pomerania]].<ref name="Wyrozumski 160–171"/>
Casimir the Great considerably solidified the country's position in both foreign and domestic affairs. Domestically, he integrated and centralized the reunited Polish state and helped develop what was considered the "[[Crown of the Polish Kingdom]]": the state within its actual boundaries, as well as past or potential boundaries. Casimir established or strengthened kingdom-wide institutions (such as the powerful state treasury) independent of the regional, class, or royal court-related interests. Internationally, the Polish king was very active diplomatically; he cultivated close contacts with other European rulers and was a staunch defender of the interests of the Polish state. In 1364, he sponsored the [[Congress of Kraków]], in which a number of monarchs participated, which was concerned with the promotion of peaceful cooperation and political balance in Central Europe.<ref name="Wyrozumski 160–171"/>
=== The reign of Louis I and Jadwiga (1370–1399) ===
[[File:Jadwiga by Bacciarelli.jpg|left|thumb|180 px|[[Jadwiga of Poland|Queen Jadwiga]] was the great-granddaughter of [[Władysław I the Elbow-high]]]]
Immediately after Casimir's death in 1370, the heirless king's nephew [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis of Hungary]] of the [[Capetian House of Anjou]] assumed the Polish throne. As Casimir's actual commitment to the Anjou succession seemed problematic from the beginning (in 1368 the Polish king adopted his grandson, [[Casimir IV, Duke of Pomerania|Casimir of Słupsk]]), Louis engaged in succession negotiations with Polish knights and nobility starting in 1351. They supported him, exacting in return further guarantees and privileges for themselves; the formal act was negotiated in [[Buda]] in 1355. After his coronation, Louis returned to Hungary; he left his mother and [[Casimir III the Great|Casimir]]'s sister [[Elizabeth of Poland|Elizabeth]] in Poland as [[regent]]s.<ref name="Wyrozumski 169–173"/>
With the death of Casimir the Great, the period of hereditary (Piast) monarchy in Poland came to an end. The land owners and nobles did not want a strong monarchy; a constitutional monarchy was established between 1370 and 1493 that included the beginning of the [[general sejm]], the dominant bicameral parliament of the future.<ref name="Wyrozumski 169–173"/>
During the reign of Louis I, Poland formed a [[Polish-Hungarian union]]. In the pact of 1374 (the [[Privilege of Koszyce]]), the Polish nobility was granted extensive concessions and agreed to extend the Anjou succession to Louis's daughters, as Louis had no sons. Louis's neglect of Polish affairs resulted in the loss of Casimir's territorial gains, including [[Halych]] [[Rus (name)|Rus']], which was recovered by Queen [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]] in 1387. In 1396, Jadwiga and her husband [[Jogaila|Jagiełło (Jogaila)]] forcefully annexed the central Polish lands separating [[Lesser Poland]] from [[Greater Poland]], previously granted by King Louis to his [[Silesian Piasts|Silesian Piast]] ally Duke [[Vladislaus II of Opole|Władysław of Opole]].<ref name="Wyrozumski 169–173"/><ref name="Lukowski 42–44"/>
[[File:Krakow 72.jpg|thumb|190 px|right|[[St. Mary's Basilica, Kraków|St. Mary's Church]] in Kraków]]
The Hungarian-Polish union lasted for twelve years and ended in war. After Louis's death in 1382 and a power struggle that resulted in the [[Greater Poland Civil War]], the Polish nobility decided that Jadwiga, Louis's youngest daughter, should become the next "King of Poland"; Jadwiga arrived in 1384 and was crowned at the age of eleven. The failure of the union of Poland and Hungary paved the way for the [[Polish-Lithuanian union|union of Lithuania and Poland]].<ref name="Wyrozumski 169–173"/>
=== Culture ===
In the 14th century, many large scale [[Architecture of medieval Poland|brick building projects]] were undertaken during Casimir's reign, including the construction of [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] churches, castles, urban fortifications and homes of wealthy city residents. The most notable examples of architecture from the medieval period in Poland are the many churches representing the [[Polish Gothic]] style; medieval sculpture, painting and ornamental smithery are best revealed in the furnishings of churches and liturgical items. Polish law was first codified in the [[Statutes of Casimir the Great]] (the Piotrków–Wiślica Statutes) from 1346 to 1362. Accordingly, conflict resolution relied on legal proceedings domestically, while bilateral or multilateral negotiations and treaties were increasingly important in international relations. By this time, the network of cathedral and parish schools had become well developed. In 1364, Casimir the Great established the [[Jagiellonian University|University of Kraków]], the second oldest university in Central Europe. While many still traveled to Southern and Western Europe for university studies, the [[Old Polish language|Polish language]], along with the predominant [[Latin]], became increasingly more common in written documents. The [[Holy Cross Sermons]] (ca. early 14th century) constitute possibly the oldest extant Polish prose manuscript.<ref name="Wyrozumski 173–177"/>
== See also ==
{{Portal|Poland}}
* [[Poland in the Early Middle Ages]]
* [[History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty]]
* [[Slavery in Poland]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="Chronology 29">Ed. [[Andrzej Chwalba]], ''Kalendarium dziejów Polski'' (Chronology of Polish History), p. 29, [[Krzysztof Stopka]]. Copyright 1999 [[Wydawnictwo Literackie]] Kraków, {{ISBN|83-08-02855-1}}.</ref>
<ref name="Chronology 33">Ed. Andrzej Chwalba, ''Kalendarium dziejów Polski'' (Chronology of Polish History), p. 33, Krzysztof Stopka</ref>
<ref name="Chronology 37">Ed. Andrzej Chwalba, ''Kalendarium dziejów Polski'' (Chronology of Polish History), p. 37, Krzysztof Stopka</ref>
<ref name="Chronology 74–75">Ed. Andrzej Chwalba, ''Kalendarium dziejów Polski'' (Chronology of Polish History), pp. 74–75, Krzysztof Stopka</ref>
<ref name="JB">An interview with the historian [[Tomasz Jasiński (historian)|Tomasz Jasiński]], Piotr Bojarski, ''Polski mogło nie być'' (There could have been no Poland), [[Gazeta Wyborcza]] July 7, 2007</ref>
<ref name="Kurnatowska">Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, ''U źródeł Polski (do roku 1038)'' (Foundations of Poland (until year 1038)), pp. 146–167, Zofia Kurnatowska</ref>
<ref name="Kronika Słowian II 95">Witold Chrzanowski, ''Kronika Słowian, tom II Polanie'' (The Chronicle of the Slavs, Volume II: The Polans), p. 95, Wydawnictwo EGIS, Kraków 2008, {{ISBN|978-83-7396-749-6}}</ref>
<ref name="Lukowski 15–34">Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, ''A Concise History of Poland'', pp. 15–34</ref>
<ref name="Lukowski 42–44">Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, ''A Concise History of Poland'', pp. 42–44</ref>
<ref name="The history of Ostrów Tumski stronghold">{{cite web|url=http://www.poznan.pl/mim/public/przewodnik/przewodnik.html?co=object&id_klasy=3093&id_obiektu=44262&lang=en&lhs=przewodnik_object&pr_id=22 |title=The history of Ostrów Tumski stronghold |publisher=Poznań.pl |access-date=2009-09-19}}</ref>
<ref name="Szczur Średniowiecze 106-107">Stanisław Szczur, ''Historia Polski-średniowiecze'' (History of Poland: The Middle Ages), [[Wydawnictwo Literackie]], Kraków 2002, {{ISBN|978-83-08-04135-2}}, pp. 106–107</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 100–101">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), p. 100–101</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 101–104">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 101–104</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 104–111">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 104–111</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 111–115">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 111–115</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 116–128">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 116–128</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 128–129">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 128–129</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 129–141, 154–155">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 129–141, 154–155</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 141–144">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 141–144</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 145–154">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 145–154</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 155–160">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 155–160</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 160–171">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 160–171</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 169–173">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 169–173</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 173–177">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 173–177</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 80–88">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 80–88</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 88–93">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 88–93</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 93–96">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 93–96</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 96–98">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), p. 96–98</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski 98–100">Jerzy Wyrozumski, ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), pp. 98–100</ref>
<ref name="Wyrozumski">[[Jerzy Wyrozumski]], ''Historia Polski do roku 1505'' (History of Poland until 1505), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe ([[Polish Scientific Publishers PWN]]), Warszawa 1986, {{ISBN|83-01-03732-6}}</ref>
}}
==Further reading==
{{Main|Bibliography of the history of Poland}}
*{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Norman|author-link=Norman Davies|year=2005|orig-year=1981|title=[[God's Playground|God's Playground: A History of Poland. Vol. 1: The Origins to 1795]]|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0-19-925339-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Knoll|first=Paul W.|title=The Rise of the Polish Monarchy: Piast Poland in East Central Europe, 1320–1370|url=https://archive.org/details/riseofpolishmona0000knol|url-access=registration|year=1972|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago|isbn=0-226-44826-6}}
==External links==
*Górczyk, Wojciech, "[http://histmag.org/?id=3057&act=ac#reader-link Półksiężyc, orzeł, lew i smok. Uwagi o godłach napieczętnych Piastów]" (Piast heraldic emblems on seals) ''Histmag'' <small>([https://translate.google.com/translate?js=n&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=2&eotf=1&sl=auto&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fhistmag.org%2F%3Fid%3D3057%26act%3Dac%23reader-link English])</small>
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Poland During The Piast Dynasty}}
[[Category:History of Poland during the Piast dynasty| ]]