View source for Homeric Minimum

{{Short description|Solar minimum that took place between 800–600 BC}}
The '''Homeric Minimum''' is a [[grand solar minimum]] that started about 2,800 years ago (ca. 800 BC) and lasted around 200 years. It appears to coincide with, and have been the cause of, a phase of [[climate change (general concept)|climate change]] at that time, which involved a wetter [[Western  Europe]] and drier [[eastern Europe]]. This had far-reaching effects on human civilization, some of which may be recorded in [[Greek mythology]] and the [[Old Testament]].
== Solar phenomenon ==
The Homeric Minimum is a persistent and deep<ref name="Landscheidt1987" /> [[grand solar minimum]] between about 800 and 600 BC. [[Cosmogenic]] [[beryllium-10]] deposits in [[varve]]s in a German lake show a sharp increase "2,759 ± 39 varve years before present",{{sfn|Geel|Possnert|Aldahan|Petrick|2012|p=401}}{{sfn|Geel|Possnert|Aldahan|Petrick|2012|p=397}} while [[carbon-14]] is high starting around 830&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Kilian|Van der Plicht|Van Geel|1995|p=962}} It is similar to the [[Spörer Minimum]] of around AD 1500.{{sfn|Kilian|Van der Plicht|Van Geel|1995|p=959}} It is sometimes named the "Great Solar Minimum"<ref name="Giovanni2022" /> or Homerian GSM.{{sfn|García|Birlo|Zahajská|Wienhues|2024|p=1752}} It has been subdivided into a stronger minimum at 2,750-2,635 years before present and a secondary minimum 2,614-2,594 years before present.{{sfn|Harding|Martin-Puertas|Sjolte|Walsh|2022|p=2}} The Homeric Minimum is sometimes considered to be part of a longer "Hallstattzeit" solar minimum between 705–200 BC that also includes a second minimum between 460 and 260 BC.{{sfn|Davis|Jirikowic|Kalin|1992|p=23}} The Homeric Minimum however also coincided with a [[geomagnetic excursion]] named "Etrussia-Sterno", which may have altered the climate response to the Homeric Minimum.<ref name="Raspopov2004" /> The name "Homeric Minimum" however is not widely accepted in [[solar physics]].<ref name="Silverman2021" />
== Mechanisms of climate effects ==
Variations in the solar output have effects on climate, less through the usually quite small effects on [[insolation]] and more through the relatively large changes of [[UV radiation]] and potentially also indirectly through modulation of [[cosmic ray]] radiation. The 11-year [[solar cycle]] measurably alters the behaviour of weather and atmosphere, but decadal and centennial climate cycles are also attributed to solar variation.{{sfn|Geel|Possnert|Aldahan|Petrick|2012|p=397}} Any direct radiation effects may have been further amplified by oceanic circulation changes, such as the [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation]]<ref name="WangLi2024" /> and the [[Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation]].{{sfn|Roy|Gandhi|2024|p=63}} It is possible that cooling in the North Atlantic predated the Homeric Minimum,{{sfn|Jin|Hu|Hu|Fan|2023|p=9}} while the timing of [[East Asian Summer Monsoon]] changes coincides well with that of the Homeric Minimum.<ref name="WangLi2024" />
== Effects on human populations and climate ==
Debates on whether a climatic deterioration occurred during that time began already in the late 19th century.{{sfn|Gearey|Becker|Everett|Griffiths|2020|p=2}} The Homeric Minimum has been linked with a phase of [[Climate change (general concept)|climate change]]{{sfn|Rach|Engels|Kahmen|Brauer|2017|p=45}} known as the Homeric Climate Anomaly or Homeric Climate Oscillation,{{sfn|García|Birlo|Zahajská|Wienhues|2024|p=1752}} during which the [[Western United States]] {{sfn|Davis|Jirikowic|Kalin|1992|pp=27-28}} and Europe became colder but whether it became drier or wetter is under debate;<ref name="Cortizas2021" /> the western parts and the North Atlantic may have become wetter{{sfn|Rach|Engels|Kahmen|Brauer|2017|p=44}} and the eastern parts of Europe drier.<ref name="Słowiński2016" /> This climate oscillation has been called the "Homeric Climate Oscillation",{{sfn|Rach|Engels|Kahmen|Brauer|2017|p=45}} "850 BC event"<ref name="Gauld2024" /> or the "2.8 kyr event",<ref name="Ghilardi2023" /><ref name="LaurenzLüdecke2019" /> and it has been associated with the [[Iron Age Cold Epoch]],<ref name="Kylander2019" /> the decline of the [[Urartu]] kingdom in Armenia<ref name="Robles2022" /> and a cultural interruption in Ireland although its effect there is still debated.{{sfn|Gearey|Becker|Everett|Griffiths|2020|p=2}}
Human cultures at that time underwent changes,{{sfn|Rach|Engels|Kahmen|Brauer|2017|p=45}} which also coincide with the transition from the [[Bronze Age]] to the [[Iron Age]].<ref name="Mauquoy2016" /> The climate fallout of this prolonged solar minimum may have had substantial impact on human societies at that time,<ref name="Ogurtsov2013" /> with adaptations to changed climates,{{sfn|Roy|Gandhi|2024|p=61}} and a recovery of societies after its end.<ref name="Pratt2021" /> Increased precipitation in [[Thrace]] and over the [[Eurasian steppe]]s during the Homeric Minimum may have benefitted the founding of [[Byzantium]] and the [[Skythians]], respectively, however,<ref name="MorganCheng2024" /><ref name="Brooke2014" /> and a cultural change in the Eurasian [[Koban culture]] has been associated with the Homeric Minimum.<ref name="SharkoBoulygina2024" />
It has been speculated that some ancient literary references refer to these phenomena. For example, the period saw the growth of a [[glacier]] on [[Mount Olympus]], while [[Greek mythology]] and [[Homer]] refer to ice and storms on the mountain, which may also be reflected in the name "Olympus".<ref name="Styllas2018" /> Increased activity of the [[polar lights]] at the end of the Homeric Minimum may have inspired [[Ezekiel]]'s vision of God in the [[Old Testament]].<ref name="Siscoe2002" />{{Quote
|text=a stormy wind ... out of the north ... with brightness around it, and fire flashing forth ... as it were gleaming metal ... an expanse, shining like awe-inspiring crystal.
|author=[[Ezekiel]]
|title=[[Book of Ezekiel]] ({{Bibleverse|Ezekiel|1:4–28|ESV}}, ESV)
|source=[[Old Testament]]
}}
== Other effects ==
A variety of phenomena have been linked to the Homeric Minimum:
* Increasingly cold, wet and windy climate recorded from [[Meerfelder Maar]] in Germany,{{sfn|Geel|Possnert|Aldahan|Petrick|2012|p=398}} where the Homeric Minimum has been associated with a permanent climate transition.{{sfn|Rach|Engels|Kahmen|Brauer|2017|p=52}} A wetter climate was also recognized in a [[bog]] in the Netherlands;{{sfn|Kilian|Van der Plicht|Van Geel|1995|p=965}} the present-day Czech Republic, where it also became colder; and in the British Isles.<ref name="LaurenzLüdecke2019" />
* A growth in the size of lakes and downward expansion of [[conifer]] forests took place in Western North America at the time of the Homeric Minimum.{{sfn|Davis|Jirikowic|Kalin|1992|pp=27-28}}
* Decreased sea levels are recorded from the Homeric Minimum.<ref name="Lampe2018" />
* Increased storminess in Scotland, England and Sweden.{{sfn|Harding|Martin-Puertas|Sjolte|Walsh|2022|p=9}}<ref name="Kylander2019" />
* Increased precipitation in northern [[Iberia]]. Such a precipitation increase took place a few decades after the Homeric Minimum and increased wetness has been noted after other solar minima, as well.<ref name="Martín-Chivelet2015" />
* Cold [[sea surface temperatures]] in the [[Santa Barbara Basin]] of [[California]] and a cold interval in the Campito Mountain [[tree ring]] record. The Homeric Minimum in general seems to be associated with a cold climate in California.{{sfn|Davis|Jirikowic|Kalin|1992|p=23}}
* Decreased [[atmospheric pressure]] differences between [[Iceland]] and the [[subtropics]], that is a decreased [[North Atlantic oscillation]] index{{sfn|Rach|Engels|Kahmen|Brauer|2017|p=50}} which lasted past the end of the Homeric Minimum.<ref name="Adolph2024" />
* Cooling is also recorded from Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.{{sfn|Davis|Jirikowic|Kalin|1992|p=29}}
* Increased windiness is recorded in lakes of Western Europe.{{sfn|García|Birlo|Zahajská|Wienhues|2024|p=1753}}
* [[Wind gust|Gustier]] springs in Europe and increased cold air outbreaks in East Asia.<ref name="Park2021" />
* [[Groundwater]] levels rose in the Netherlands.{{sfn|García|Birlo|Zahajská|Wienhues|2024|p=1753}}
* A weaker [[monsoon]] in East Asia,<ref name="TanLi2020" /> India and Tibet.<ref name="SunYuan2020" />
* A wetter climate is recorded for Central Asia.{{sfn|Neugebauer|Brauer|Schwab|Dulski|2015|p=1358}}
* Lake levels in the [[Caspian Sea]] rose.{{sfn|Neugebauer|Brauer|Schwab|Dulski|2015|p=1358}}
* Water levels increased in lakes of the [[French Jura]].{{sfn|García|Birlo|Zahajská|Wienhues|2024|p=1753}}
* Cooling in the [[Ionian Sea]].<ref name="Pratt2021" />
* More frequent floods and storms in the [[Alps]].{{sfn|Neugebauer|Brauer|Schwab|Dulski|2015|pp=1358-1359}}
* A dry period in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], such as at [[Jerusalem]], [[Lake Van]]<ref name="Robles2022" /> and the [[Dead Sea]] appears to coincide with the Homeric Minimum, although the mechanisms for this are not clear.{{sfn|Neugebauer|Brauer|Schwab|Dulski|2015|p=1368}}
* Expansion of [[glacier]]s in the [[Caucasus]].<ref name="Robles2022" />
* A cold and arid climate in [[Armenia]].<ref name="Robles2022" />
* Increased [[River incision|incision]] along the [[River Soar]].<ref name="Brown2013" />
* Increased flooding along the [[Ammer (Neckar)|Ammer river]].{{sfn|García|Birlo|Zahajská|Wienhues|2024|p=1753}}
* Increased production of [[carbon-14]] and [[beryllium-10]] by [[cosmic ray]]s, recorded in [[Greenland]].{{sfn|Geel|Possnert|Aldahan|Petrick|2012|p=397}} The carbon-14 excursion is also recorded elsewhere and constitutes the largest such spike since 2000 [[Before Common Era|BCE]], exceeding the [[Maunder Minimum]].<ref name="Mauquoy2016" /> The so-called [[Hallstatt plateau]], an anomaly in carbon-14 production that creates large imprecisions in [[radiocarbon dating]] during that time, has been related to the Homeric Minimum.{{sfn|Gearey|Becker|Everett|Griffiths|2020|p=17}}
* The switch from the [[Subboreal]] to the [[Subatlantic]] climate epoch in the [[Blytt–Sernander sequence]] about 2,800 years before present.{{sfn|Geel|Possnert|Aldahan|Petrick|2012|p=397}}
* The "Göschenen I" glacier advance in the [[Alps]] relates to the Homeric Minimum.{{sfn|García|Birlo|Zahajská|Wienhues|2024|p=1753}}<ref name="Kronig2018" />
* A change in storm frequency on the [[Scotian Shelf]].<ref name="YangMaselli2020" />
* Increased precipitation in [[Sicily]].<ref name="Giovanni2022" />
* The [[Bond event]] 2 is associated with the 2.8 ka event.{{sfn|Jin|Hu|Hu|Fan|2023|p=1}}
* Cold and dry weather in China is recorded in historical records like the [[Bamboo Annals]].{{sfn|Jin|Hu|Hu|Fan|2023|p=1}}
* A colder climate in the [[Khingan Mountains]] of China.<ref name="HanSun2023" />
* Increased runoff in [[Corsica]].<ref name="Ghilardi2023" />
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{{refend}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Homeric Minimum}}
[[Category:History of climate variability and change]]
[[Category:Solar phenomena]]
[[Category:9th century BC]]
[[Category:Homer]]
[[Category:Ezekiel]]