View source for Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz

{{Short description|Sharif and Emir of Mecca (1854–1931)}}
{{for|people with similar names|Hussein bin Ali (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Hussein bin Ali<br/>{{nobold|{{lang|ar|ٱلْحُسَيْن بِن عَلِي }}}}
| title        = [[Kingdom of Hejaz|King of the Arabs]]<br />[[Sharifian Caliph]]<br />[[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques]]
| image        = Sharif Hussein portrait.jpeg
| caption      = King Hussein in 1917
| succession3  = [[Sharifian Caliphate|Caliph]]
| reign3       = 3 March 1924 – 19 December 1925/4 June 1931
| predecessor3 = [[Abdulmejid II]]
| successor3   = Office abolished
| succession2  = [[Sharif of Mecca|Sharif and Emir of Mecca]]
| reign2       = 1 November 1908{{spaced ndash}}3 October 1924
| predecessor2 = [[Abd al-Ilah Pasha|Abdallah bin Muhammad]]
| successor2   = [[Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz|Ali bin Hussein]]
| dynasty      = [[Hashemites|Hashemite dynasty]]
| module       = {{Infobox military person | embed=yes
| allegiance    = [[Kingdom of Hejaz]]
| branch        = [[Sharifian Army]]
| battles       = {{plain list|
* [[Arab Revolt]]
}}
}}
| succession   = [[King of Hejaz]]
| reign        = 10 June 1916{{spaced ndash}}3 October 1924
| predecessor  = ''Office established''
| successor    = [[Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz|Ali bin Hussein]]
| birth_date   = 1 May 1854
| birth_place  = [[Constantinople]], [[Ottoman Empire]]
| death_date   = {{Death date and given age|1931|06|04|77|df=y}}
| death_place  = [[Amman]], [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]]
| burial_date  =
| burial_place = [[:commons:Category:Al-Arghuniyya|al-Arghūniyya]], the [[Haram esh-Sharif|Noble Sanctuary]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Mandatory Palestine|British Palestine]]
| spouse       = {{plainlist|
* Sharifa Abdiyah bint Abdullah
* Madiha
* Sharifa Khadija bint Abdullah
* [[Adila Khanum]]
}}
| issue        = {{plainlist|
* [[Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz|Ali of Hejaz]]
* Sharif Hasan
* [[Abdullah I of Jordan]]
* Princess Fatima
* [[Faisal I of Iraq]]
* Princess Saliha
* Princess Sara
* [[Zeid bin Hussein|Prince Zeid]]
}}
| house        = [[Banu Qatadah]]
| father       = Ali bin Muhammad
| mother       = Salah Bani-Shahar
| religion     = [[Sunni Islam]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6511/is_2_49/ai_n29160130/|work=APS Diplomat Redrawing the Islamic Map|title=IRAQ – Resurgence In The Shiite World – Part 8 – Jordan & The Hashemite Factors|year=2005|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120709082355/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6511/is_2_49/ai_n29160130/|archive-date=9 July 2012}}</ref>
}}
{{Islam}}
'''Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi''' ({{langx|ar|ٱلْحُسَيْن بِن عَلِي ٱلْهَاشِمِي|al-Ḥusayn bin 'Alī al-Hāshimī}} {{pronunciation|Al-Ḥusayn bin ‘Alī al-Hāshimī-ar.ogg}}; 1 May 1854{{spaced ndash}}4 June 1931) was an [[Arab]] leader from the [[Banu Qatadah]] branch of the [[Banu Hashim]] clan who was the [[Sharif of Mecca|Sharif and Emir of Mecca]] from 1908 and, after proclaiming the [[Great Arab Revolt]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]],<ref name="Roshwald 2013">{{cite book |author-last=Roshwald |author-first=Aviel |year=2013 |chapter=Part II. The Emergence of Nationalism: Politics and Power – Nationalism in the Middle East, 1876–1945 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IlNoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA220 |editor-last=Breuilly |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism |location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=220–241 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199209194.013.0011 |isbn=978-0-19-175030-4 |access-date=16 December 2022 |archive-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115215620/https://books.google.com/books?id=IlNoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA220 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[King of the Hejaz]], even if he refused this title,<ref name=":11">Representation Of Hedjaz At The Peace Conference: Hussein Bin Ali's Correspondence With Colonel Wilson; Status Of Arabic Countries; King's Rejection Of 'Hedjaz' Title. Paris Peace Conference 1919: Representation Of Hedjaz, Feb. 24, 1919, '''Manuscript Number''' FO 608/97-0068 The National Archives (Kew, United Kingdom)</ref> from 1916 to 1924. [[Sharifian Caliphate|He proclaimed himself Caliph]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |title=The new Islamic dynasties: a chronological and genealogical manual |date=1996 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-0684-9 |location=Edinburgh |page=212 |oclc=35692500}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Teitelbaum |first=Joshua |date=1998 |title=Sharif Husayn ibn Ali and the Hashemite Vision of the Post-Ottoman Order: From Chieftaincy to Suzerainty |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=103–122 |doi=10.1080/00263209808701212 |jstor=4283920 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kramer |first=Martin |title=Islam assembled the advent of the Muslim Congresses |date=1986 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-1-59740-468-6 |location=New York |pages=80–86 |oclc=1113069713}}</ref> after the [[Abolition of the Caliphate|abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate]] in 1924 and stayed in power until 1925 when Hejaz was [[Saudi conquest of Hejaz|invaded]] by the [[Saudis]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hussein et la famille Hachémite |url=https://www.lesclesdumoyenorient.com/Hussein-et-la-famille-Hachemite.html |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=www.lesclesdumoyenorient.com |archive-date=5 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205070232/https://www.lesclesdumoyenorient.com/Hussein-et-la-famille-Hachemite.html |url-status=live }}</ref> His Caliphate was opposed by the [[British Empire|British]] and [[French colonial empire|French]] empires,<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":162">{{Cite thesis |title=The idea of an Arab caliphate in British Middle Eastern policy in the era of the Great War |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1739/ |publisher=Durham University |date=2003 |degree=Doctoral |first=Stephen Thomas |last=Cox |access-date=2023-12-19 |archive-date=2021-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904212614/http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1739/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":192">{{Cite book |last=Le Naour |first=Jean-Yves |title=Djihad 1914–1918: la France face au panislamisme |date=2017 |publisher=Perrin |isbn=978-2-262-07083-0 |location=Paris}}</ref> the [[Zionism|Zionists]]<ref name="Al-Momani 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Al-Momani |first1=Nidal Daoud Mohammad |date=2014 |title=Al-Sharif, Al-Hussein Bin Ali between the Zionists and the Palestinians in 1924 A decisive year in the political history of Al-Hussein |journal=Journal of Human Sciences |volume=2014 |issue=2 |pages=312–335 |doi=10.12785/jhs/20140213 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and the [[Wahhabism|Wahhabis]] alike.<ref name=":8" /> However, he received support from a large part of the Muslim population of that time<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last1=الوطن |first1=جريدة |last2=webmaster |date=2020-05-05 |title="مملكة الحجاز".. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح |url=https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |archive-date=16 May 2023 |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=جريدة الوطن |language=ar |quote=وذكر الوثائقي أنه في 1924م، اندفع الشريف الحسين بن علي متشبثاً برداء النبوة ليعلن نفسه خليفة للمسلمين، فتلقى بيعة واسعة في الحجاز والشام، الأمر الذي زاد من غضب بن سعود، فكان إعلان الخلافة القشة التي قصمت ظهر البعير، فقرر بن سعود غزو الحجاز فوراً.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=British Secret Service |title=Jeddah Report 1-29 Mars 1924 |date=29 March 1924 |publisher=British Secret Service |location=Jeddah |page=FO 371/100CWE 3356 |language=en}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator -->.</ref><ref name=":22">{{cite book |last1=Kramer |first1=Martin |title=Islam assembled the advent of the Muslim Congresses |date=1986 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-1-59740-468-6 |oclc=1113069713}}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator -->.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=نضال داود المومني |url=http://archive.org/details/Shareef_Hussain_Ali_Khilafah |title=الشريف الحسين بن علي والخلافة |date=1996}}</ref> and from [[Mehmed VI]].<ref name=":122">Central File: Decimal File 867.9111, Internal Affairs Of States, Public Press., Newspapers., Turkey, Clippings And Items., March 22, 1924 – March 12, 1925. March 22, 1924 – March 12, 1925. MS Turkey: Records of the U.S. Department of State, 1802–1949: Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Turkey, 1910–1929. National Archives (United States). ''Archives Unbound'', link.gale.com/apps/doc/SC5111548903/GDCS.GRC?pg=5. Accessed 17 May 2023.</ref> He is usually considered as the father of modern [[pan-Arabism]].<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=AL-Maaytah |first1=Dr Khaled Salameh |last2=Hjazeen |first2=Dr Hazem Bsharah Naif |date=2024 |title=State Building in Ancient and Contemporary Arab Political Thought |url=https://migrationletters.com/index.php/ml/article/view/6116 |journal=Migration Letters |language=en |volume=21 |issue=S1 |pages=476–487 |doi=10.59670/ml.v21iS1.6116 |issn=1741-8992 |doi-access=free |access-date=14 June 2024 |archive-date=14 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614093510/https://migrationletters.com/index.php/ml/article/view/6116 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 1908, in the aftermath of the [[Young Turk Revolution]], Hussein was appointed Sharif of Mecca by the [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman sultan]] [[Abdul Hamid II]]. His relationship with the Ottoman government deteriorated after the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] took power, particularly because of their policies of [[Turkification]] and persecution of ethnic minorities, including Arabs. In 1916, with the promise of British support for Arab independence, although it is debated as to what extent the British were influential in his choice, he proclaimed the [[Arab Revolt]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]], accusing the Committee of Union and Progress of violating tenets of [[Islam]] and limiting the power of the sultan-caliph.<ref>{{cite web|title=Source Records of the Great War Sharif Hussein's Proclamation of Independence from Turkey, 27th June 1916|url=https://sayyidamiruddin.com/2013/08/13/sharif-husseins-proclamation-of-independence-from-turkey-27-june-1916/|website=Sayyid Ahmed Amiruddin|language=en|date=2013-08-13|access-date=2 December 2022|archive-date=9 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009234200/https://sayyidamiruddin.com/2013/08/13/sharif-husseins-proclamation-of-independence-from-turkey-27-june-1916/}}</ref> While his armies, led by his sons, were engaged in [[Campaigns of the Arab Revolt|fighting the Ottoman and German troops in the Middle East]], Hussein supported the [[Armenians]] during the [[Armenian genocide]] and saved up to 4,000 of them. In the [[aftermath of World War I]], Hussein refused to ratify the [[Treaty of Versailles]], in protest of the [[Balfour Declaration]], a document supporting the [[Israeli settlement|Jewish settlers in Palestine]], and the establishment of British and French [[League of Nations mandate|mandates]] in [[Mandatory Syria|Syria]], [[Mandatory Iraq|Iraq]], and [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]]. His sons [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] and [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah]] were made rulers of Iraq and [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]] respectively in 1921.
He later refused to sign the Anglo-Hashemite Treaty and thus was left in a very precarious position, the British decided progressively to stop supporting him after the proclamation of his caliphate and the refusal to sign any treaty with them. Thus, they decided to support [[Ibn Saud]], who promptly launched an [[Saudi conquest of Hejaz|invasion]] of the Kingdom of Hejaz. In October 1924, facing defeat by Ibn Saud, he abdicated and was succeeded as king by his eldest son [[Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz|Ali bin Hussein]]. After Hejaz was subsequently completely invaded by the [[House of Saud|Ibn Saud]]-[[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] armies of the [[Ikhwan]], on 23 December 1925, Hussein surrendered to the Saudis, bringing the Kingdom of Hejaz, the [[Sharifate of Mecca]] and the [[Sharifian Caliphate]] to an end.{{efn|The legitimacy of his Caliphate is disputed; however, the date of end can be assigned to his loss of the Harayman, in 1925 or to his death, in 1931. Both interpretations can be found in sources.}}<ref name="Peters 1994">{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Francis E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdb6F1qVDhkC&pg=PA397 |title=Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4008-8736-1 |series=Princeton Legacy Library |location=[[Princeton, New Jersey]] and [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire]] |page=397 |oclc=468351969 |orig-date=1994 |access-date=14 June 2024 |archive-date=14 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614020431/https://books.google.com/books?id=tdb6F1qVDhkC&pg=PA397#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>
Hussein was then sent into exile to [[Cyprus]], where the [[British Empire|British]] kept him prisoner until his health deteriorated so much that they allowed him to go back to [[Amman]], next to his son [[Abdullah I of Jordan]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Strohmeier |first1=Martin |title=The exile of Husayn b. Ali, ex-sharif of Mecca and ex-king of the Hijaz, in Cyprus (1925–1930) |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=3 September 2019 |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=733–755 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2019.1596895 |s2cid=164473838 }}</ref> He died in Amman in 1931 and was buried as a Caliph in the [[Al-Aqsa|Al-Aqsa mosque]] compound.<ref name=":5" />
==Biography==
=== Ascendance and early life ===
==== Ascendance ====
{{See also|Hashemites}}
Hussein bin Ali bin Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in bin Awn was born in [[Constantinople]] in 1853 or 1854. He was the eldest son of Sharif Ali bin Muhammad, who is the second son of [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Mu'in|Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in]], the former [[Sharif of Mecca]]. As a member of the [[Hashemites|Hashemite dynasty]], he was a descendant of [[Muhammad]] in the 37th generation{{sfn|Kay|2020|p=49}} through his grandson [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan bin Ali]]. His mother, Salah Bani-Shahar, the wife of Ali, would have been a [[Circassians|Circassian]].<ref name="mumini3">{{cite book|author1=Niḍāl Dāwūd al-Mūminī|date=1996|language=ar|location='Ammān|publisher=al-Maṭba'ah aṣ-Ṣafadī|title=الشريف الحسين بن علي والخلافة: ash-Sharīf al-Ḥusayn ibn 'Alī wa-al-khilāfah}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
He belonged to the Dhawu Awn clan of the Abadilah, a branch of the [[Banu Qatadah]] tribe. The Banu Qatadah had ruled the [[Sharifate of Mecca]] since the accession of their ancestor [[Qatada ibn Idris|Qatadah ibn Idris]] in 1201 and were the last of the four branches of Hashemite sharifs who, together, had governed [[Mecca]] since the [[11th century]].
==== Power struggles and birth ====
In 1827, [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Mu'in|Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in]] was appointed as the Sharif, becoming the first Sharif of the Dhawu Awn branch and ending the centuries-long dominance of the Dhawu Zayd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ṣalībī |first=Kamāl aṣ- |title=The modern history of Jordan |date=1998 |publisher=Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-331-6 |location=London}}</ref> He reigned until 1851, when he was replaced by Sharif [[Abd al-Muttalib ibn Ghalib]] of the Dhawu Zayd. After being deposed, he sent his family and sons to reside in the Ottoman capital of [[Constantinople]]. It was there that Hussein was born to Muhammad's son, Ali, in 1853–1854.
Muhammad was reinstated to power in 1856, and Hussein, then two or three years old, accompanied his father and grandfather to [[Mecca]].<ref name="mumini3" /> Muhammad quickly died in 1858 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Sharif Abdullah Pasha, Hussein's uncle. He returned to [[Mecca]] after his father's death, at a young age, when his uncle Sharif Abdullah called them back, with his mother in 1861–1862.{{sfn|Kay|2020|p=49}}
==== Youth and education ====
Hussein was raised at home, unlike other Hashemite youth who were typically sent outside the city to grow up among [[Bedouin]] nomads. Apparently a diligent young man, he mastered the principles of the [[Arabic|Arabic language]] and was also educated in [[Sharia|Islamic law]] and [[Aqidah|doctrine]]. Among his teachers was Sheikh Muhammad Mahmud at-Turkizi ash-Shinqiti, with whom he studied the [[Mu'allaqat|seven Mu'allaqat]]. With Sheikh [[Ahmad Zayni Dahlan]], he studied the [[Quran]], [[Hafiz (Quran)|completing its memorization]] before the age of 20.<ref name="mumini3" /><ref name=":53">{{cite book|author1=Khayr ad-Dīn az-Ziriklī|date=1923|language=ar|location=Al-Qāhirah Cairo|publisher=al-Maṭba'ah al-'Arabīyah wa-Maktabatuhā|title=ما رأيت وما سمعت: Mā ra'aytu wa-mā sami't}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>Khayr ad-Dīn az-Ziriklī, « الملك حسين / al-Malik Ḥusayn », dans الأعلام / al-A'lām, vol. 2, Bayrūt [Beirut], 2002, 15th éd. (1re éd. 1967), 249–250 p.</ref>
[[File:Carriage of Hussein bin Ali - 1890.jpg|thumb|240x240px|[[Mahmal]] of Hussein bin Ali probably in [[Hejaz]], {{circa}} 1890]]
During Abdullah's reign, Hussein became familiar with the politics and intrigue surrounding the Sharifian court. He also participated in numerous expeditions to the [[Najd]] and the eastern regions of [[Hejaz]] to meet the Arab tribes, over whom the [[Sharifate of Mecca]] then exerted a loose form of control. He learned the customs of the [[Bedouin]]s, including the skills necessary to withstand the harsh desert environment. During his travels, he also gained a thorough knowledge of the desert's [[flora]] and [[fauna]] and composed poems in humayni verse, a type of vernacular poetry ([[malhun]]) of the Bedouins. He also practiced horseback riding and hunting.<ref name="mumini3" />
==== Exile to Constantinople ====
In 1875, he married Abdullah's daughter, Abdiyah, his cousin. In 1877, Abdullah died, and Hussein, along with his cousin Ali ibn Abdullah, received the rank of [[Pasha]]. After a series of political assassinations among his uncles vying for the position of Sharif, he gained attention for his independence of thought and was sent back to Constantinople by the reigning uncle at that time in 1892–1893.{{sfn|Kay|2020|pp=41–43}} He remained there for 15 years, until 1908, mainly focusing on raising his children, learning the politics of the [[Sublime Porte]]—where he aligned with the conservative faction—and hoping to return home.{{sfn|Kay|2020|pp=41–43}}
=== As Emir ===
==== Appointment ====
{{See also|Sharifate of Mecca}}
[[File:Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca.jpg|thumb|Hussein bin Ali (date unknown)]]
Following the removal of his predecessor in October and the sudden death of his successor shortly thereafter, Hussein was appointed grand sharif by official decree of the sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] in November 1908.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kayali|first=Hasan|title=Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1918|chapter-url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7n39p1dn;brand=ucpress|date=1997|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-20446-1|chapter=5.A Case Study in Centralization: The Hijaz under Young Turk Rule, 1908–1914, The Grand Sharifate of Husayn Ibn 'Ali|access-date=5 June 2019|archive-date=14 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414215957/https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7n39p1dn;brand=ucpress|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Kay|2020|pp=41–44}} However, the situation was peculiar for Hussein, who arrived in [[Mecca]] in the midst of the [[Young Turk Revolution]], which brought the [[Young Turks|Young Turks (CUP)]] to power.{{sfn|Kay|2020|pp=41–44}} Upon his arrival, he met CUP representatives who greeted him as the "Constitutional Sharif," intending to gauge his response to such a designation. He replied: "Verily these are the lands of Allah in which nothing will ever stand except the Shariah of Allah [...] The constitution of the lands of Allah is the [[Sharia]]h of Allah and the [[Sunnah]] of His Prophet".{{sfn|Kay|2020|pp=41–44}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dawn |first=Clarence Ernest |title=From ottomanism to arabism: essays on the origins of Arab nationalism |date=1973 |publisher=Univ. of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-00202-1 |location=Urbana |quote=p. 6}}</ref>
==== Religious stances ====
[[File:A Holy Carpet brought to Jerusalem by the Sherif of Medina; the Grand Mufti and Sherif in carriage LOC matpc.11472.jpg|thumb|240x240px|Hussein bin Ali brings a holy carpet to Jerusalem in 1914; The Sharif can be seen in the carriage with the [[Islamic leadership in Jerusalem|Mufti of Jerusalem]].]]
His main teacher was [[Ahmad Zayni Dahlan]], with whom he became a [[Hafiz (Quran)|hafiz]].<ref name="mumini2">{{cite book |author1=Niḍāl Dāwūd al-Mūminī |title=الشريف الحسين بن علي والخلافة / ash-Sharīf al-Ḥusayn ibn 'Alī wa-al-khilāfah |date=1996 |publisher=al-Maṭba'ah aṣ-Ṣafadī |location='Ammān |language=ar}}</ref><ref name=":52">{{cite book |author1=Khayr ad-Dīn az-Ziriklī |title=ما رأيت وما سمعت / Mā ra'aytu wa-mā sami't |date=1923 |publisher=al-Maṭba'ah al-'Arabīyah wa-Maktabatuhā |location=al-Qāhirah [Cairo] |language=ar}}</ref> He had a [[Shafi'i school|Shafi'i]] and [[Hanafi school|Hanafi]] education,<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2022-10-07|title=الحسين بن علي شريف مكة|url=https://areq.net/m/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81_%D9%85%D9%83%D8%A9.html|website=areq.net|archive-date=29 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429211649/https://areq.net/m/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81_%D9%85%D9%83%D8%A9.html|url-status=live}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Hourani |first=Albert |title=Arabic thought in the liberal age, 1798–1939 |date=1970 |publisher=issued under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs [by] Oxford U.P |others=Thomas Leiper Kane Collection |isbn=978-0-19-285039-3 |location=London |oclc=206913 }}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mestyán |first=Ádám |title=Arab patriotism: the ideology and culture of power in late Ottoman Egypt |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-4008-8531-2 |publisher=Princeton University Press |oclc=980845341 }}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}</ref> but also allied with the [[Maliki school|Malikis]] and opposed the [[Wahhabism|Wahhabis]],<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|language=fr|first1=Olivier|last1=Hanne|title=La révolte arabe en 1916: mythe et réalité|periodical=Telemme – Temps, espaces, langages Europe méridionale-Méditerranée|editor=SPM|date=2016-11-17|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01532691|access-date=2022-10-07|page=331|quote=Dès l'automne 1916, il commence à imprimer sa marque dans le Hejâz, puisque le corps sénatorial qu'il constitue le 7 octobre est composé notamment des muftis chafite et malékite, mais pas des représentants du rite hanafte – offciel dans l'empire ottoman – ni hanbalite – celui des wahhabites. Le 23 décembre, il se déclare indifférent à la monarchie et libre face aux puissances européennes et va jusqu'à décliner l'offre de débarquement franco-britannique (27 décembre). Son obsession reste le califat. Sa législation en est le signe puisqu'il lance la lutte contre le péché à Médine. Le 30 octobre 1916, les cafés ne peuvent rien vendre durant les heures de prières ; le 3 mai 1917, l'alcool est interdit. Il restaure en janvier 1917 les titres traditionnels arabo-musulmans (chérif, sayyid, shaykh) et abolit les titres turcs (effendi, bey, pacha…).|archive-date=8 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008182632/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01532691|url-status=live}}</ref> at a time when adherence to a [[madhhab]] was more fluid.<ref name=":1" />
==== Campaign in 'Asir (1911) ====
In 1911, Hussein became involved in an Ottoman campaign in [['Asir Province|'Asir]]; the Young Turks requested his support to fight [[Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi]], who had recently revolted there and proclaimed the [[Idrisid Emirate of Asir|Idrisid Emirate]].<ref name=":34">{{Cite web |title=الثورات المناهضة للوجود العثماني في اليمن (1910- 1914م) |url=https://aden.center/articles/2508 |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=aden.center}}</ref> Hussein was very supportive of this campaign because 'Asir traditionally belonged to the Hejaz, and al-Idrisi presence in the area severed his financial and political ties with 'Asir.<ref name=":34" /> He gathered an army of about 5,000 men from the Aqil and Bisha tribes, both tribes being from 'Asir, in Mecca and then began to march against al-Idrisi.<ref name=":34" /> After an initial defeat due to the heat and a cholera epidemic, he managed to inflict two heavy defeats on the [[Idrisid Emirate of Asir|Idrisid forces]].<ref name=":34" />
Then, he managed to break the siege of [[Abha]], which was being conducted by [[Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi|al-Idrisi]] forces and where Suleiman Pasha, the Ottoman governor of the city, was entrenched.<ref name=":34" /> Overall, he was able to defeat the opposing forces.<ref>{{Cite web |title=L'Histoire de l'émirat Idrisside en Arabie - The Moorish Times |url=https://moorishtimes.com/articles/emirat-idrisside-arabie |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=moorishtimes.com |language=fr |archive-date=30 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240530044146/https://moorishtimes.com/articles/emirat-idrisside-arabie |url-status=live }}</ref> However, during this campaign, he seems to have been shocked by the violence of the Ottoman troops against the revolted<ref name=":34" /> and had a heated dispute with the Ottoman governor of Abha, Suleiman Pasha, after he began wanting to administer the territories he managed to reconquer according to Bedouin and Sharifian norms, as previously.<ref name=":34" /> This led to a rupture between the two commanders, and Hussein decided to withdraw from 'Asir after having pursued the defeated Idrisid forces for some time.<ref name=":34" />
It seems that this campaign had a very negative impact on how Hussein viewed the Ottoman presence and actions in the Levant, and it is possible that from this moment on, he was already on the verge of rebellion.<ref name=":34" />
=== The Arab Revolt ===
==== Pan-Arabism and relationship with the Ottomans ====
{{Main|Pan-Arabism}}
[[File:Flag of Hejaz 1917.svg|thumb|240x240px|The [[flag of the Arab Revolt]] was the flag of Hussein bin Ali. The flag consists of three horizontal stripes (black, white, and green) and a red triangle on the hoist side. Each color has a symbolic meaning : black represents the [[Abbasid dynasty]] or the [[Rashidun|Rashidun caliphs]], white represents the [[Umayyad dynasty]], and green represents [[Islam]] (or possibly, but it's not certain, the [[Fatimid dynasty]]). The red triangle represents the [[Hashemites|Hashemite dynasty]], to which Hussein bin Ali belonged. The flag became a symbol of Arab nationalism and unity and is still used today in various forms in the flags of [[Egypt]], [[Jordan]], [[Iraq]], [[Kuwait]], [[Sudan]], [[Syria]], the [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Yemen]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Somaliland]], the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]], and [[Libya]].]]
Although there is no formal evidence suggesting that Hussein bin Ali was inclined towards [[Arab nationalism]] before 1916, the rise of [[Turkish nationalism]] towards the end of the [[Ottoman Empire]], culminating in the [[Young Turk Revolution|Young Turks Revolution of 1908]], strongly displeased the [[Hashemites]] and [[Bedouin]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Image 9 of The king of Hedjaz and Arab independence, with a facsimile of the proclamation of June 27, 1916. |url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/gdclccn.18005486/?sp=9 |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928104605/https://www.loc.gov/resource/gdclccn.18005486/?sp=9 |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, the increasing [[Centralized government|centralization of the Ottoman Empire]], the progressive prohibition of [[Arabic]] in teaching, [[Turkification|Turkification policies]], and the settlement of [[Colonialism|Turkish colonists in Arab areas]] worried and frightened [[Arabs]] throughout the empire.<ref name=":4">{{cite web|access-date=2022-10-06|date=2013-08-13|language=en|title=Source Records of the Great War Sharif Hussein's Proclamation of Independence from Turkey, 27th June 1916|url=https://sayyidamiruddin.com/2013/08/13/sharif-husseins-proclamation-of-independence-from-turkey-27-june-1916/|website=Sayyid Ahmed Amiruddin|archive-date=9 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009234200/https://sayyidamiruddin.com/2013/08/13/sharif-husseins-proclamation-of-independence-from-turkey-27-june-1916/}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref name=":24">History, Grades 10‒12, Chapters in the Modern History of the Middle East, George Salama, Maktabat Al-Khouri (Permit: 317), 2009, p. 73.</ref>
In 1908, the [[Hejaz railway|Hejaz Railway]] was completed, allowing the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] to strengthen their control over the [[Hejaz]] and provide a rapid response capability to reinforce their garrisons in [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. It was built under constant threat of Arab raids, such as those from the [[Harb (tribe)|Harb tribe]], which demonstrated their hostility towards the project.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=YurtoğLu |first1=Nadir |title=Türk Standartları Enstitüsünün (TSE) Kuruluşu Bağlamında Türkiye'de Standardizasyon Politikaları (1923–1960) |journal=History Studies: International Journal of History |date=15 October 2018 |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=241–264 |doi=10.9737/hist.2018.658 |s2cid=217194653 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Faught |first=C. Brad |title=Cairo 1921: ten days that made the Middle East |date=2022 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-25674-1 |location=New Haven London}}</ref> Furthermore, in April 1915, the [[Ottoman government]] began a [[Late Ottoman genocides|policy of extermination of the minorities in the Ottoman Empire through various genocides]]. This frightened the [[Arabs]],<ref name=":7">{{cite book|date=1973|first1=Zeine N.|isbn=978-0-88206-000-2|last1=Zeine|oclc=590512|publisher=Caravan Books|title=The emergence of Arab nationalism; with a background study of Arab-Turkish relations in the Near East }}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-04-24|title=Genocide Museum {{!}} The Armenian Genocide Museum-institute|url=http://www.genocide-museum.am/eng/eye_witnesses2.php|website=www.genocide-museum.am|archive-date=24 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424043102/http://www.genocide-museum.am/eng/eye_witnesses2.php|url-status=live}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite book|date=1991|first1=Rashid|first2=Lisa|first3=Muhammad Y.|first4=Reeva S.|isbn=978-0-231-07434-6|last1=Khalidi|last2=Anderson|last3=Muslih|last4=Simon|oclc=23732543|title=The origins of Arab nationalism|publisher=Columbia University Press }}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite book|date=2009|first1=Dominik J.|first2=Jürgen|isbn=978-0-415-48012-3|last1=Schaller|last2=Zimmerer|oclc=263294453|publisher=Routledge|title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies }}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> who were the largest minority in the Empire, and was openly criticized by Hussein bin Ali.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Armenian National Institute -- ARABIC LANGUAGE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE SOURCE MATERIALS NOW AVAILABLE ON ARMENIAN NATIONAL INSTITUTE WEBSITE |url=https://www.armenian-genocide.org/News.354/current_category.186/press_detail.html |access-date=2024-08-31 |website=www.armenian-genocide.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shirinian |first=George N. |date=2015 |title=Turks Who Saved Armenians: Righteous Muslims during the Armenian Genocide |journal=Genocide Studies International |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=208–227 |doi=10.3138/gsi.9.2.03 |jstor=26986023 |s2cid=163938263 }}</ref>
These oppositions with the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] became so violent that they overshadowed those that existed in [[Arabs|Arab]] society and [[Bedouin]] society; and many rival tribes to the [[Hashemites]] rallied behind their leadership.<ref name=":24" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Willman |first=Gabriel |date=2013-08-01 |title=From Pre-Islam to Mandate States: Examining Cultural Imperialism and Cultural Bleed in the Levant |url=https://stars.library.ucf.edu/honorstheses1990-2015/1515 |journal=Him 1990–2015 |quote=When Sayyid Hussein bin Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, and the Hashemites organized an "Arab" revolt during World War II, he garnered support from across the entire region, including the Levant. By the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the Arabization of the Levant had reached the point that the traditional tribal leadership was willing to accept the rule of the Hashemite family of Arabia. |access-date=25 April 2023 |archive-date=29 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429084719/https://stars.library.ucf.edu/honorstheses1990-2015/1515/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
An [[independence|independentist]] and [[Decolonization|anti-colonial]] Arab movement developed, mainly in [[Ottoman Syria]], where Arab intellectuals and newspapers called for the restoration of the [[caliphate]] in the hands of a [[Quraysh]], and especially for the acquisition of [[Independence|Arab independence]] from the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shamir |first=Shimon |date=1974 |title=Midhat Pasha and the Anti-Turkish Agitation in Syria |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=115–141 |doi=10.1080/00263207408700268 |jstor=4282523 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Farah |first=Caesar A. |title=Arabs and Ottomans: a Checkered Relationship |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-4632-2544-5 |location=Piscataway, NJ |publisher=Gorgias Press |oclc=1110716800 }}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}</ref> The relationship between Hussein and the Committee of Union and Progress worsened even more after the discovery and foiling of a plot by [[Enver Pasha]] to assassinate Hussein.<ref name=":29">{{Cite book |last=ʿAllāwī |first=ʿAlī A. |title=Faisal I of Iraq |date=2014 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-12732-4 |location=New Haven (Conn.)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Friedman |first=Isaiah |title=British miscalculations: the rise of Muslim nationalism, 1918-1925 |date=2012 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-4128-4749-0 |location=New Brunswick N.J}}</ref>
All of these points led to a violent rupture between Arab elites and the Ottoman political class,<ref name="Lion of Jordan2">{{cite book |author=Avi Shlaim |title=Lion of Jordan |year= 2008 |publisher=Penguin Books, Ltd |isbn=978-0-14-101728-0}}</ref> and are reflected in Hussein's later proclamation of independence, where he presented his struggle as a [[Religion|religious]] and [[Decolonization|anti-colonial]] one.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":2"/><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Low |first1=Michael |date=16 July 2007 |title=Empire of the Hajj: Pilgrims, Plagues, and Pan-Islam under British Surveillance, 1865–1926 |doi=10.57709/1059628 }}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}</ref>
Twenty days after the start of the [[Armenian genocide]] in the [[Ottoman Empire]], Hussein bin Ali's son, [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]], met with the leaders of the revolutionary organization [[Al-Fatat]] in [[Damascus]]. They assured him of their support in case of revolt and recognized Hussein as the representative of the [[Arab world|Arab nation]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>[[Xavier Baron]] : ''Les Palestiniens, Genèse d'une nation''.  {{p.|18}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gelvin |first=James L. |title=Divided loyalties: nationalism and mass politics in Syria at the close of Empire |date=1998 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-91983-9 |location=Berkeley |oclc=44954757 }}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Key Documents {{!}} Balfour Project |date=18 August 2020 |url=https://balfourproject.org/reports-and-white-papers/ |access-date=2023-05-16 |language=en-GB |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516224846/https://balfourproject.org/reports-and-white-papers/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
When Hussein took up the [[Pan-Arabism|pan-Arab]] claims in 1916, after his proclamation of independence, he became the leading figure behind whom the pan-Arabs rallied, and is therefore frequently regarded as the father of [[pan-Arabism]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |title=Globalisation of nationalism: the motive-force behind twenty-first century politics |date=2016 |editor=Liah Greenfeld |isbn=978-1-78552-214-7 |location=Colchester |publisher=ECPR Press |page=170 |oclc=957243120 |quote=Politically, Pan-Arabism was first endorsed by Sharif Hussein bin Ali (1908–1917), the Sharif of Mecca, who wanted to gain independence from the Ottoman Empire.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hiro |first=Dilip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ty0uAgAAQBAJ |title=A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Middle East |date=2012 |publisher=Interlink Publishing |isbn=978-1-62371-033-0 |page=9.3500 |language=en |quote=By declaring an Arab revolt in 1916, Hussein bin Ali, the Hashemite governor of Hijaz [q.v.], became the leader of pan-Arabism, with a plan to see the Arab territories formed into a single independent Arab state after the defeat of the Ottomans. But this scenario contradicted the aims of the clandestine 1916 Sykes–Picot Pact [q.v.] signed by Britain and France. |access-date=21 December 2023 |archive-date=18 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518102906/https://books.google.com/books?id=ty0uAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ferro |first=Maurice |date=1947 |title=Puissance et Faiblesses do Monde |journal=Hommes et Mondes |volume=3 |issue=13 |pages=657–673 |jstor=44206763 }}</ref>
During [[World War I]], Hussein initially remained allied with the Ottomans but began secret negotiations with the [[British Empire|British]] on the advice of his son, [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah]], who had served in the [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman parliament]] up to 1914 and was convinced that it was necessary to separate from the increasingly nationalistic Ottoman administration.<ref name="Lion of Jordan2"/>
==== Relationship with the British ====
{{Main|McMahon–Hussein Correspondence}}
[[File:Al-husayn.gif|thumb|upright|Drawing by [[Khalil Gibran]], 1916]]
Following deliberations at [[Ta'if]] between Hussein and his sons in June 1915, during which [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] counselled caution, [[Ali of Hejaz|Ali]] argued against rebellion and [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah]] advocated action<ref>{{cite book|last=Paris|first=Timothy J.|title=Britain, the Hashemites and Arab Rule: The Sherifian Solution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W02RAgAAQBAJ|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|page=21|isbn=978-1-135-77191-1|access-date=5 June 2019|archive-date=19 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119002048/https://books.google.com/books?id=W02RAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> and encouraged his father to enter into correspondence with [[Henry McMahon|Sir Henry McMahon]]; over the period 14 July 1915 to 10 March 1916, a total of ten letters, five from each side, were exchanged between Sir Henry McMahon and Sherif Hussein. McMahon was in contact with [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|British Foreign Secretary]] [[Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon|Edward Grey]] throughout, and Grey was to authorise and be ultimately responsible for the correspondence.
The British [[Secretary of State for War]], [[Field Marshal (United Kingdom)|Field Marshal]] [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]], appealed to him for assistance in the conflict on the side of the [[Triple Entente]]. Starting in 1915, as indicated by [[Hussein-McMahon Correspondence|an exchange of letters]] with [[Lieutenant Colonel (British Army)|Lieutenant Colonel]] [[Henry McMahon (diplomat)|Sir Henry McMahon]], the British [[High Commissioner]] in the [[Sultanate of Egypt]], Hussein seized the opportunity and demanded recognition of an Arab nation that included the Hejaz and other adjacent territories as well as approval for the proclamation of an Arab Caliphate of Islam.<ref name="Lion of Jordan2"/> High Commissioner McMahon accepted and assured him that his assistance would be rewarded by an Arab empire encompassing the entire span between [[Sultanate of Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Qajar dynasty|Persia]], with the exception of [[British possessions]] and interests in [[Sheikhdom of Kuwait|Kuwait]], [[Aden Protectorate|Aden]], and the Syrian coast.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guerfi  |first=Sarah |date=2023-07-12 |title=Les accords Sykes-Picot |url=https://larevuedhistoiremilitaire.fr/2023/07/12/les-accords-sykes-picot/ |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=La Revue d'Histoire Militaire |language=fr-FR |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810225119/https://larevuedhistoiremilitaire.fr/2023/07/12/les-accords-sykes-picot/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, at that time, the British scarcely thought about the promises made; their primary concern was winning the war and dismantling the Ottoman Empire.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Hawa |first=Salam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YUAlDwAAQBAJ |title=The Erasure of Arab Political Identity: Colonialism and Violence |date=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-39006-0 |pages=155 et seq |language=en |access-date=25 October 2023 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109022502/https://books.google.com/books?id=YUAlDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite web |title=Sharif Hussein and the campaign for a modern Arab empire {{!}} Aeon Essays |url=https://aeon.co/essays/sharif-hussein-and-the-campaign-for-a-modern-arab-empire |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=Aeon |language=en |archive-date=29 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929211406/https://aeon.co/essays/sharif-hussein-and-the-campaign-for-a-modern-arab-empire |url-status=live }}</ref> The fate of the Arab populations and the division of territory were left for a future date.<ref name=":13" />
According to [[Ekrem Buğra Ekinci]], the links between Hussein and the [[British Empire|British]] should not be overestimated.<ref name=":33">{{Cite web |last=ekinci |first=ekrem |title=How Did the Turks Lose the Arab Lands? |url=https://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/article/?ID=1454&how-did-the-turks-lose-the-arab-lands- |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=www.ekrembugraekinci.com |language=tr |archive-date=12 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612085037/https://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/article/?ID=1454&how-did-the-turks-lose-the-arab-lands- |url-status=live }}</ref> The deep-rooted reason for the Arab revolt, according to him, remains the [[Persecution|persecutions]] and [[abuse]] carried out by the Young Turks against the Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, and is not necessarily linked to British support.<ref name=":33" /> This support would therefore be contingent and the revolt would have still occurred without their help.<ref name=":33" /> This point was shared at the time by [[Abbas II of Egypt]], the last [[Khedivate of Egypt|Khedive of Egypt]], even though he was a sympathizer of the Young Turks.<ref name=":33" />
==== The Arab Revolt proper, June 1916 to October 1918 ====
{{Main|Arab Revolt}}
[[File:Proclamation_of_independence_of_Hijaz_-_27_june_1916.jpg|thumb|Proclamation of independence of Hussein, 27 June 1916. In it, Hussein only used religious reasons, and not nationalist ones,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nevejans |first=Pierre |date=2017-05-10 |title=Agrégation d'histoire, agrégation de géographie et CAPES d'histoire-géographie Le Moyen-Orient de 1876 à 1980 |url=https://shs.hal.science/cel-01673522 |journal=Agrégation d'histoire, agrégation de géographie et CAPES d'histoire-géographie |language=fr |quote=Le chérif Hussein accompagne son mouvement insurrectionnel d'une proclamation officielle où il accuse les Ottomans d'impiété, mais sans aborder la question du nationalisme arabe |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219141723/https://shs.hal.science/cel-01673522 |url-status=live }}</ref> to explain why he was revolting.<ref>{{Cite web |last=editorial |date=2020-10-01 |title=The Hashimites and the Great Arab Revolt |url=https://www.reviewofreligions.org/24721/hashimite-arab-revolt/ |access-date=2023-12-16 |website=The Review of Religions |language=en-GB |archive-date=16 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216211400/https://www.reviewofreligions.org/24721/hashimite-arab-revolt/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Hussein decided to join the [[Allies of World War I|Allied camp]] immediately, because of information<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Guediri |first1=Kaoutar |title=A history of Anti-partitionist Perspectives in Palestine 1915–1988 |date=8 February 2013 |hdl=10871/13970 |hdl-access=free |quote=The willingness of the Ottoman government to depose Sayyed Hussein bin Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, only made the gap between the Hashemites and the Turks wider }}</ref> that he would soon be deposed as Sharif of [[Mecca]] by the Ottoman government in favor of [[ʿAlī Ḥaydar Pāshā|Sharif Ali Haidar]], leader of the rival Zaʻid family.<ref name=":28">{{Cite book |last=Murphy |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sygTvgAACAAJ |title=The Arab Revolt 1916–18: Lawrence sets Arabia ablaze |date=2008-11-18 |publisher=Bloomsbury US |isbn=978-1-84603-339-1 |language=en |access-date=14 June 2024 |archive-date=14 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614020431/https://books.google.com/books?id=sygTvgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The much-publicized [[Capital punishment|executions]] of the [[Arab nationalism|Arab nationalist]] leaders in [[Damascus]] led Hussein to fear for his life if he was deposed in favour of Ali Haidar.<ref name=":28" /> The revolt proper began on 10 June 1916, when Hussein proclaimed the independence of the [[Kingdom of Hejaz]] and ordered his supporters to attack the Ottoman garrison in Mecca.<ref>Murphy, pp. 33–34.</ref>
[[File:Le Petit Journal - Fils du chérif.jpg|thumb|Illustration from [[Le Petit Journal (newspaper)|''Le Petit Journal'']] depicting the sons of Hussein bin Ali as they liberate [[Mecca]], 16 July 1916]]
In the [[Battle of Mecca (1916)|Battle of Mecca]], there ensued over a month of bloody street fighting between the out-numbered, but far better armed Ottoman troops and Hussein's tribesmen.<ref name="Murphy, David page 34">Murphy, p. 34.</ref> Indiscriminate Ottoman artillery fire, set fire to the veil covering the [[Kaaba]] and turned out to be a potent propaganda weapon for the Hashemites, who portrayed the Ottomans as desecrating Islam's most holy site.<ref name="Murphy, David page 34" /><ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=Le Naour |first=Jean-Yves |title=Djihad 1914–1918 |date=2017 |publisher=Éditions Perrin |isbn=978-2-262-07083-0 |language=fr |doi=10.3917/perri.lenao.2017.01 }}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}</ref> Hashemite forces in Mecca were joined by Egyptian troops sent by the British, who provided much needed artillery support, and took Mecca on 9 July 1916.<ref name="Murphy, David page 34"/> Also on 10 June, another of Hussein's sons, the Emir [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah]], attacked [[Ta'if]], a hill station near Mecca, which after an initial repulse settled down into a siege.<ref name="Murphy, David page 34" /> With the British-Egyptian artillery support, Abdullah took Ta'if on 22 September 1916.<ref name="Murphy, David page 34" />
[[File:T E Lawrence and the Arab Revolt 1916 - 1918 Q58859.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Ageyl bodyguards of [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]]]]
After this, and for most of the war, Hussein's sons directed the fighting ; most notably [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]], future Faisal I of Iraq, and [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah]], future Abdullah I of Jordan.<ref name=":29" /> Hussein mostly stayed in Mecca to direct the operations, while his sons were fighting.<ref name=":29" /> The [[Arab Revolt|Arab revolt]] laid [[Siege of Medina|siege to Medina]] but wasn't able to take it for a year, thus impeding the operations.<ref name=":29" /> During this battle, the Ottomans killed and deported the civilian Arabic population of Medina into the [[Syrian Desert|Syrian desert]], an event hidden by the pretense of doing "[[Seferberlik]]", or mobilization.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-03-24 |title=Book by Saudi author unravels Ottoman atrocities in Madinah |url=https://arab.news/2s555 |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=Arab News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Mohamed Afifi |date=2021-01-27 |title=Seferberlik Fakhri Pasha and the siege of Medina |url=https://whiteink.info/seferberlik-fakhri-pasha-and-the-siege-of-medina/?lang=en |access-date=2023-12-17 |script-website=ar:حبر أبيض |language=en-US |archive-date=17 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217122433/https://whiteink.info/seferberlik-fakhri-pasha-and-the-siege-of-medina/?lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref> On 30 October 1916, Emir Abdullah called a meeting of ''[[majlis]]'' where he read a letter in which "Husayn ibn Ali was recognized as sovereign of the Arab nation. Then all those present arose and proclaimed him ''Malik al-Arab'', King of the Arabs".<ref name="Peters p. 368">{{harvnb|Peters|1994|p=368}}</ref> During the whole duration of the war, Hussein's troops stayed underequipped and lacking artillery – which the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] didn't want to give, seing that front as utopical and not as important as the fight was in the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western front]], among others.<ref name=":28" /> This lack of artillery and high mobility ; since most of the troops were mounted [[Bedouin]]s, pushed them to use [[Guerrilla warfare|guerilla tactics]] in the desert ; for example by severing Ottoman supplies with the bombings of specific sections of the [[Hejaz railway]].<ref name=":28" />
[[File:T E Lawrence and the Arab Revolt 1916 - 1918 Q59193.jpg|thumb|300x300px|A flag bearer mounted on a camel leading the triumphal entry into Aqaba.]]
After the fall of Medina, the Arab troops were able to [[Battle of Aqaba|secure Aqaba]] quickly and this allowed them to project themselves farther;<ref name=":28" /> they still ambushed Ottoman troops, such as during the [[battle of Wadi Musa]], helping themselves with their superior knowledge of the Arabian and Syrian deserts.<ref name=":28" /><ref>Al-Shyyab, Ibrahim Ahmad (2020). Mohammad Ali Ajlouni: A Figure of the Great Arab Revolt (1893–1971). Palarch's Journal Of Archaeology Of Egypt.</ref> This conflict was marked by widespread ethnic cleansing directed at non-Turkish populations in the areas affected. The troops of Hussein also committed war crimes, deciding to execute Turkish troops responsible of the [[Tafas massacre]] against Arabian civilians, instead of taking them prisoners.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Lowell |first=Thomas |title=With Lawrence in Arabia |publisher=Grosset & Bunlap |year=1924 |pages=209–211}}</ref>
After the fall of Aqaba, the Arab forces, supplemented with British auxiliaries and with the design of joining forces with the British main armies, which were trying to break out of Egypt and Palestine, managed to join them.<ref name=":28" /> During the [[Battle of Megiddo (1918)|Battle of Megiddo]], in September 1918, Hussein's troops led by his son Faisal, joined the British forces and managed to utterly destroy the 4th, 7th and 8th Ottoman armies, and push into retreat the [[Yildirim Army Group]], comprising the [[Asia Corps|German Asian Corps]] and led at the time by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], thus leaving the Palestinian and Arabian front without defence, and finally breaking inside the Ottoman Empire.<ref name=":28" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Erickson |first=Edward J. |title=Ordered to die: a history of the Ottoman army in the First World War |date=2001 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-31516-9 |series=Contributions in military studies |location=Westport, Conn.}}</ref> The battle happened at the same time as the [[Vardar offensive]] in the [[Balkans]], which managed to overrun [[Bulgaria]]n defences, thus opening the Balkans and ultimately [[Austria-Hungary]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-23 |title=The Battle of Dobro Polje – The Forgotten Balkan Skirmish That Ended WW1 – MilitaryHistoryNow.com |url=http://militaryhistorynow.com/2017/09/21/knock-out-blow-at-dobro-polje-six-facts-about-the-obscure-battle-that-ended-ww1/ |access-date=2023-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923215523/http://militaryhistorynow.com/2017/09/21/knock-out-blow-at-dobro-polje-six-facts-about-the-obscure-battle-that-ended-ww1/ |archive-date=23 September 2017 }}</ref> Since the war was seemingly won, and the Ottoman defences were crumbling, Faisal projected himself towards [[Capture of Damascus|Damascus, which he took]] the 1st of October 1918.<ref name=":28" /> After this, he engaged in the [[pursuit to Haritan]], pursuing the remnants of the [[Yildirim Army Group]] and ultimately [[Battle of Aleppo (1918)|taking Aleppo on the 25 of October 1918]], thus ending the war on that front.<ref name=":28" />
=== King of Hejaz ===
{{Main article|Kingdom of Hejaz}}
The [[United States Department of State|US State Department]] quotes an [[aide-mémoire]] dated 24 October 1917 given by the [[Arab Bureau]] to the American Diplomatic Agency in Cairo confirming that "...Britain, France and Russia agreed to recognize the Sherif as lawful independent ruler of the Hejaz and to use the title of "King of the Hejaz" when addressing him, and a note to this effect was handed to him on December 10, 1916".<ref>{{cite report|author=Division of Near Eastern Affairs|title=Mandate for Palestine|url=http://education.mei.edu/sites/default/files/mei_library/pdf/6855.pdf|date=1931|publisher=US State Department|page=7|access-date=4 June 2019|archive-date=25 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525101232/http://education.mei.edu/sites/default/files/mei_library/pdf/6855.pdf}}</ref>
[[File:Sir Herbert Samuel's second visit to Transjordan, etc. H.M. King Hussein at Amman. LOC matpc.05807.tif|thumb|Hussein in [[Amman]], [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]], before he left for [[Aqaba]], 1921|300x300px]]When Hussein declared himself King of the [[Hejaz]], he also declared himself King of the Arab lands (''malik bilad-al-Arab'').<ref name=":17" /> This only aggravated his conflict with [[Ibn Saud|Abdulaziz ibn Saud]], which was already present because of their differences in religious beliefs and with whom he had fought before the First World War, siding with fellow anti-Saudis, the Ottomans in 1910.
==== Rule ====
Hussein initiated a series of reforms, including measures to avoid offending Muslims from [[French colonial empire|French]] or [[British Empire|British]] colonies who undertook the [[Hajj]]. He also addressed the issue of stray dogs, attempted to ensure the security of the Hajj routes, and sought to combat the prevalent [[slave market]]s in the [[Hejaz|Hejaz region]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Le Naour |first=Jean-Yves |title=Djihad 1914–1918: la France face au panislamisme |date=2017 |publisher=Perrin |isbn=978-2-262-07083-0 |location=Paris |quote=Au Hedjaz, l'émir Hussein tente de faire le ménage pour donner une image correcte de son pays. Il fait tuer les chiens galeux, tente d'assurer la sécurité sur les routes pour ne plus livrer les pèlerins aux bandits qui pullulent, et cherche à dissimuler les marchés aux esclaves qui indignent les musulmans français. Officiellement interdits par le gouvernement turc en 1908, ces marchés sont tellement ancrés dans la culture locale qu'ils se poursuivent au vu et au su de tous. On y achète un homme, une femme ou un enfant pour une somme allant de 1 000 à 3 000 F.}}</ref>
He undertook the last major restoration of the [[Masjid al-Haram]] in 1920<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asharq Al-Awsat Examines Grand Mosque's Architecture since the Prophet's Conquest |url=https://english.aawsat.com/node/4405896 |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=english.aawsat.com |language=en |archive-date=14 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614020502/https://english.aawsat.com/gulf/4405896-asharq-al-awsat-examines-grand-mosque%E2%80%99s-architecture-prophet%E2%80%99s-conquest |url-status=live }}</ref> and a restoration of the mosques of Palestine and more specifically of [[Al-Aqsa Mosque|al-Aqsa mosque]], for which he funded 26,672 liras.<ref name=":72">{{Cite web |title=فلسطين بقيت حاضرة في سيرة الشريف الحسين بن علي ..صور |url=https://royanews.tv/news/88109?1464372655 |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=رؤيا الأخباري |language=ar |archive-date=15 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215140106/https://royanews.tv/news/88109?1464372655 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":30">{{Cite web |title=الثورة العربية الكبرى.. القائد والقصة |url=https://www.ultrasawt.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AF-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%A9/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AF/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7-%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AA |access-date=2024-05-12 |website=Ultrasawt |language=ar |archive-date=12 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512163314/https://www.ultrasawt.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AF-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%A9/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AF/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7-%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AA |url-status=live }}</ref>
==== Armenian genocide ====
{{See also|Armenian genocide|Rescue of Armenians during the Armenian genocide}}
Starting from 1917, Hussein made decisions to protect the [[Armenians|Armenian]] refugees and those residing in his lands from the [[Armenian genocide]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Avetisyan |first=Vigen |date=2019-04-03 |title=The Unique Document of the Emir of Mecca from 1917: "Help the Armenians How You Would Help Your Brothers" |url=https://allinnet.info/world/the-unique-document-of-the-emir-of-mecca/ |access-date=2023-12-16 |website=Art-A-Tsolum |language=en-US |archive-date=17 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217000013/https://allinnet.info/world/the-unique-document-of-the-emir-of-mecca/ |url-status=live }}</ref> First, he condemned the genocide publicly as early as 1916, stating "We specifically bring to the world's condemnation the atrocities [[Greek genocide|committed against the Greeks]] and Armenians, atrocities that [[Sharia|our holy law]] can only disapprove of".<ref>{{Cite web |date=1916-11-12 |title=Le Temps |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k242723w |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=Gallica |language=EN |archive-date=17 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217021052/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k242723w |url-status=live }}</ref> In this regard, he promulgated in 1917, in a decree: "In the name of Most Merciful Allah and our prophet Muhammad, we are addressing our Arab brothers (...) to take Armenian refugees in their families, to share with them their belongings – camels, food, shelter, blankets – and share everything that you have in excess, and everything that you can give to people."<ref name=":12" />
In April 1918, as part of his conquest of the [[Syria|Syrian territories]] in which the [[Armenian genocide]] took place, he issued a decree to protect [[Armenians]] from persecution and allow them to settle in peace, in which he ordered :<ref name=":3">{{cite book |author=Hussein bin Ali|language=ar|pages=161–159|trans-title=Correspondence between Sharif Hussein and the Ottomans |script-title=ar:كليب سعود الفواز، المراسلات المتبادلة بين الشريف حسين والعثمانيين، ص|year=1922}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Al-Husayn Ibn 'Ali, Sharif of Mecca|url=https://www.armenian-genocide.org/Affirmation.4/current_category.1/affirmation_detail.html|website=www.armenian-genocide.org|access-date=2022-12-01|publication-date=|archive-date=1 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201212924/https://www.armenian-genocide.org/Affirmation.4/current_category.1/affirmation_detail.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>''Language Maintenance among the Armenians of Jordan'', Raeda Al-Nahar, Department of English Language and Literature Faculty of Arts, Middle East University for Graduate Studies, April, 2009
https://meu.edu.jo/libraryTheses/586cbba72c0b5_1.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322033159/https://meu.edu.jo/libraryTheses/586cbba72c0b5_1.pdf |date=22 March 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MWNF – Sharing History |url=https://sharinghistory.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=object;awe;jo;68;en |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=sharinghistory.museumwnf.org |archive-date=17 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217004733/https://sharinghistory.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=object;awe;jo;68;en |url-status=live }}</ref><blockquote>
"What is requested of you is to protect and to take good care of everyone from the Jacobite Armenian community living in your territories and frontiers and among your tribes; to help them in all of their affairs and defend them as you would defend yourselves, your properties and children, and provide everything they might need whether they are settled or moving from place to place, because they are the Protected People of the Muslims ([[Dhimmi|Ahl Dimmat al-Muslimin]]) – about whom the Prophet Muhammad (may Allah grant him His blessings and peace) said: "Whosoever takes from them even a rope, I will be his adversary on the day of Judgment".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sunan Abi Dawud 3052 –Tribute, Spoils, and Rulership (Kitab Al-Kharaj, Wal-Fai' Wal-Imarah) – كتاب الخراج والإمارة والفىء – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) |url=https://sunnah.com/abudawud:3052 |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=sunnah.com |archive-date=18 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218180451/https://sunnah.com/abudawud:3052 |url-status=live }}</ref> This is among the most important things we require of you to do and expect you to accomplish, in view of your noble character and determination".</blockquote>The [[Armenian National Institute]] considers it to be the oldest declaration by a head of state to recognize the Armenian genocide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Al-Husayn Ibn 'Ali, Sharif of Mecca |url=https://www.armenian-genocide.org/Affirmation.4/current_category.1/affirmation_detail.html |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=www.armenian-genocide.org |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201212924/https://www.armenian-genocide.org/Affirmation.4/current_category.1/affirmation_detail.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=View Accompanying Image |url=https://www.armenian-genocide.org/popup/affirmation_window.html?Affirmation=4 |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=www.armenian-genocide.org |archive-date=27 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127031050/https://www.armenian-genocide.org/popup/affirmation_window.html?Affirmation=4 |url-status=live }}</ref> Alongside this, he gave citizenship to his Armenian subjects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Musharbash |first1=Randa |title=Armenian Diaspora in Jordan between the 'Myth of Return' and Reality in Transnationalism Era Randa Musharbash |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Review |volume=8 |issue=2 |date=2018 |pages=511–518 |url=http://www.universitypublications.net/hssr/0802/html/P8RS134.xml |access-date=21 December 2023 |archive-date=21 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221132026/http://www.universitypublications.net/hssr/0802/html/P8RS134.xml |url-status=live }}</ref> According to survivors of the Armenian genocide, such as Levon Yotnakhparian, Hussein personally received him and was shocked by the news of what was happening.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gregorian |first=Alin K. |date=2018-09-27 |title='Crows of the Desert' Sheds Light on Little-Known Hero of the Genocide |url=https://mirrorspectator.com/2018/09/27/crows-of-the-desert-sheds-light-on-little-known-hero-of-the-genocide/ |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=The Armenian Mirror-Spectator |language=en-US |archive-date=17 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217014524/https://mirrorspectator.com/2018/09/27/crows-of-the-desert-sheds-light-on-little-known-hero-of-the-genocide/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He also supported Armenian survivors and provided men and protection for expeditions in the [[Syrian Desert|Syrian desert]] aimed at rescuing Armenian deportees.<ref name=":26" /><ref name=":27">{{Cite book |last1=Yotnakhparian |first1=Levon |title=Crows of the desert: the memoirs of Levon Yotnakhparian |last2=Chinpashean |first2=Ishkhan |last3=Parian |first3=Levon |last4=Parian |first4=Benjamin |date=2012 |publisher=Parian photographic design |isbn=978-0-9671782-0-2 |location=Tujunga (Calif.)}}</ref> According to testimonies, this method is said to have saved up to 4,000 people from the genocide, in collaboration with Hussein al-Attrache, a Druze chieftain who then disguised the refugees as [[Druze]]s.<ref name=":26">{{Cite web |date=2020-04-30 |title=Levon Yotnakhparian, as told by his grandson, Levon Parian |url=https://www.armenianmuseum.org/share-your-stories/levon-yotnakhparian-as-told-by-his-grandson-levon-parian |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=Armenian Museum of America |language=en-US |archive-date=17 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217011206/https://www.armenianmuseum.org/share-your-stories/levon-yotnakhparian-as-told-by-his-grandson-levon-parian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":27" /> His son, Faisal, provided free transportation to all Armenian refugees for their trip towards the British refugee camp in [[Damascus]] and free use of the [[Hejaz railway]] ; even if that meant impeding on the war effort.<ref>"A Journey Through the Armenian Genocide", by Melina Paris, March 17, 2017, https://www.randomlengthsnews.com/archives/2017/03/17/journey-armenian-genocide-crows/16602 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228124233/https://www.randomlengthsnews.com/archives/2017/03/17/journey-armenian-genocide-crows/16602 |date=28 December 2023 }}</ref>
=== Following World War I ===
In the aftermath of the war, the Arabs found themselves freed from centuries of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule. Hussein's son Faisal was made [[King of Syria]], but this kingdom proved short-lived, as the Middle East came under [[League of Nations mandate#Class A mandates|mandate]] rule of France and the United Kingdom. The British Government subsequently made Faisal and his brother Abdullah kings of [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]] and [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]], respectively.
==== The issue of Palestine and deterioration in British relationship ====
Starting at the end of the war, Hussein found himself in severe conflict with Britain's views on the subject of Palestine.<ref name="Al-Momani 2014"/><ref name=":31">{{Cite web |title=Peacemaker: The legacy of King Hussein of Jordan |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/big-story/peacemaker-legacy-king-hussein-jordan |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en |archive-date=17 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217181425/https://www.middleeasteye.net/big-story/peacemaker-legacy-king-hussein-jordan |url-status=live }}</ref> In January and February 1918, Hussein received the [[Hogarth Message]] and [[Bassett Letter]] in response to his requests for an explanation of the [[Balfour Declaration]] and [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guediri |first=Kawthar |date=2016-10-21 |title=The McMahon–Hussein Correspondence – Phase one of the Middle East Partition Process |url=https://orientxxi.info/l-orient-dans-la-guerre-1914-1918/the-mcmahon-hussein-correspondence,1527 |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=Orient XXI |language=en |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927012317/https://orientxxi.info/l-orient-dans-la-guerre-1914-1918/the-mcmahon-hussein-correspondence,1527 |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite their explanations, he stated that Palestine should be included within the borders of the newly founded Arab Kingdom<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last=Bolton |first=Kerry R |date=2015 |title=Western Duplicity And Middle East Crises |jstor=48505233 |journal=World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=72–85 |quote=Hussein for his part was willing to allow Jews to settle in Palestine and give them access to the Holy Places, but would not accept a Jewish state.}}</ref> and should refuse Zionist settlers, even if he was ready to accept Jewish people in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]],<ref name=":31" /><ref name=":32" /> notably those who already lived there and were not coming from foreign countries.<ref name="Al-Momani 2014"/> However, even after an assurance by McMahon, Hussein did not receive the lands promised by their British allies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-20 |title=Challenges facing Jordan: Does history repeat itself at the centennial? |url=https://www.jordannews.jo/Section-109/News/Challenges-facing-Jordan-Does-history-repeat-itself-at-the-centennial-1734 |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=Jordan News MENA |language=en |archive-date=17 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217182129/https://www.jordannews.jo/Section-109/News/Challenges-facing-Jordan-Does-history-repeat-itself-at-the-centennial-1734 |url-status=live }}</ref> McMahon claimed that the proposed lands to be taken in by the new Arab State were not purely Arab. In actuality, McMahon refused to hand over the new lands as the areas in question had already been claimed by the new British ally, France.<ref>Cleveland, William L. ''A History of the Modern Middle East'', (Westview Press, 2013) p. 145 {{ISBN?}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schiocchet |first=Leonardo |title=Far Middle East, brave new world: the building of the Middle East the Arab Spring |journal=The Perspective of the World Review |volume=3 |issue=2 |date=August 2011 |s2cid=59499422}}</ref>
Having received a British subsidy totalling £6.5m between 1916 and April 1919, in May 1919, the subsidy was reduced to £100K monthly (from £200K), dropped to £75K from October, £50K in November, £25K in December until February 1920 after which no more payments were made.
The [[British Empire|British]] were not disposed to fulfill their promises to Hussein, as [[Sir Henry Wilson, 1st Baronet|Colonel Wilson]] stated in secret correspondence :<ref name=":11" /><blockquote>"At one time, our Arabic copies of Sir [[Henry McMahon|H. MacMahon's]] letters to the Grand Sherif could not be found; if they are still unavailable it may be somewhat awkward when King Hussein produces the originals. (...) Failing a satisfactory solution King Hussein will have some grounds for considering that [[Great Britain]] has broken her pledged word."<ref name=":11" /></blockquote>In 1919, King Hussein refused to ratify the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. In August 1920, five days after the signing of the [[Treaty of Sèvres]], [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Curzon]] asked Cairo to procure Hussein's signature to both treaties and agreed to make a payment of £30,000 conditional on signature. Hussein declined and in 1921, stated that he could not be expected to "affix his name to a document assigning Palestine to the [[Zionism|Zionists]] and [[Syria]] to foreigners".<ref name=":16">{{cite journal|last=Mousa|first=Suleiman|date=1978|title=A Matter of Principle: King Hussein of the Hijaz and the Arabs of Palestine |journal=International Journal of Middle East&nbsp;Studies |volume=9|issue=2|doi=10.1017/S0020743800000052|pages=184–185|s2cid=163677445 }}</ref> He refused again to accept the Balfour Declaration in 1923, and stated : "I look at the people of Palestine as I look at my own family, without distinction between Muslim, Christian, Jewish, or nationalist".<ref name="Al-Momani 2014"/>
In January 1924, Hussein received in [[Amman]] a [[Zionism|Zionist]] delegation led by rabbi [[Yaakov Meir]] and a British colonel.<ref name="Al-Momani 2014"/> Despite having welcomed them with respect, he would not change his position. As his stance was seen by the [[United Kingdom]] as extremist, the British and the Zionist media engaged in press campaigns against Hussein, where his positions were misrepresented.<ref name="Al-Momani 2014"/> They also engaged heavily against [[Sharifian Caliphate|his Caliphate]], calling it illegitimate.<ref name="Al-Momani 2014"/> After him becoming Caliph, he continued on this path, stating: "I consider Zionism unjust towards Muslims, Christians and Orthodox Jews, and as a protector of justice, I will resist this unjust Zionism".<ref name="Al-Momani 2014"/> This contributed to aggravate his relationship with the Zionists towards a breaking point.<ref name="Al-Momani 2014"/>
==== Caliphate ====
{{Main article|Sharifian Caliphate}}
After the Caliphate was abolished by the [[Turkish Grand National Assembly]], Hussein was proclaimed as Caliph. The accounts on the official date and proceedings vary, some place the beginning of the Caliphate on 3 March 1924, when Hussein [[Sharifian Caliphate|would have declared himself Caliph]] at his son [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah's]] winter camp in Shunah, [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]].<ref name=":21">Teitelbaum, 2001, p. 243.</ref> Other accounts, such as a [[Reuters]] dispatch, instead set the date as March 7, 1924, and describe Hussein bin Ali being elected as a caliph by Muslims from "Mesopotamia, Transjordan, and Hejaz".<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |date=1924-04-01 |title=Correspondance d'Orient: revue économique, politique & littéraire / directeurs: Chekri-Ganem, Dr Georges Samné |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5805817h |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Gallica |language=EN |archive-date=11 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111113624/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5805817h |url-status=live }}</ref> A third counting of the official date takes place when he received the homage of the majority of the Arab population in [[Amman]] as the caliph, on March 11, 1924.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal |last=Bani Issa |first=Mohammad Saleh |date=2023-11-01 |title=Factors of stability and sustainable development in Jordan in its first centenary 1921–2021 (an analytical descriptive study) |journal=Heliyon |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=e20993 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20993 |pmid=37928029 |pmc=10623165 |bibcode=2023Heliy...920993B |issn=2405-8440|doi-access=free }}</ref> Finally, a fourth version places the date on Friday, March 14, 1924, when Hussein is evidently enthroned as caliph in [[Baghdad]] during the Friday prayer.<ref name=":18" /> In any case, all sources agree on a date in March 1924, shortly after the [[Abolition of the Caliphate|abolition of the Ottoman caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]].<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":18" /><ref name=":23" /> Separately, he made statements in support of the [[Ottoman dynasty]], which had been ruined and exiled from [[Turkey]]. In this regard, he declared:<ref name=":25">{{Cite web |last=ekinci |first=ekrem |title=How Did the Ottoman Dynasty Survive in Exile? |url=https://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/article/?ID=1395&how-did-the-ottoman-dynasty-survive-in-exile- |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=www.ekrembugraekinci.com |language=tr |archive-date=13 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213104431/https://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/article/?ID=1395&how-did-the-ottoman-dynasty-survive-in-exile- |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:T E Lawrence and the Arab Revolt 1916 - 1918 Q59697.jpg|thumb|300x300px|[[Mahmal]] of Hussein bin Ali in [[Mecca]], 1916–1918]]<blockquote>The services rendered by the Ottoman family to Islam and Muslims are undeniable; their heroism cannot be belittled. The recent decision regarding the family [exile] has pierced the hearts and saddened the spirits of Muslims. Therefore, we see it as an obligation of Islamic brotherhood to meet the needs of the family and prevent them from experiencing financial difficulties. Those who wish to participate in this great endeavor should express their intentions to our representatives in Mecca.</blockquote>
[[File:Vatan - 18 March 1924.jpg|thumb|440x440px|Testimony of ''[[Vatan (1923 newspaper)|Vatan]]'', quoted by ''[[The Times]]'', on the approval given to Hussein's caliphate by Vehideddin, a nickname of [[Mehmed VI]]]]
In the same perspective, he financially supported the members of the exiled Ottoman dynasty to prevent them from being ruined. Despite his complicated financial and economic situation, he provided them with 2400 liras.<ref name=":25" /> The claim to the title was recognized by a large part of the Hejazi, Levantine<ref name=":9" /> and more generally Arabic Muslim population.<ref name=":23" /> He also received the support of [[Mehmed VI]], on March 18, 1924, one of the last [[Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman Caliphs]] and the last [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Sultan]], according to ''[[The Times]]'' and ''[[Vatan (1923 newspaper)|Vatan]]'', that reported that he supported him as the new Caliph.<ref name=":122" />
The [[France|French]] viewed this proclamation as "the worst possible solution," in the words of [[Hubert Lyautey]], who also defended that the [[Ottoman Caliphate]] was better for French interests than the [[Sharifian Caliphate]].<ref name=":19">{{Cite book |last=Le Naour |first=Jean-Yves |title=Djihad 1914–1918: la France face au panislamisme |date=2017 |publisher=Perrin |isbn=978-2-262-07083-0 |location=Paris}}</ref> They believed that having a new influential caliph could risk reviving [[pan-Islamism]], causing instability in French Muslim [[List of French possessions and colonies|colonies]] in the event of a conflict, and potentially giving the Red Sea to the British.<ref name=":19" /> As a result, the French did not support it at all, preferring to wait and see how events unfolded. Meanwhile, they had the [[List of rulers of Morocco|Sultan of Morocco]] ready to assume the caliph title if necessary, offering the French a caliph who was more aligned with their interests, albeit less significant.<ref name=":19" />
To reinforce his proclamation and establish legal foundations for his caliphate, Hussein convened an Islamic Congress at [[Mecca]] in 1924,<ref name=":222">{{cite book |last1=Kramer |first1=Martin |title=Islam assembled the advent of the Muslim Congresses |date=1986 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-1-59740-468-6 |oclc=1113069713 }}{{page needed|date=December 2023}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator -->.</ref> it comprised both [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Shia Islam|Shia]] [[Muslims]] and was thus arguably one of the most inclusive Islamic Congresses in history.<ref name=":132">{{Cite book |last1=Brunner |first1=Rainer |title=Islamic ecumenism in the 20th century: the Azhar and Shiism between rapprochement and restraint |last2=Brunner |first2=Rainer |date=2004 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-12548-3 |series=Social, economic, and political studies of the Middle East and Asia |location=Leiden |translator-last=Greenman |translator-first=Joseph}}</ref> The Congress held twelve sessions before being indefinitely adjourned due to the advance of Saudi forces.<ref name=":222" />
His Caliphate only lasted for a few months, though,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lapidoth |first=Ruth |date=2015 |title=A Recent Agreement on the Holy Places in Jerusalem |journal=Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=61–70 |doi=10.1080/23739770.2013.11446566 |s2cid=141665294 }}</ref> because he was invaded and defeated quickly by [[Ibn Saud|Abdulaziz ibn Saud]].<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nuruzzaman |first=Mohammed |date=2017-05-04 |title=Conflicts in Sunni Political Islam and Their Implications |journal=Strategic Analysis |language=en |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=285–296 |doi=10.1080/09700161.2017.1295612 |s2cid=157910303 }}</ref>
==== Defeat against Saudis and abdication ====
Although the British had supported Hussein from the start of the [[Arab Revolt]] and the [[McMahon–Hussein Correspondence]], they not only chose not to help him to repel the [[Saudi conquest of Hejaz]], but even provided weapons to Ibn Saud,<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |last1=الوطن |first1=جريدة |last2=webmaster |date=2020-05-05 |title="مملكة الحجاز".. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح |url=https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |access-date=2023-05-17 |website=جريدة الوطن |language=ar |quote=وكشف الفيلم عن الاتفاقيات التي تمت بين عبدالعزيز بن سعود وبريطانيا والتي بدأت بالاعتراف باستقلال نجد ومد جيش عبدالعزيز بن سعود بالأموال والأسلحة شرط أن يحارب حلفاء العثمانيين في الجزيرة العربية. |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |url-status=live }}</ref> which eventually took Mecca, Medina, and Jeddah. The British offered several times to assist him and to stop supporting the Saudis, in exchange for his recognition of the [[Balfour Declaration]], which he refused each time.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=الوطن |first1=جريدة |last2=webmaster |date=2020-05-05 |title="مملكة الحجاز".. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح |url=https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=جريدة الوطن |language=ar |quote=في منتصف عام 1921م، وكفرصة أخيرة، وصل إلى مكة الضابط الإنجليزي توماس إدوارد لورانس.. «لورانس العرب»، الذي حمل معه رسالة أخيرة لشريف مكة، وعرض فيها إبرام معاهدة «أنجلوهاشمية»، شرط أن يوافق على نتائج الحرب ووعد بلفور، مقابل أن تضمن بريطانيا أمن وسلامة مملكة الحجاز، من هجوم عبد العزيز بن سعود، لكن الشريف رفض العرض، ولم يقبل بوعد بلفور.. |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[Institute of Contemporary Islamic Thought]], the British not only supported Ibn Saud against Hussein bin Ali but they also supported him subsequently against the [[Ikhwan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aal Saud: From British to American lap |url=https://crescent.icit-digital.org/articles/aal-saud-from-british-to-american-lap |access-date=2023-11-10 |website=Crescent International |archive-date=10 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110013201/https://crescent.icit-digital.org/articles/aal-saud-from-british-to-american-lap |url-status=live }}</ref> Hussein attempted to make appeals to the [[League of Nations]], Muslim powers, and Western powers; however, they did not intervene and merely monitored the events.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |last=Moubayed |first=Sami |date=2022-12-01 |title=الشريف حسين بن علي |url=https://damapedia.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81-%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A/ |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=الموسوعة الدمشقية |language=ar |archive-date=3 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103145833/https://damapedia.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81-%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The British were highly negative towards him since he assumed the caliphal title and refused to support him.<ref name=":20" />
He chose to abdicate.<ref name=":20" /> After his abdication, another of his sons, [[Ali ibn Hussein of Hejaz|Ali]], briefly assumed the throne of the Hejaz, but then he too had to flee from the encroachment of the Saudi forces. Another of Hussein's sons, [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]], was briefly [[King of Syria]] and later [[King of Iraq]], while [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah]] was [[Emir of Transjordan]]. While he was in exile, he still used the title of caliph<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sazonov |first1=Vladimir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kd08zgEACAAJ |title=Cultural Crossroads in the Middle East: The Historical, Cultural and Political Legacy of Intercultural Dialogue and Conflict from the Ancient Near East to the Present Day |last2=Mölder |first2=Holger |last3=Espak |first3=Peeter |last4=Saumets |first4=Andres |date=2020 |publisher=University of Tartu Press |isbn=978-9949-03-520-5 |language=en |access-date=25 October 2023 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109022501/https://books.google.com/books?id=kd08zgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> until his death.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bar |first=Shmuel |date=2016 |title=The implications of the Caliphate |journal=Comparative Strategy |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1080/01495933.2016.1133994 |s2cid=157012525 }}</ref>
==== Exile ====
[[File:Hussein bin Ali in Cyprus.jpg|thumb|Hussein bin Ali posing with his retinue and his horses during his exile in Cyprus]]
King Hussein was then forced to flee to [[Amman]], [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]], where his son [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah]] was [[Emir of Transjordan|Emir]]. During this period, King Hussein is described as having taken over control that his son wielded, and therefore was sent to live in [[Aqaba]] (which was recently transferred from Hijazi to Transjordanian sovereignty by the British).<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QSbeuVXQRUoC&q=sharif+hussein+cyprus&pg=PT66|title=Storm from the East: The Struggle Between the Arab World and the Christian West|isbn=978-0-307-43185-1|last1=Viorst|first1=Milton|date= 2007|publisher=Random House Publishing|access-date=14 June 2024|archive-date=14 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614020434/https://books.google.com/books?id=QSbeuVXQRUoC&q=sharif+hussein+cyprus&pg=PT66#v=snippet&q=sharif%20hussein%20cyprus&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Britain – responding to Ibn Saud's plea that the Sharif be expelled from Aqaba<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTBHCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT408|title=الشريف الحسين الرضي والخلافة|language=ar|year=2010|author1=Islamkotob|access-date=14 June 2024|archive-date=14 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614020434/https://books.google.com/books?id=iTBHCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT408#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> – exiled him from Aqaba to [[British Cyprus (1878–1960)|British-controlled Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Strohmeier |first=Martin |date=2019-09-03 |title=The exile of Husayn b. Ali, ex-sharif of Mecca and ex-king of the Hijaz, in Cyprus (1925–1930) |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=733–755 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2019.1596895 |s2cid=164473838 }}</ref>
He lived in [[Nicosia]] from 1925,<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |last=Strohmeier |first=Martin |date=2019-09-03 |title=The exile of Husayn b. Ali, ex-sharif of Mecca and ex-king of the Hijaz, in Cyprus (1925–1930) |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=733–755 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2019.1596895 |s2cid=164473838 }}</ref> with his sons coming to visit him at some times, even if his relationships with them were strained, except for Zeid who came to visit him the most. According to the British governor of [[Cyprus]], [[Ronald Storrs]], when he went to see Hussein, he found his son [[Zeid bin Hussein|Zeid]] reading him the commentary of [[Muhammad al-Bukhari|al-Bukhari]] on the [[Quran]].<ref name=":14" /> He rarely left his home, lived an austere lifestyle, and read the [[Quran]], religious books, he also read Arabic newspapers in the mornings.<ref name=":14" /> However, he still went to see horse-races and had brought Arabic horses in his exile that he treated "like his own family".<ref name=":14" /> Hussein also did some interviews with the press during his exile.<ref name=":14" /> He received some visitors, such as Sheikh Fuad al-Khatib, [[Muhammad Jamil Bayham]], who wanted to write his biography, or the Jordanian poet [[Mustafa Wahbi Tal]], among others.<ref name=":14" /> Hussein was ruined, but the local [[Greek Cypriots|Greek Cypriot]] and [[Turkish Cypriots|Turkish Cypriot]] population considered him to be a very wealthy man and therefore tried to win his favors.<ref name=":14" /> Meanwhile, he was entangled in legal matters regarding property income in Egypt, among other things.<ref name=":14" />[[File:Husseinfuneral.jpg|thumb|right|The funeral of Hussein in Jerusalem, 1931.]]
He tried to be friendly towards the various ethnic communities on the island but was particularly close to the [[Armenians]] of the island, seeing them as victims, like himself, of the [[Young Turks]].<ref name=":14" /> Hussein did not have any documented connection with the [[Turkish Cypriots|Turkish Cypriot]] community; though it is possible that one exists, there is no mention of him having visited a Turkish mosque in Nicosia.<ref name=":14" /> He met with the Armenian Archbishop of Nicosia in 1926 and received a warm welcome,<ref name=":14" /> after that, he donated drums and instruments to the Armenian community of the island, including the Armenian Philharmonic Melkonian School.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Χατζηλύρα |first=Μιχαήλ |date=2011 |title=Η αρμενική γενοκτονία και η Κύπρος |url=https://www.sigmalive.com/archive/simerini/politics/reportaz/375964 |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=www.sigmalive.com |language=grc |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928125326/https://www.sigmalive.com/archive/simerini/politics/reportaz/375964 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Οι Αρμενιοι της Κυπρος, Αλέξανδρος-Μιχαήλ Χατζηλύρας, 2016, {{ISBN|978-9963-50-408-4}}, p. 11.
To be found here : http://www.presidentialcommissioner.gov.cy/anthropos/anthropos.nsf/All/7572C467177529A1C225842D00303507/$file/%CE%9F%CE%B9%20%CE%91%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%B9%20%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82%20%CE%9A%CF%8D%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%85.pdf?OpenElement {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928130433/http://www.presidentialcommissioner.gov.cy/anthropos/anthropos.nsf/All/7572C467177529A1C225842D00303507/$file/%CE%9F%CE%B9%20%CE%91%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%B9%20%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82%20%CE%9A%CF%8D%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%85.pdf?OpenElement |date=28 September 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hadjilyra |first=Alexander-Michael |title=The Armenian Genocide and Cyprus (1915–1930) |url=https://www.academia.edu/34207171 |access-date=17 December 2023 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228015921/https://www.academia.edu/34207171 |url-status=live }}{{full citation needed|date=December 2023}}</ref>[[File:Chief mourners at funeral of King Hussein. His sons King Ali and Emir Abdullah among crowd LCCN2002710418.jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|Chief mourners at funeral of Hussein. His sons King Ali and Emir Abdullah among crowd]][[File:Funeral of King Hussein, Jerusalem, the casket LOC matpc.13451.jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|Funeral of Hussein, Jerusalem, the casket]]
He began to fall ill as early as 1928, but his favorite wife, [[Adila Khanum]], passed away in 1929, which exacerbated his illness. She was buried at [[Hala Sultan Tekke]], the largest Muslim shrine on the island.<ref name=":14" /> His two sons, [[Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz|Ali]] and [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdallah]], attended the funeral and started making preparations and requesting the British for his repatriation, believing that he didn't have much time left to live and that they needed to be by his side.<ref name=":14" />
==== Return and death ====
[[File:Funeral of King Hussein, Jerusalem LOC matpc.13456.jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|Funeral of Hussein, Jerusalem]]As his health continued to deteriorate and as he was paralyzed by a stroke at age 79 in 1930,<ref name="books.google.com" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Abu-Lebdeh |first1=Hatem Shareef |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XUvQog05sLIC&q=sharif+hussein+cyprus&pg=PA52 |title=Conflict and Peace in the Middle East: National Perceptions and United States-Jordan Relations |publisher=University Press of America |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7618-0812-1 |access-date=12 November 2020 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228015903/https://books.google.com/books?id=XUvQog05sLIC&q=sharif+hussein+cyprus&pg=PA52#v=snippet&q=sharif%20hussein%20cyprus&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> the British became increasingly inclined to send him back to the [[Middle East]]. They feared that his death would not only stir resentment among Arabs towards the United Kingdom but also potentially strain their relationships with the Hashemite rulers, all of whom were allies in the Middle East.<ref name=":14" /> The Saudis expressed their displeasure with rumors of Hussein's repatriation, especially after Hussein expressed his wish to be buried in Mecca, an event the Saudis feared would lead to "pro-Hashemite gatherings."<ref name=":14" /> Eventually, the British decided to repatriate him to Amman, with Baghdad as another option they had considered.<ref name=":14" /> Upon his arrival, he was greeted by a large crowd that cheered him and followed him to the [[Raghadan Palace]].<ref name=":14" /> There, while in Amman, he published a series of texts in al-Yarmouk, an Arabic newspaper, where he defended his actions and stated once again that he was against the [[Mandate for Palestine|British mandate of Palestine]].<ref name=":35">''The Papers of Al-Sharif Hussein Bin Ali, Documents published together for the first time,'' [[Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad|Ghazi bin Muhammad]], Mohammad Yunes Al-Abbadi, Lamya Al-Khraisha. {{ISBN|978-9957-635-52-7}}, 2020, Royal Library of Jordan
https://www.aalalbayt.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/The-Papers-of-al-Sharif-Hussein-bin-Ali-ebook.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218132425/https://www.aalalbayt.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/The-Papers-of-al-Sharif-Hussein-bin-Ali-ebook.pdf |date=18 December 2023 }}</ref>
He died on June 4, 1931. Hussein bin Ali was buried in [[Jerusalem]] in 1931, as he wasn't able to be buried in [[Mecca]], as he wanted and as was the norm for [[Sharif of Mecca|Sharifs of Mecca]] until then, for [[Ibn Saud]] didn't want to allow him being buried there.<ref name=":210">{{cite journal |last1=Strohmeier |first1=Martin |date=3 September 2019 |title=The exile of Husayn b. Ali, ex-sharif of Mecca and ex-king of the Hijaz, in Cyprus (1925–1930) |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=733–755 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2019.1596895 |s2cid=164473838}}</ref> Local dignitaries and leaders wanted him to be buried in the al-Aqsa mosque compound.<ref name=":30" /> This idea was kept and after a procession where 30,000 people took part,<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Moubayed |first=Sami |date=2022-12-01 |title=الشريف حسين بن علي |url=https://damapedia.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81-%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A/ |access-date=2023-05-17 |website=الموسوعة الدمشقية |language=ar |archive-date=17 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517091207/https://damapedia.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81-%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A/ |url-status=live }}</ref> he was buried in [[Jerusalem]]: inside the [[:commons:Category:Al-Arghuniyya|Arghūniyya]], a building on the [[Haram esh-Sharif]] or "[[Temple Mount]]", in a walled enclosure decorated with white marble and carpets.<ref>Kaplan, Robert D. (2001).  ''Eastward to Tartary : travels in the Balkans, the Middle East and the Caucasus''. New York : Vintage departures. p. 205 {{ISBN|978-0-375-70576-2}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Masalha |first=Nur |title=Palestine Across Millennia |date=2022 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-7556-4296-0 |page=160 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OeRSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 |quote=Al-Madrasa al-Arghuniyya: endowed and built by amir Arghun al-Kamili in 1358 (it now houses the tombs of the founder and Sharif Hussein ibn Ali, the Sharif of Mecca and leader of the Arab Revolt during the First World War). |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425093855/https://books.google.com/books?id=OeRSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 |url-status=live }}</ref> His son Faisal, with whom the relationship was the worse at that point, didn't attend his funerals, claiming he had "government business" to attend to.<ref name=":14" />
On the window above his tomb is written the following inscription: {{langx|ar|هَذَا قَبْرُ أَمِيرِ ٱلْمُؤْمِنِينَ ٱلْحُسَيْن بْنُ عَلِي|lit=Haḏa qabru ʾamīri ʾal-mūˈminīna ʾal-Ḥusayn bnu ʿAlī}} which translates "This is the tomb of the [[Amir al-Mu'minin|Commander of the Faithful]], Hussein bin Ali".<ref name=":5">{{cite book|author=Muhammad Rafi|date=1964|language=ar|location=Mecca|page=291|title=Mecca in the XIVth century after the Hegire / مكة في القرن الرابع عشر الهجري}}</ref><ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=IslamKotob |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTBHCwAAQBAJ |title=الشريف الحسين الرضي والخلافة لنضال داود المومني |publisher=IslamKotob |language=ar |access-date=5 June 2021 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109022502/https://books.google.com/books?id=iTBHCwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Marriage and children==
[[File:The sons of Sharif Hussein.jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|The sons of Sharif Hussein, King of Hejaz: King Ali of Hejaz and King Faisal I of Iraq and King Abdullah I of Transjordan]]Hussein, who had four wives, fathered five sons and three daughters with three of his wives:
* Sharifa Abidiya bint Abdullah (died Constantinople, Ottoman Empire, 1888, buried there), eldest daughter of his paternal uncle, Amir Abdullah Kamil Pasha, Grand Sharif of Mecca;
* Madiha, a Circassian;
* Sharifa Khadija bint Abdullah  (1866 – Amman, Transjordan, 4 July 1921), second daughter of Amir Abdullah Kamil Pasha, Grand Sharif of Mecca;
* [[Adila Khanum]] (Constantinople, Ottoman Empire, 1879 – Larnaca, Cyprus, 12 July 1929, buried there at the Hala Sultan, Umm Haram, Tekke), daughter of Salah Bey and granddaughter of [[Mustafa Reşid Pasha|Mustafa Rashid Pasha]], sometime [[Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire]];
With his first wife Abidiya bint Abdullah, he had:
* [[Ali of Hejaz|Prince Ali]], last King of Hejaz married to [[Nafisa bint Abdullah]]. Parents of [[Aliya bint Ali]]. Grandparents of [[Sharif Ali bin al-Hussein]].
* Hasan bin Hussein,  died young.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}
* [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Prince Abdullah]], Emir (later King) of Transjordan, married to [[Musbah bint Nasser]], [[Suzdil Hanum]], and [[Nahda bint Uman]].
* [[Princess Fatima bint Hussein|Princess Fatima]], married a European Muslim businessman from France.
* [[Faisal I of Iraq|Prince Faisal]], later King of Iraq and Syria, married to [[Huzaima bint Nasser]]. Parents of [[Ghazi of Iraq|Ghazi, King of Iraq]] born 1912 died 4 April 1939, married his first cousin, Princess [[Aliya bint Ali]], daughter of [[Ali of Hejaz|HM King Ali of Hejaz]].
With his second wife Madiha, he had:
* [[Princess Saleha bint Hussein|Princess Saleha]], married [[Abdullah bin Muhammed]].
With his third wife Adila, he had:
* [[Princess Sara bint Hussein|Princess Sara]], married [[Muhammad Atta Amin]] in July 1933, divorced September 1933.
* [[Prince Zeid bin Hussein|Prince Zeid]], who succeeded in pretense King [[Faisal II of Iraq]] upon his assassination in 1958, but never actually ruled as Iraq became a republic. Married to [[Princess Fahrelnissa Zeid|Fahrelnissa Kabaağaç]].
== Works ==
=== Literature ===
Hussein wrote extensively, his most important papers were published in a book by [[Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad]].<ref name=":35" /> Otherwise, he is known to have written a large series of articles in ''[[Al Qibla|al-Qibla]]''.{{sfn|Kay|2020|p=78}}<ref>{{cite thesis |author=Aida Ali Najjar |id={{ProQuest|288060869}} |year=1975 |title=The Arabic Press and Nationalism in Palestine, 1920-1948 |location=[[Syracuse University]] |page=42 |degree=PhD |author-link=Aida Najjar |isbn=978-1-08-385146-8 }}</ref>
==Legacy==
===Art===
[[File:Mosquée Sharif Hussein bin Ali-Aqaba.jpg|thumb|Hussein bin Ali mosque in [[Aqaba]]]]Several poets wrote about him, including [[Ahmed Shawqi]], nicknamed the Prince of Poets,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aḥmad Shawqī {{!}} Egyptian poet |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ahmad-Shawqi |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=26 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626085104/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ahmad-Shawqi |url-status=live }}</ref> who wrote a poem about his funerals<ref>{{Cite web |last=شوقي |first=أحمد |title=لك في الأرض والسماء مآتم – أحمد شوقي |url=https://www.aldiwan.net/poem11330.html |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=الديوان |language=ar |archive-date=4 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704235415/http://www.aldiwan.net/poem11330.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Mustafa Wahbi Tal]], one of the most prominents Jordanian poets,<ref>{{cite web |date=8 August 2016 |title=Award Named After Poet Mustafa Wahbi Tal Arar |url=https://www.albawaba.com/ar/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8-%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1-869478 |access-date=12 April 2020 |publisher=albawaba |language=ar |archive-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512023248/https://www.albawaba.com/ar/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8-%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1-869478 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=19 April 2000 |title=The Poet of Humanity and Gypsies, Arar the Leading Jordanian poet Among his Peers |url=https://www.albayan.ae/five-senses/2000-04-19-1.1035797 |access-date=12 April 2020 |publisher=Albayan |language=ar |archive-date=30 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830213102/https://www.albayan.ae/five-senses/2000-04-19-1.1035797 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Jeffrey Zuehlke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LqEg9j-L-UQC&pg=PA49 |title=Jordan in Pictures |year=2005 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-1173-1 |access-date=28 November 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228015903/https://books.google.com/books?id=LqEg9j-L-UQC&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> who wrote a poem about him.<ref>{{Cite web |last=التل |first=مصطفى |title=لانت قناتك للمنون – مصطفى التل |url=https://www.aldiwan.net/poem23735.html |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=الديوان |language=ar |archive-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703184432/http://www.aldiwan.net/poem23735.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
In the early 21st century, Hussein was a regular character in the 'burgeoning' Jordanian cinema.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Routledge handbook on Arab cinema |date=2024 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-30202-5 |editor-last=Mellor |editor-first=Noha |location=Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY |pages=1979}}</ref>
=== Armenian genocide refugees ===
His role in the support of Armenian refugees, especially during the [[Armenian genocide]], led him to be cited in 2014 and 2020 by Armenian Presidents [[Serzh Sargsyan]] and [[Armen Sarkissian]] as an example of tolerance and friendship between people<ref>{{Cite web |title=King receives Armenian president {{!}} King Abdullah II Official Website |url=https://kingabdullah.jo/en/news/king-receives-armenian-president |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=kingabdullah.jo |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228015926/https://kingabdullah.jo/en/news/king-receives-armenian-president |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mirror-Spectator |first=The Armenian |date=2020-02-13 |title=Jordan's King in 'Historic' Visit to Armenia |url=https://mirrorspectator.com/2020/02/13/jordans-king-in-historic-visit-to-armenia/ |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=The Armenian Mirror-Spectator |language=en-US |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927093728/https://mirrorspectator.com/2020/02/13/jordans-king-in-historic-visit-to-armenia/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Armenian President meets King of Jordan |url=https://armenpress.am/eng/news/781969/nakhagah-serzh-sargsyany-ammanum-handipel-e-hordanani-tagavor.html |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=armenpress.am |date=29 October 2014 |language=en |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228015909/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/781969/nakhagah-serzh-sargsyany-ammanum-handipel-e-hordanani-tagavor.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-11 |title=Jordan, Armenia deep friendship rooted in rich history — King |url=https://jordantimes.com/news/local/jordan-armenia-deep-friendship-rooted-rich-history-%E2%80%94-king |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=Jordan Times |language=en |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927094744/https://jordantimes.com/news/local/jordan-armenia-deep-friendship-rooted-rich-history-%E2%80%94-king |url-status=live }}</ref> also stressed by Jordanian [[Prince Hassan bin Talal]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prince El Hassan Congratulates Christians in Jordan on Christmas |url=https://en.ammonnews.net/article/5504 |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=Ammon News |date=26 December 2009 |archive-date=17 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217005954/https://en.ammonnews.net/article/5504 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hussein is quoted in the book ''Crows of the Desert'' from Armenian survivor Levon Yotnakhparian, when he discusses the help Hussein provided to the survivors and to save victims.<ref name=":26" /> This book subsequently gave birth to a movie of the same name.<ref>{{Citation |last=Houske |first=Marta |title=Crows of the Desert: A Hero's Journey through the Armenian Genocide |date=2017-03-15 |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt6051468/ |type=Documentary |access-date=2023-12-17 |others=Travis, Ara Madzounian |publisher=Matrix Communications |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004092637/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt6051468/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
For his actions during the Armenian genocide, Hussein was awarded the title of "Righteous of the Armenian genocide" by Armenian researchers.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=DDYAN |first1=GRARD |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kerIEAAAQBAJ |title=The Righteous of the Armenian Genocide |last2=Demirdjia |first2=Ago |last3=Saleh |first3=Nabil |date=2023-06-29 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-1-80526-017-2 |language=en |access-date=21 December 2023 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228015903/https://books.google.com/books?id=kerIEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>  On Friday 24 April 2015, on the occasion of the centennial of the Armenian genocide, [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] [[Sheikh]] Maher Hammoud referenced Hussein bin Ali in his sermon condemning the genocide.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-05-09 |title=Lebanese Sunni Muslim Leader Speaks out on Armenian Genocide and Turkey's Founder Ataturk |url=https://hyetert.org/2015/05/09/lebanese-sunni-muslim-leader-speaks-out-on-armenian-genocide-and-turkeys-founder-ataturk/ |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=HyeTert |language=tr-TR |archive-date=17 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217000414/https://hyetert.org/2015/05/09/lebanese-sunni-muslim-leader-speaks-out-on-armenian-genocide-and-turkeys-founder-ataturk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Middle East Council of Churches]] paid hommage to his actions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The MECC to Jordan: Towards a New Era |url=https://www.mecc.org/mecc/2024/5/29/the-mecc-to-jordan-towards-a-new-era |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=The Middle East Council of Churches |language=en-US |archive-date=28 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240828092551/https://www.mecc.org/mecc/2024/5/29/the-mecc-to-jordan-towards-a-new-era |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Others===
Several mosques bear his name to the present day, such as the Hussein bin Ali mosque in [[Aqaba]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Masjid Al Hussein Bin Ali |url=https://aqaba.jo/ |access-date=2023-05-17 |website=aqaba.jo |archive-date=28 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128201101/https://aqaba.jo/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the Hussein bin Ali mosque in [[Ma'an]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=صحيفة عمون: الملك يزور مسجد الشريف الحسين بن علي في معان (صور) |url=https://www.ammonnews.net/article/613944 |access-date=2023-05-17 |website=وكالة عمون الاخبارية |archive-date=17 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517102532/https://www.ammonnews.net/article/613944 |url-status=live }}</ref> or the al-Husseini mosque in [[Amman]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=الأردنية (بترا) |first=وكالة الأنباء |title=King visits Al Husseini Mosque upon returning to Jordan to check aftermath of recent fire |url=https://www.petra.gov.jo/Include/InnerPage.jsp?ID=17483&lang=ar&name=en_news |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=بترا -وكالة الأنباء الأردنية |archive-date=13 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213002512/https://www.petra.gov.jo/Include/InnerPage.jsp?ID=17483&lang=ar&name=en_news |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=رسالةُ حُبٍّ إلى عَمَّان |url=https://alrai.com/article/10815747/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9-%D9%88%D9%81%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86/%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%AD%D8%A8-%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86 |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=alrainewspaper |language=ar |archive-date=14 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614020439/https://alrai.com/article/10815747/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9-%D9%88%D9%81%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86/%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%AD%D8%A8-%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86 |url-status=live }}</ref> A school is named after him in Ma'an.<ref>{{Cite web |title=مدرستا الحسين بن علي والصحابة إلى نهائي مسابقة المعرفة الوطنية |url=https://www.maannews.net/news/2088783.html |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=وكـالـة مـعـا الاخـبـارية |language=ar |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228123941/https://www.maannews.net/news/2088783.html |url-status=live }}</ref> His house in Aqaba was restored in 2023 at the initiative of the Jordanian government<ref>{{Cite web |title=العيسوي يتفقد مشروع اعادة تأهيل بيت الشريف الحسين بن علي طيب بالعقبة |url=https://www.factjo.com/news.aspx?Id=192329 |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=www.factjo.com |date=30 November 2023 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228123246/https://www.factjo.com/news.aspx?Id=192329 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-30 |title=العيسوي يتفقد مشروع تأهيل بيت الشريف الحسين بن علي في العقبة - صور |url=https://jfranews.com.jo/article/433423 |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=جفرا نيوز |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228123246/https://jfranews.com.jo/article/433423 |url-status=live }}</ref> and subsequently reopened to the public in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-13 |title=منزل الشريف حسين.. إضافة نوعية للسياحة التاريخية بالعقبة |url=https://alghad.com/Section-164/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81-%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A5%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9-%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9-1587141 |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=جريدة الغد {{!}} مصدرك الأول لأخبار الأردن والعالم |language=ar |archive-date=13 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240113190659/https://alghad.com/Section-164/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81-%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A5%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9-%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9-1587141 |url-status=live }}</ref> A brigade of the Jordanian army bears his name.<ref>{{Cite web |last=الأردنية (بترا) |first=وكالة الأنباء |title=الملك يزور قيادة لواء الملك الحسين بن علي |url=https://www.petra.gov.jo/Include/InnerPage.jsp?ID=139274&lang=ar&name=news |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=بترا -وكالة الأنباء الأردنية}}</ref>
In 2020, a documentary was made about him and his life by [[Al Araby (TV channel)|Al-Araby]],<ref>{{Cite web |last1=الوطن |first1=جريدة |last2=webmaster |date=2020-05-05 |title="مملكة الحجاز".. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح |url=https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |access-date=2023-05-17 |website=جريدة الوطن |language=ar |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |url-status=live }}</ref> which was seen more than five million times on [[YouTube]] as of May 2023.<ref>{{Citation |title=مملكة الحجاز {{!}} وثائقيات العربي | date=4 May 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gWVCoYAcVs |access-date=2023-05-17 |language=en |archive-date=17 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517101948/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gWVCoYAcVs |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Order of Al-Hussein bin Ali|Order of Hussein bin Ali]], created in 1949 by [[Abdullah I of Jordan]], is the highest order of [[Jordan]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Toole |first1=Wing Commander E.H. |date=March 1964 |title=Collar of Hussein bin Ali |journal=Orders and Medals Society of America}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Donovan |first1=Ned |url=https://solo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma991017950669707026&context=L&vid=44OXF_INST:SOLO&lang=en&search_scope=MyInst_and_CI&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,orders%20medals%20jordan&offset=0 |title=Orders, Decorations and Medals of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan |date=2022 |publisher=Spink |isbn=978-1-912667-89-5 |location=London |page=6 |access-date=2 January 2024 |archive-date=2 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102164104/https://solo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma991017950669707026&context=L&vid=44OXF_INST:SOLO&lang=en&search_scope=MyInst_and_CI&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,orders%20medals%20jordan&offset=0 |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Decorations==
* [[File:Order of Muhammad Ali (Egipt) - ribbon bar.gif|40px]] Grand-cordon of the [[Order of Muhammad Ali]] (Egypt)
* [[File:Grand Crest Ordre de Leopold.png|40px]] Grand Cordon of the [[Order of Leopold (Belgium)|Order of Leopold]] (Belgium)
* [[File:Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg|40px]] Grand Cross of the [[Legion of Honour]] (France)
* [[File:Order of the Osmanie lenta.png|40px]] First Class of the [[Order of Osmanieh]] (Ottoman Empire)
* [[File:Order of the Medjidie lenta.png|40px]] First Class of the [[Order of the Medjidie]] (Ottoman Empire)
* [[File:Ordre du Nichan Iftikhar GC ribbon (Tunisia).svg|40px]] Grand Cross of the [[Order of Glory (Ottoman Empire)|Order of the Nichan Iftikhar]] (Ottoman Empire)
* [[File:Order of the Bath UK ribbon.svg|40px]] Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Bath]] (United Kingdom)
==Ancestry==
{{Hashemites}}
==See also==
* [[Battle of Mecca 1916]]
* [[Sharifian Caliphate]]
* [[Siege of Medina]]
* [[Suleiman Mousa]]
==References==
===Notes===
{{Notelist}}
===Citations===
{{Reflist|20em}}
===Sources===
* {{cite book|last=Peters|first=Francis Edward|author-link=Francis Edward Peters|title=Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land|year=1994|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-03267-2}} – Total pages: 473
* Teitelbaum, Joshua (2001). ''The Rise and Fall of the Hashemite Kingdom of the Hijaz''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. {{ISBN|978-1-85065-460-5}}
* {{cite thesis |last1=Kay |first1=Shari L. |date=Spring 2020 |title=Arabia infelix: Britain Sharif Hussein and the lost opportunities of Anglo-Arab relations, 1916–1924 |id={{ProQuest|2451400709}} |hdl=20.500.11929/sdsu:57703 |oclc=1228848499 }}
==Further reading==
* {{EI3|last1=Longrigg|first1=Steven Helmsley|last2=Ochsenwald|first2=William|title=Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/husayn-b-ali-COM_30571|year=2021}}
==External links==
* {{PM20|FID=pe/008396}}
{{S-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Hashemite|House of Hashim]]<br />{{smaller|[[Dhawu Awn]], branch of [[Banu Qatadah]]}}||1854|4 June|1931|name=al-Ḥusayn ibn 'Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Mu'īn ibn 'Awn}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-new|creation
| reason = [[Arab Revolt]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = King of the Arab Lands
| years = October 1916 – 3 October 1924<br />Recognized by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] only as [[King of Hejaz]]
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz|Ali bin Hussein]]
| as = King of Hejaz
}}
{{s-bef
| before = Himself
| as = Ottoman emir
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Sharif of Mecca|Sharif and Emir of Mecca]]
| years = June 1916 – 3 October 1924
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz|Ali bin Hussein]]
}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Abd al-Ilah Pasha]]
| rows = 2
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Sharif and Emir of Mecca]]
| years = November 1908 – June 1916<br />Ottoman-appointed
| rows = 2
}}
{{s-aft
| after = Himself
| as = independent emir
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Ali Haidar Pasha]]
}}
{{s-rel|su}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Abdülmecid II]]
}}
{{s-tul|title=[[Caliph|Caliph of the Muslims]]|years=11 March 1924 – 3 October 1924|reason=Not widely recognized outside Middle-East <br /> Haramayn invaded}}
{{s-vac}}
{{S-end}}
{{Arab nationalism}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2016}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca}}
[[Category:1850s births]]
[[Category:1931 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Arab people]]
[[Category:20th-century Arab people]]
[[Category:20th-century caliphs]]
[[Category:Arab independence activists]]
[[Category:Arab Revolt]]
[[Category:Arab people from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Dhawu Awn]]
[[Category:Flag designers]]
[[Category:Hasanids]]
[[Category:Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:House of Hashim]]
[[Category:Kings of Hejaz]]
[[Category:Ottoman Arab nationalists]]
[[Category:People from Ottoman Arabia]]
[[Category:Ottoman Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Pan-Arabism]]
[[Category:People from Istanbul]]
[[Category:People from Mecca]]
[[Category:Politics of the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Self-proclaimed monarchy]]
[[Category:Sharifs of Mecca]]
[[Category:People of the Arab Revolt]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Leopold II]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Medjidie]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Honour]]
[[Category:Monarchs who abdicated]]
[[Category:Muslims from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:19th-century people from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Christianity and Islam]]
[[Category:Islam and Judaism]]