View source for Ifriqiya

{{short description|Historic region of Northern Africa}}
[[File:Roman Empire Africa.svg|thumb|215px|The Roman province [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa Proconsularis]] (''in red''), to which Ifriqiya corresponded and from which it derived its name]]
{{History of Tunisia}}
{{History of Algeria}}
{{History of Libya}}
'''Ifriqiya''' ({{Langx|ar|إفريقية|lit=Africa}} ''{{transliteration|aeb|Ifrīqya}}''), also known as '''al-Maghrib al-Adna''' ({{langx|ar|المغرب الأدنى}}), was a medieval [[historical region]] comprising today's [[Tunisia]], eastern [[Algeria]], and [[Tripolitania]] (roughly western [[Libya]]).<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/autre-region/Ifriqiya/124749 Article « Ifriqiya » (Larousse.fr)].</ref><ref name="Michael Brett">{{cite book|author=Michael Brett|title=Approaching African History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oHMM3ESAahMC&pg=PA64|year=2013|publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd |isbn=978-1-84701-063-6|pages=64}}</ref><ref name="Youssef M. Choueiri">{{cite book|author=Youssef M. Choueiri|title=A Companion to the History of the Middle East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ioTXW3316AC&pg=PA171|year=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-5204-4|pages=171}}</ref> It included all of what had previously been the Byzantine province of [[Africa Proconsularis]] and extended beyond it,<ref name="Ramzi Rouighi">{{cite book|author=Ramzi Rouighi|title=Inventing the Berbers History and Ideology in the Maghrib|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CIO9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204|year=2019|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-9618-1|pages=204}}</ref> but did not include the [[Mauretania]]s.<ref name="Valérian">{{Cite book |last=Valérian |first=Dominique |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2019 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Ifrīqiya |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett |chapter-url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EI3O/COM-32378.xml}}</ref>
To the south, Ifriqiya was bounded by the semi-arid lands and salt marshes named el-[[Djerid]]. The northern boundary fluctuated from as far north as [[Sicily]] to the North African coastline, and the western boundary usually reached [[Béjaïa]]. Ifriqiya is bordered to the west by the [[Central Maghreb]], with which the borders are fluid depending on the chroniclers and the eras. The capital was briefly [[Carthage]], then [[Kairouan|Qayrawan]] (Kairouan), then [[Mahdia]], then [[Tunis]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arabic Thought and Its Place in History - Wikisource, the free online library |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Arabic_Thought_and_Its_Place_in_History |access-date=2024-08-19 |website=en.wikisource.org |language=en}}</ref> The [[Aghlabids]], from their base in [[Kairouan]], initiated the invasion of [[Southern Italy]] beginning in 827, and established the [[Emirate of Sicily]], which lasted until it was conquered by the [[Normans]], and the short-lived [[Emirate of Bari]].
== History ==
[[File:Les trois Maghreb à l'époque classique médiévale.png|thumb|Map of the tripartition of the Maghreb in medieval times, Ifriqiya is designated here under the name of Maghrib al-Adna.]]
The province of Ifriqiya was created in 703 CE when the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] seized North Africa from the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Although Islam existed throughout the province, there was still considerable religious tension and conflict between the invading Arabs and the native Berbers. The beliefs and perceptions of people also shifted from area to area. This contrast was at its greatest between coastal cities and villages. Muslim ownership of Ifriqiya changed hands numerous times in its history with the collapse of the Umayyads paving the way for the [[Aghlabids]], who acted as agents of the [[Abbasids]] in Baghdad.
They were then overthrown by the [[Fatimids]] in 909, when they lost their capital of [[Raqqada]] and the Fatimids went on to control all of Ifriqiya in 969, when they took control of Egypt. The Fatimids slowly lost control over Ifriqiya as their regents, the [[Zirids]], became more and more autonomous until the mid-11th century when they fully separated.
Religious divisions paved the way for the [[Almohads]] to take over western Ifriqiya ([[Maghreb]]) in 1147 and all of Ifriqiya by 1160. This empire was to last until the early 13th century where it was then replaced by the [[Hafsids]], an influential clan that boasted many of Ifriqiya's governors. The Hafsids in 1229 declared their independence from the Almohads and organized themselves under [[Abu Zakariya]], who built the Hafsid empire around its new capital, [[Tunis]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Amara|first=Allaoua|date=2016|pages=1–13|publisher=American Cancer Society|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe361|isbn=9781118455074|title=The Encyclopedia of Empire|chapter=Ifriqiya, medieval empires of (Aghlabid to Hafsid)}}</ref>
Records of Arabic oral traditions imply that the Muslims first migrated to Africa feeling persecuted in their Arab homeland. However, Muslim military incursions into Africa began around seven years after the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad in 632. This campaign into Africa was led by the General [[Amr ibn al-As]] and Muslim control of Africa rapidly spread after the initial seizure of Alexandria.
Islam slowly took root in the East African coast due to cross-cultural links established between Muslim traders and the natives of the African coast. The political situation in Islamic Africa was like any other, filled with a chaotic and constant power struggle between movements and dynasties. A key factor in the success of any hopeful party was securing the wealth to fund a push for dominance. One source of great wealth was the lucrative gold-mining areas of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. The existence of these gold mines made expansion into Africa very worthwhile. The Muslim Empires pushed for influence and control of both the Northern and Southern parts of Africa. By the end of the 11th century, Islam had firmly established itself along the Mediterranean. Like the [[Europeans]], Muslims felt the brutal effects of the [[Black Death]] in the 14th century when it arrived in Western Africa (Maghreb) through Europe. Maghreb and Ifriqiya were largely under the rule of the [[Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 18th centuries. Around the end of the 19th century, Islam accounted for 1/3rd of the religious population of Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section7.shtml|title=The Story of Africa{{!}} BBC World Service|website=www.bbc.co.uk|access-date=2018-12-12}}</ref>
== Notable people ==
=== Constantine the African ===
[[Constantine the African]] was a scholar who was born in Carthage and migrated to Sicily in the 11th century. Constantine traveled through places such as Cairo, India and Ethiopia, and his knowledge of numerous languages helped him interpret many academic texts.
His greatest work came when he joined the [[Benedictines|Benedictine]] monastery at [[Monte Cassino]], where he translated over 30 books, including works by [[Isaac the Jew]], one of the most accomplished physicians in the Western Caliphate. He translated Muslim books on medicine from Arabic to Latin, opening Europe up to a wave of medical knowledge they had had little access to before. His book ''The Total Art'' is based on ''The Royal Book'' by Persian physician [['Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi|Ali ibn al Abbas]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Near West: Medieval North Africa, Latin Europe and the Mediterranean in the Second Axial Age|last=James|first=Fromherz, Allen|isbn=978-1474426404|edition=[Paperback edition]|location=Edinburgh|oclc=973383412|date = August 2017}}</ref>
=== Ibn Khaldun ===
[[Ibn Khaldun]], a historian born in Tunis, was one of the most prolific academics of the Middle Ages. Ibn Khaldun's book ''[[Muqaddimah|Muqadimmah]]'' influenced waves of writers in Egypt, Turkey, and France from the 15th through 19th centuries. Ibn Khaldun served in numerous political positions in al Andalus and Al Maghreb. He fell in and out of favor with the many different powers that rose and fell in Ifriqiya. In the latter 14th century Ibn Khaldun took refuge with a tribe in Algeria and began his four-year endeavor to write an introduction to history, ''Muqadimmah''. Volume I laid the groundwork for sociology, while the two volumes that followed explored the world of politics, subsequent books explored many different themes such as urban life, economics and the study of knowledge. He spent his later years as a judge of the [[Maliki]] [[fiqh]] in Egypt where he took his work very seriously, evaluating each case on its merits and constantly trying to eradicate flaws that he discovered in the judicial system. His somewhat strict approach to Islamic laws made some Egyptians uneasy, so he eventually left his position and traveled through the eastern reaches of the Arab world. In 1400, he parleyed outside Damascus with [[Timur]], who was in awe of his wisdom. He managed to secure safe passage for many of the inhabitants of Damascus but could not save the city or its mosque from being sacked. After this, he went to Cairo and spent the remainder of his years in relative peace and quiet. He died in 1406 and was buried outside Cairo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ibn-Khaldun|title=Ibn Khaldūn {{!}} Muslim historian|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2018-12-12}}</ref>
== List of rulers ==
{{Anchor|Rulers of Ifriqiya}}
=== Conquest phase ===
{{Main|Muslim conquest of the Maghreb}}
* ''[[Cyrenaica]] and [[Tripolitana]] conquered in 643 by [[Amr ibn al-As]], organized as new province with regional capital at [[Barca (ancient city)|Barqa]]; first governors uncertain.''<ref>See chronicles of [[Ibn Abd al-Hakam]] and [[al-Nuwayri]] for accounts of the conquest.</ref>
* [[Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj]], c.665–666  — ruled from [[Barca (ancient city)|Barqa]]<ref>This follows the tradition of al-Nuwayri, who says Mu'waiya ibn Hudaij was the first emir of Ifriqiya (ruling from Baqra) in 665. Ibn Khaldoun, however, dates the appointment of Mu'waiya ibn Hudaij as early as 651/52, when [[Abdallah ibn Sa'ad]] was governor in Egypt.</ref>
* [[Uqba ibn Nafi]], 666–674 — conquered south Tunisia ([[Byzacena]]), founded [[Kairouan]] (670)
* [[Abu al-Muhajir Dinar]], 674–681
* [[Uqba ibn Nafi]],  (restored), 681–683 — led cavalcade to Morocco, ostensibly brought the  entire Maghreb under submission.
* ''Uqba killed. Arabs expelled from Byzacena, which was then occupied by [[Aures|Awraba]] [[Berber people|Berber]] chieftain [[Kusaila]], 683–686.''
* [[Zuhayr ibn Qays]], 683–689 — initially only Barqa, retook Byzacena in 686.
* ''Zuhayr killed. Berbers under [[Kahina]] retake Byzacena in 689. No clear Arab governor'', 689–92
* [[Hasan ibn al-Nu'man|Hassan ibn al-Nu'man al-Ghassani]], 692–703 — initially only Barqa. Captured [[Carthage]] in 695 (lost again), then again in 698 (final). Permanent conquest of Ifriqiya, organized as a new province, separately from Egypt, directly under the Umayyad Caliph, with capital at Kairouan.
=== [[Umayyad]] Governors of Ifriqiya===
* [[Musa ibn Nusair|Musa ibn Nusair al-Lakhmi]], 703–715
* (''During [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|conquest of Spain]], [[Abd Allah ibn Musa]] was regent in [[Kairouan]], while Musa was in [[al-Andalus]], 712–715'')
* [[Muhammad ibn Yazid]], 715–718
* [[Ismail ibn Abd Allah ibn Abi al-Muhajir]], 718–720
* [[Yazid ibn Abi Muslim]], 720–721
* Muhammad ibn Yazid (restored), 721
* [[Bishr ibn Safwan al-Kalbi]], 721–727
* [[Ubayda ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami]], 727–32
* Uqba ibn Qudama (temporary), 732–734
* [[Ubayd Allah ibn al-Habhab|Ubayd Allah ibn al-Habhab al-Mausili]], 734–41. (''[[Berber Revolt]] begins 740'')
* [[Kulthum ibn Iyad al-Qushayri]], 741
* [[Balj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri]] (''de jure'', in [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]]) and [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Uqba al-Ghifari]] (''de facto'', in [[Kairouan]]), 741–42
* [[Handhala ibn Safwan al-Kalbi]], 742–44
=== [[Fihrid]] Emirs of Ifriqiya ===
* (''Independence from Caliphate: Berber statelets in [[Morocco]]; [[Fihrid]] coup d'état in Kairouan'', 745)
* [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri]], 745–755.
* [[Ilyas ibn Habib al-Fihri]], 755
* [[Habib ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri]], 755–57
=== [[Kharijite]] rulers ===
* (''Fihrid Ifriqiya conquered by [[Kharijite]] Berbers in 757 — [[Sufri]]te Warfajuma in Kairouan, [[Ibadi]]te [[Nafusa]] in Tripoli'')
* [[Asim ibn Jamil al-Warfajumi]] ([[Sufri]]te), 757–758
* [[Abd al-Malik ibn Abi 'l-Jad al-Waranjumi]] (Sufrite), 758
* (''Ibadites of Tripoli depose Sufrites in Kairouan, 758'')
* [[Abu al-Khattab Abd al-Ala ibn al-Samh al-Maafiri]] ([[Ibadi]]te), 758–760
* [[Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rustam|Abd al-Rahman ibn Rustem al-Farissi]] ([[Ibadi]]te), 760–62
=== [[Abbasid]] governors in Kairouan ===
* (''[[Abbasid]] invasion of Ifriqiya; Ibadites reduced to [[Tahert]] and [[Nafusa]], 762'')
;Appointed governors
* [[Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath al-Khuza'i]] 762–765 (former Abbasid [[List of governors of Islamic Egypt|governor of Egypt]])
* [[Isa ibn Yussuf al-Khurasani]] 765
* [[al-Aghlab ibn Salim at-Tamimi]] 765–766
* [[al-Hassan ibn Harb al-Kindi]] 766–767
* [[al-Mikhariq ibn Ghuffar]] 767–768
;[[Muhallabids]]
* [[Umar ibn Hafs al-Muhallabi]] 768–771
* [[Habib ibn Habib al-Muhallabi]] 771
* [[Umar ibn Hafs al-Muhallabi]] 771
* [[Abu Hatim Yaqub ibn Labib al-Khariji]] 771–772 ([[Ibadi]] rebel)
* [[Yazid ibn Hatim al-Muhallabi]] 772–787
* [[Dawud ibn Yazid ibn Hatim al-Muhallabi]] 787
* [[Rawh ibn Hatim al-Muhallabi]] 787–791
* [[Nasr ibn Habib al-Muhallabi]] 791–793
* [[al-Fadl ibn Rawh ibn Hatim al-Muhallabi]] 793–795
;Appointed governors
* [[Harthama ibn Ayan]] 795–797
* [[Muhammad ibn Muqatil al-Akki]], 797–799
* [[Tammam ibn Tamim al-Tamimi]] 799–800
* [[Muhammad ibn Muqatil al-Akki]] 800
=== [[Aghlabid]] Emirs of Ifriqiya===
<ref>This is primarily covered in the chronicle of [[al-Nuwayri]].</ref>
*[[Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab|Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab ibn Salim]] (800–812)
*[[Abdallah I of Ifriqiya|Abdallah I ibn Ibrahim]] (812–817)
*[[Ziyadat Allah I of Ifriqiya|Ziyadat Allah I ibn Ibrahim]](817–838)
*[[Abu Iqal|al-Aghlab Abu Iqal ibn Ibrahim]] (838–841)
*[[Muhammad I Abu 'l-Abbas|Abu 'l-Abbas Muhammad I ibn al-Aghlab Abi Affan]] (841–856)
*[[Abu Ibrahim Ahmad ibn Muhammad|Ahmad ibn Muhammad]] (856–863)
*[[Ziyadat Allah II of Ifriqiya|Ziyadat Allah II ibn Abil-Abbas]] (863)
*[[Muhammad II of Ifriqiya|Abu 'l-Gharaniq Muhammad II ibn Ahmad]] (863–875)
*[[Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya|Abu Ishaq Ibrahim II ibn Ahmad]] (875–902)
*[[Abdallah II of Ifriqiya|Abu 'l-Abbas Abdallah II ibn Ibrahim]] (902–903)
*[[Ziyadat Allah III of Ifriqiya|Abu Mudhar Ziyadat Allah III ibn Abdallah]] (903–909)
=== [[Fatimid]] Caliphs in Ifriqiya===
<ref>On the rise of the Fatimids, see [[Ibn Khaldoun]] (v.2 [https://archive.org/details/histoiredesberb01slangoog/page/n203 <!-- pg=496 --> App. #2](pp.496–549))</ref>
*[[Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah|Abū Muḥammad ʻAbdu l-Lāh (ʻUbaydu l-Lāh) al-Mahdī bi'llāh]] (909–934) — founder of the [[Fatimid]] dynasty
*[[Muhammad al-Qaim Bi-Amrillah|Abū l-Qāsim Muḥammad al-Qā'im bi-Amr Allāh]] (934–946)
*[[Isma'il al-Mansur Bi-Nasrillah|Abū Ṭāhir Ismā'il al-Manṣūr bi-llāh]] (946–953)
*[[Ma'ad al-Muizz Li-Deenillah|Abū Tamīm Ma'add al-Mu'izz li-Dīn Allāh]] (953–975) (transferred to [[Egypt]] in 973)
=== [[Zirid dynasty]] rulers of Ifriqiya===
[[File:Zirides et Hammadides après les invasion hilaliennes.PNG|thumb|Zirids and Hammadids after Bedouin invasions]]
<ref>See [[al-Nuwayri]] (v.2, App.1) and [[Ibn Khaldoun]], v.2</ref>
*Abul-Futuh Sayf ad-Dawla [[Buluggin ibn Ziri]] (973–983)
*Abul-Fat'h [[al-Mansur ibn Buluggin]] (983–995)
*Abu Qatada Nasir ad-Dawla [[Badis ibn Mansur]] (995–1016)
*Sharaf ad-Dawla [[al-Muizz ibn Badis]] (1016–1062), — lost west Ifriqiya to [[Hammadid dynasty]],(1018), declared independence from [[Fatimid]]s (1045)
(''invasion of the [[Banu Hillal|Banu Hilal]] (1057) — Kairouan destroyed, [[Zirids]] reduced to the main coastal cities, rural areas fragments into petty [[Bedouin]] [[emirate]]s)<ref>On the Banu Hillal invasion, see Ibn Khaldoun (v.1).</ref> ''
*Abu Tahir [[Tamim ibn al-Mu'izz]] (1062–1108)
*[[Yahya ibn Tamim]] (1108–1131)
*[[Ali ibn Yahya]] (1115–1121)
*[[Abul-Hasan al-Hasan ibn Ali]] (1121–1152)
(''Ifriqiyan coast annexed by [[Kingdom of Sicily|Norman Sicily]]'' (1143–1160))
=== [[Italo-Norman|Norman]] kings of the [[Kingdom of Africa]] (Ifriqiya) ===
[[File:Regnonormanno1160.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The "Kingdom of Africa" (''Regno d'Africa'') pinpointed in red]]
<ref>Abulafia, "The Norman Kingdom of Africa"</ref>
{{See also|Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture}}
*[[Roger II of Sicily]] (1143-1154)
*[[William I of Sicily]] (1154-1160)
(''All of Ifriqiya conquered and annexed by the [[Almohads]]'' (1160))<ref>For an account of the Almohad and Norman conquests of Ifriqiya, see [[Ibn al-Athir]] ([https://archive.org/details/histoiredesberb01slangoog/page/n585 p.578ff])</ref>
=== [[Hafsid]] governors of Ifriqiya ===
<ref>See Ibn Khaldoun (v.2 & 3)</ref>
*[[Abu Muhammad Abd al-Wahid ibn Abi Hafs]] (1207–1216)
*[[Abd-Allah (Hafsid)|Abd-Allah]] (1224–1229)
*[[Abu Zakariya]] (1229–1249)
=== [[Hafsid dynasty|Hafsid caliphs]] of Ifriqiya ===
*[[Muhammad I al-Mustansir]] (1249–1277)
*[[Yahya II al-Watiq]] (1277–1279)
*[[Ibrahim I (Hafsid dynasty)|Ibrahim I]] (1279–1283)
*[[Ibn Abi Umara]] (1283–1284)
*[[Abu Hafs Umar I]] (1284–1295)
*[[Abu Asida Muhammad al-Muntasir|Muhammad I]] (1295–1309)
*[[Abu Yahya Abu Bakr ash-Shahid|Abu Bakr I]] (1309)
*[[Aba al-Baqa Khalid an-Nasir]] (1309–1311)
*[[Aba Yahya Zakariya al-Lihyani]] (1311–1317)
*[[Abu Darba Muhammad al-Mustansir al-Lihyani|Muhammad II]] (1317–1318)
*[[Abu Bakr II (Banu Haf)|Abu Bakr II]] (1318–1346)
*[[Abu Hafs Umar ben Abi Bakr|Abu Hafs Umar II]] (1346–1349)
*[[Abu al-Abbas Ahmad al-Fadi al-Mutawakkil|Ahmad I]] (1349)
*[[Ishaq II (Hafsid)|Ishaq II]] (1350–1369)
*[[Abu al-Baqa Khalid]] (1369–1371)
*[[Abu al-Abbas Ahmad II|Ahmad II]] (1371–1394)
*[[Abd al-Aziz II]] (1394–1434)
*[[Abu Abd-Allah Muhammad al-Mutansir|Muhammad III]] (1434–1436)
*[[Uthman (Hafsid)|Uthman]] (1436–1488)
*[[Abu Zakariya Yahya]] (1488–1489)
*[[Abd al-Mu'min (Hafsid)]] (1489–1490)
*[[Abu Yahya Zakariya]] (1490–1494)
*[[Muhammad IV (Hafsid)|Muhammad IV]] (1494–1526)
*[[Muhammad V (Hafsid)|Muhammad V]] (1526–1543)
*[[Ahmad III (Hafsid)|Ahmad III]] (1543–1570)
*[[Muhammad VI (Hafsid)|Muhammad VI]] (1574–1574)
*[[Jafari "Jafari the Clean" Yahya]] (1574–1581)
*[[Alem Nafirr]] (1581)
==See also==
*[[History of Roman-era Tunisia]]
*[[History of early Islamic Tunisia]]
*[[History of medieval Tunisia]]
== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}
== Sources ==
===Chronicles===
* [[Ibn Abd al-Hakam]], English trans. by C.C. Torrey, 1901, "The Mohammedan Conquest of Egypt and North Africa", ''Historical and Critical Contributions to Biblical Science'', pp.&nbsp;277–330. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlrXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA277 online]; French trans. in De la Salle ''Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale'', 1852, v.1, [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PgAoAAAAYAAJ/page/n417 <!-- pg=301 --> App. 1] (pp.&nbsp;301–308)
* [[al-Nuwayri]], French trans. in De La Salle, ''Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale'', 1852, v.1, [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PgAoAAAAYAAJ/page/n429 <!-- pg=313 --> App. 2] (pp.&nbsp;314–444) (From 647 raid through end of Aghlabids) and 1854, v. 2 [https://archive.org/details/histoiredesberb01slangoog/page/n190 <!-- pg=483 --> App.1] (pp.&nbsp;483–89) (for Zirids). Italian transl. in M. Amari (1851) ''Nuova raccolta di scritture e documenti intorno alla dominazione degli arabi in Sicilia'', ([https://books.google.com/books?id=mZIKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA27 p.27-163]) (Aghlabids only)
* [[Ibn Khaldoun]], French trans. in De La Salle (1852–56), ''Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale'' 4 vols, Algiers: Imprimerie du Gouvernment.  [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PgAoAAAAYAAJ/page/n239 <!-- pg=449 --> v.1], [https://archive.org/details/histoiredesberb01slangoog/page/n599 <!-- pg=595 --> v.2]  [https://archive.org/details/histoiredesberb00khalgoog/page/n207 <!-- pg=497 --> v.3], [https://archive.org/details/histoiredesberb00slangoog/page/n598 <!-- pg=585 --> vol. 4]
* [[Ibn al-Athir]] extracts from ''Kamel al-Tewarikh'', French trans. in De La Salle, ''Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale'', 1854, v.2, [https://archive.org/details/histoiredesberb01slangoog/page/n580 <!-- pg=573 --> App.#5], (pp.&nbsp;573ff)
===Secondary===
* Julien, C.A. (1931) ''Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord, vol. 2 – De la conquête arabe à 1830'', 1961 edition, Paris: Payot.
* {{Cite book |last=Idris |first=Hady Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MiBangEACAAJ |title=La Berbérie orientale sous les Zirides X.-XII. siècles |date=1959 |publisher=Adrien-Maisonneuve |language=fr|volume=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Idris |first=H. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYE1AAAAIAAJ |title=La Berbérie orientale sous les Zīrīdes, Xe-XIIe siècles |date=1962 |publisher=Adrien-Maisonneuve |language=fr|volume=2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brunschvig |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXhJewAACAAJ |title=La Berberie orientale sous les Hafsides des origines à la fin du XVe siècle |date=1982 |publisher=Adrien-Maisonneuve |language=fr|volume=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brunschvig |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_SQ_AQAAIAAJ&q=lA+BERBERIE+ORIENTALE+SOUS+LES+hafsides |title=La Berbérie orientale sous les Ḥafṣides: des origines à la fin du XVe siècle |date=1984 |publisher=Adrien-Maisonneuve |language=fr|volume=2}}
{{Rulers of Algeria}}
{{Muslim dynasties in Maghreb region}}
{{Timeline of the Maghreb dynasties}}
{{Authority control}}
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[[Category:Ifriqiya| ]]
[[Category:Subdivisions of the medieval Islamic world]]
[[Category:Countries in medieval Africa]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Algeria]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Tunisia]]
[[Category:History of Tripolitania]]
[[Category:Historical geography of Algeria]]
[[Category:16th century in Algeria]]
[[Category:14th century in Ifriqiya]]
[[Category:16th century in Tunisia]]
[[Category:8th-century establishments in Africa]]
[[Category:16th-century disestablishments in Africa]]