View source for Ivory

{{short description|Material derived from the tusks and teeth of animals}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Horn Louvre OA4069.jpg|thumb|11th-century Italian carved [[elephant]] tusk, [[Louvre]].]]
[[File:Cylindrical Ivory Casket.jpg|thumb|Cylindrical ivory casket, Siculo-Arabic, [[Hunt Museum]].]]
'''Ivory''' is a hard, white material from the [[tusk]]s (traditionally from [[elephant]]s) and [[Tooth|teeth]] of animals, that consists mainly of [[dentine]], one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of [[mammal]]s is the same, regardless of the species of origin, but ivory contains structures of mineralised [[collagen]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Albéric |first1=M. |last2=Gourrier |first2=A. |last3=Wagermaier |first3=W. |last4=Fratzl |first4=P. |last5=Reiche |first5=I. |date=2018 |title=The three-dimensional arrangement of the mineralized collagen fibers in elephant ivory and its relation to mechanical and optical properties |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1742706118300862 |journal=Acta Biomaterialia |language=en |volume=72 |pages=342–351 |doi=10.1016/j.actbio.2018.02.016|pmid=29477454 |s2cid=4701276 }}</ref> The trade in certain teeth and tusks other than elephant is well established and widespread; therefore, "ivory" can correctly be used to describe any mammalian teeth or tusks of commercial interest which are large enough to be carved or [[scrimshaw]]ed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/resources/pub/E-Ivory-guide.pdf|title=Identification Guide for Ivory and Ivory Substitutes|publisher=Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)|access-date=30 April 2013}}</ref>
Besides natural ivory, ivory can also be produced synthetically,<ref name="mdpi.com">[https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/23/6538/pdf Bio-Inspired Synthetic Ivory as a Sustainable Material]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=American Chemical Society |date=2018-01-24 |title=Lab-grown horns and tusks could stop poaching—or not |url=https://phys.org/news/2018-01-lab-grown-horns-tusks-poachingor.html |access-date= |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | arxiv=1912.06481 | doi=10.3390/su11236538 | doi-access=free | title=Bio-Inspired Synthetic Ivory as a Sustainable Material for Piano Keys | year=2019 | last1=Fischer | first1=Dieter | last2=Parks | first2=Sarah | last3=Mannhart | first3=Jochen | journal=Sustainability | volume=11 | issue=23 | page=6538 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mushegian |first=Sasha |date=2017-05-10 |title=Appalled by the Illegal Trade in Elephant Ivory, a Biologist Decided to Make His Own |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/faking-elephant-ivory-180963226/ |access-date= |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/507040a | title=Synthetic ivory fails to stop illegal trade | year=2014 | last1=Zhou | first1=Zhao-Min | journal=Nature | volume=507 | issue=7490 | page=40 | pmid=24598629 | s2cid=12301652 | doi-access=free }}</ref> hence (unlike natural ivory) not requiring the retrieval of the material from animals. [[Tagua]] nuts can also be carved like ivory.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Armstrong |first=Franette |date=2014-07-30 |title=The Truth About Tusks |url=https://www.thedodo.com/the-truth-about-tusks-648225506.html |access-date= |website=The Dodo |language=en}}</ref>
The trade of [[finished goods]] of ivory products has its origins in the [[Indus Valley]]. Ivory is a main product that is seen in abundance and was used for trading in [[Harappan civilization]]. Finished ivory products that were seen in [[Harappa]]n sites include kohl sticks, [[pin]]s, awls, [[hook]]s, toggles, [[comb]]s, game pieces, [[dice]], inlay and other personal ornaments.
Ivory has been valued since ancient times in art or manufacturing for making a range of items from [[ivory carving]]s to [[false teeth]], [[piano keys]], [[Hand fan|fan]]s, and [[domino]]es.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna6875436|title=George Washington's false teeth not wooden|agency=Associated Press|access-date=2022-03-14}}</ref> Elephant ivory is the most important source, but ivory from [[mammoth]], [[walrus]], [[hippopotamus]], [[sperm whale]], [[orca]], [[narwhal]] and [[warthog]] are used as well.<ref name=Espinoza1991>{{cite book|author1=Espinoza, E. O.|author2=M. J. Mann|year=1991|title=Identification guide for ivory and ivory substitutes|location=Baltimore|publisher=World Wildlife Fund and Conservation Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fws.gov/lab/ivory_natural.php|title=Ivory Identification Guide – U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Forensics Laboratory|author=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Forensics Lab|work=fws.gov|access-date=2017-11-03|archive-date=2017-06-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623172133/https://www.fws.gov/lab/ivory_natural.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Elk]] also have two ivory teeth, which are believed to be the remnants of tusks from their ancestors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://coloradoelkbreeders.com/?page_id=41|title=Elk Facts|work=Colorado Elk Breeders|access-date=2017-11-03|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929102054/http://coloradoelkbreeders.com/?page_id=41|archive-date=2015-09-29}}</ref>
The national and international [[Wildlife trade|trade]] in natural ivory of [[threatened]] species such as [[African elephant|African]] and [[Asian elephant]]s is illegal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Rina Rani |last2=Goyal |first2=Surendra Prakash |last3=Khanna |first3=Param Pal |last4=Mukherjee |first4=Pulok Kumar |last5=Sukumar |first5=Raman |date=2006 |title=Using morphometric and analytical techniques to characterize elephant ivory |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0379073806003781 |journal=Forensic Science International |language=en |volume=162 |issue=1–3 |pages=144–151 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.06.028|pmid=16891073 }}</ref> The word ''ivory'' ultimately derives from the [[Egyptian language|ancient Egyptian]] {{lang|egy-Latn|[[wikt:ꜣbw#Noun 3|âb, âbu]]}} ('elephant'), through the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|ebor-}} or {{lang|la|[[wikt:ebur#Latin|ebur]]}}.<ref>''The New Shorter [[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (Oxford 1993), entry for "ivory."</ref>
==Uses==
{{Main|Ivory carving}}
[[File:Vierge a l'Enfant debout.jpg|thumb|A depiction of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] and the [[Child Jesus]] crafted in elephant ivory]]
[[File:Ivory tabernacle Louvre OA2587.jpg|thumb|An ivory [[tabernacle]] featuring the Madonna of Caress, France]]
Both the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] civilizations practiced ivory carving to make large quantities of high value works of art, precious religious objects, and decorative boxes for costly objects. Ivory was often used to form the white of the eyes of statues.
There is some evidence of either [[whale]] or [[walrus ivory]] used by the ancient Irish. [[Gaius Julius Solinus|Solinus]], a Roman writer in the 3rd century claimed that the Celtic peoples in Ireland would decorate their sword-hilts with the 'teeth of beasts that swim in the sea'. [[Adomnan of Iona]] wrote a story about [[St Columba]] giving a sword decorated with carved ivory as a gift that a penitent would bring to his master so he could redeem himself from slavery.<ref>Adomnan of Iona. Life of St Columba. Penguin books, 1995</ref>
The Syrian and North African elephant populations were reduced to extinction, probably due to the demand for ivory in the [[Classical Antiquity|Classical world]].<ref>Revello, Manuela, “Orientalising ivories from Italy”, in BAR, British Archaeological Reports, Proceedings of International Symposium of Mediterranean Archaeology, February 24–26, 2005, Università degli Studi di Chieti, 111–118.</ref>
The Chinese have long valued ivory for both art and utilitarian objects. Early reference to the Chinese export of ivory is recorded after the Chinese [[explorer]] [[Zhang Qian]] ventured to the west to form alliances to enable the eventual free movement of Chinese goods to the west; as early as the first century BC, ivory was moved along the [[Northern Silk Road]] for consumption by western nations.<ref>{{cite web|author=Hogan, C. M.|url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18006|title=Silk Road, North China|publisher=Megalithic.co.uk|year=2007|access-date=2017-11-03}}</ref> Southeast Asian kingdoms included tusks of the Indian elephant in their annual tribute caravans to China. Chinese craftsmen carved ivory to make everything from images of deities to the pipe stems and end pieces of [[opium pipes]].<ref>Martin, S. (2007). ''The Art of Opium Antiques''. Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai</ref>
In Japan, ivory carvings became popular in the 17th century during the [[Edo period]], and many ''[[netsuke]]'' and ''[[kiseru]]'', on which animals and legendary creatures were carved, and ''[[inro]]'', on which ivory was inlaid, were made. From the mid-1800s, the new Meiji government's policy of promoting and exporting arts and crafts led to the frequent display of elaborate ivory crafts at [[World's fair]]. Among them, the best works were admired because they were purchased by Western museums, wealthy people, and the [[Imperial house of Japan|Japanese Imperial Family]].<ref name = "murata88">Masayuki Murata. (2017) ''Introduction to Meiji Crafts'' pp. 88–89. Me no Me. {{ISBN|978-4907211110}}</ref>
The Buddhist cultures of [[Southeast Asia]], including [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]] and [[Cambodia]], traditionally harvested ivory from their domesticated elephants. Ivory was prized for containers due to its ability to keep an airtight seal. It was also commonly carved into elaborate seals utilized by officials to "sign" documents and decrees by stamping them with their unique official seal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asianart.com/articles/thai-ivory/index.html|publisher=Asian Art|author=Daniel Stiles|title=Ivory Carving in Thailand|access-date=2017-11-03}}</ref>
In Southeast Asian countries, where Muslim Malay peoples live, such as [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]] and the [[Philippines]], ivory was the material of choice for making the handles of [[kris]] daggers.
In the Philippines, ivory was also used to craft the faces and hands of Catholic icons and images of saints prevalent in the [[Santo (art)|Santero]] culture.
Tooth and tusk ivory can be carved into a vast variety of shapes and objects. Examples of modern carved ivory objects are [[okimono]], [[netsuke]]s, jewelry, flatware handles, furniture inlays, and piano keys. Additionally, [[warthog]] tusks, and teeth from [[sperm whale]]s, [[orca]]s and hippos can also be scrimshawed or superficially carved, thus retaining their morphologically recognizable shapes.
As trade with Africa expanded during the first part of the 1800s, ivory became readily available. Up to 90 percent of the ivory imported into the [[United States]] was processed, at one time, in [[Connecticut]] where [[Deep River, Connecticut|Deep River]] and [[Ivoryton]] in 1860s became the centers of ivory milling, in particular, due to the demand for ivory piano keys.<ref>[https://connecticuthistory.org/ivory-cutting-the-rise-and-decline-of-a-connecticut-industry/ Ivory Cutting: The Rise and Decline of a Connecticut Industry]</ref>
[[File:Ivory powder measure - DPLA - eaab2fc72b4fb9a1d2c4b7a5d31bffd1 (cropped).jpg|alt=An ivory powder measure from the collection of Conner Prairie|thumb|An ivory [[powder measure]] from the collection of Conner Prairie]]
Ivory usage in the last thirty years has moved towards mass production of souvenirs and jewelry. In Japan, the increase in wealth sparked consumption of solid ivory ''[[Hanko (stamp)|hanko]]'' – name seals – which before this time had been made of wood. These ''hanko'' can be carved out in a matter of seconds using machinery and were partly responsible for massive African elephant decline in the 1980s, when the African elephant population went from 1.3 million to around 600,000 in ten years.<ref name="To Save"/><ref name="A System">EIA (1989). [http://eia-international.org/a-system-of-extinction-the-african-elephant-disaster "A System of Extinction – the African Elephant Disaster".] [[Environmental Investigation Agency]], London.</ref>
==Consumption before plastics==
[[File:Decorated ivory.JPG|thumb|An elaborately carved ivory tusk in [[Sa'dabad Palace]], Iran]]
Before [[plastic]]s were introduced, ivory had many ornamental and practical uses, mainly because of the white color it presents when processed.  It was formerly used to make cutlery handles, [[billiard ball]]s, [[Key (instrument)|piano keys]], [[Great Highland Bagpipes|Scottish bagpipes]], buttons and a wide range of ornamental items.
Synthetic substitutes for ivory in the use of most of these items have been developed since 1800: the billiard industry challenged inventors to come up with an alternative material that could be [[Manufacturing|manufactured]];<ref name="Shamos 19992">{{Shamos 1999}}</ref>{{rp|17}} the piano industry abandoned ivory as a key covering material in the 1970s.
Ivory can be taken from dead animals&nbsp;– however, most ivory came from elephants that were killed for their tusks. For example, in 1930 to acquire 40 tons of ivory required the killing of approximately 700 elephants.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSgDAAAAMBAJ&q=Popular+Science+1930+plane+%22Popular+Science%22&pg=PA45 |title=Ivory Tusks by the Ton|journal=Popular Science|date=November 1930|page=45}}</ref> Other animals which are now endangered were also preyed upon, for example, hippos, which have very hard white ivory prized for making artificial teeth.<ref>{{cite book |author= |title=Tomlinson's Cyclopaedia of Useful Arts |title-link=Tomlinson's Cyclopaedia of Useful Arts |publisher=Virtue & Co |year=1866 |editor-last=Tomlinson |editor-first=C |location=London}} Vol I, pages 929–930.</ref> In the first half of the 20th century, Kenyan elephant herds were devastated because of demand for ivory, to be used for piano keys.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dyYDAAAAMBAJ&q=Popular+Science+motor+gun+boat&pg=PA32|title=Piano Keys From Elephant Tusk|date=January 1937|journal=Popular Science}}</ref>
During the [[Art Deco]] era from 1912 to 1940, dozens (if not hundreds) of European artists used ivory in the production of [[chryselephantine]] statues. Two of the most frequent users of ivory in their sculptured artworks were [[Ferdinand Preiss]] and [[Claire Colinet]].<ref name="Catley">{{cite book|last1=Catley|first1=Bryan|title=Art Deco and Other Figures|date=1978|publisher=Antique Collectors' Club Ltd.|location=Woodbridge, England|isbn=978-1-85149-382-1|pages=112–123|edition=1st}}</ref>
== Mechanical characteristics ==
While many uses of ivory are purely ornamental in nature, it often must be carved and manipulated into different shapes to achieve the desired form. Other applications, such as ivory piano keys, introduce repeated wear and surface handling of the material. It is therefore essential to consider the mechanical properties of ivory when designing alternatives.
Elephant tusks are the animal's incisors, so the composition of ivory is unsurprisingly similar to that of teeth in several other mammals. It is composed of dentine, a biomineral composite constructed from collagen fibers mineralized with [[hydroxyapatite]].<ref name=":0" /> This composite lends ivory the impressive mechanical properties—high stiffness, strength, hardness, and toughness—required for its use in the animal's day-to-day activities. Ivory has a measured hardness of 35 on the [[Vickers hardness test|Vickers scale]], exceeding that of bone. It also has a [[flexural modulus]] of 14 GPa, a [[flexural strength]] of 378 MPa a [[fracture toughness]] of 2.05 MPam<sup>1/2</sup>.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Vollrath |first1=Fritz |last2=Mi |first2=Ruixin |last3=Shah |first3=Darshil U. |date=January 2018 |title=Ivory as an Important Model Bio-composite |journal=Curator: The Museum Journal |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=95–110 |doi=10.1111/cura.12236 |issn=0011-3069|doi-access=free }}</ref> These measured values indicate that ivory mechanically outperforms most of its most common alternatives, including celluloid plastic and [[polyethylene terephthalate]].<ref name=":1" />
Ivory's mechanical properties result from the microstructure of the dentine tissue. It is thought that the structural arrangement of mineralized collagen fibers could contribute to the checkerboard-like Schreger pattern observed in polished ivory samples.<ref name=":0" /> This is often used as an attribute in ivory identification. As well as being an optical feature, the Schreger pattern could point towards a micropattern well-designed to prevent crack propagation by dispersing stresses.<ref name=":1" /> Additionally, this intricate microstructure lends a strong anisotropy to ivory's mechanical characteristics. Separate hardness measurements on three orthogonal tusk directions indicated that circumferential planes of tusk had up to 25% greater hardness than radial planes of the same specimen.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Cui |first1=F.Z. |last2=Wen |first2=H.B. |last3=Zhang |first3=H.B. |last4=Li |first4=H.D. |last5=Liu |first5=D.C. |date=December 1994 |title=Anisotropic indentation morphology and hardness of natural ivory |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0928-4931(94)90035-3 |journal=Materials Science and Engineering: C |volume=2 |issue=1–2 |pages=87–91 |doi=10.1016/0928-4931(94)90035-3 |issn=0928-4931}}</ref> During hardness testing, inelastic and elastic recovery was observed on circumferential planes while the radial planes displayed plastic deformation.<ref name=":2" /> This implies that ivory has directional [[viscoelasticity]]. These anisotropic properties can be explained by the reinforcement of collagen fibers in the composite oriented along the circumference.<ref name=":2" />
==Availability==
{{main|Ivory trade}}
[[File:Ivory trade.jpg|thumb|upright|Men with elephant tusks, [[Dar es Salaam]], {{circa|1900}}]]
Owing to the rapid decline in the populations of the animals that produce it, the importation and sale of ivory in many countries is banned or severely restricted. In the ten years preceding a decision in 1989 by [[CITES]] to ban international trade in African elephant ivory, the population of African elephants declined from 1.3 million to around 600,000. It was found by investigators from the [[Environmental Investigation Agency]] (EIA) that CITES sales of stockpiles from Singapore and Burundi (270 tonnes and 89.5 tonnes respectively) had created a system that increased the value of ivory on the international market, thus rewarding international smugglers and giving them the ability to control the trade and continue smuggling new ivory.<ref name="To Save"/><ref name="A System"/>
Since the ivory ban, some [[Southern Africa]]n countries have claimed their elephant populations are stable or increasing, and argued that ivory sales would support their conservation efforts. Other African countries oppose this position, stating that renewed ivory trading puts their own elephant populations under greater threat from [[Poaching|poacher]]s reacting to demand. CITES allowed the sale of 49 tonnes of ivory from Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana in 1997 to Japan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsi.org/assets/pdfs/Elephant_Related_Trade_Timeline.pdf|title=HSI Ivory trade timeline|publisher=Hsi.org|access-date=2017-11-03}}</ref><ref>"Living Proof", Dave Currey & Helen Moore, A report by Environmental Investigation Agency Sept 1994</ref>
In 2007, under pressure from the [[International Fund for Animal Welfare]], [[eBay]] banned all international sales of elephant-ivory products. The decision came after several mass slaughters of African elephants, most notably the [[2006 Zakouma elephant slaughter]] in [[Chad]]. The IFAW found that up to 90% of the elephant-ivory transactions on eBay violated their own wildlife policies and could potentially be illegal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=IFAW urge eBay to ban online ivory trade after investigation|url=https://www.antiquestradegazette.com/news/2007/ifaw-urge-ebay-to-ban-online-ivory-trade-after-investigation/|access-date=2021-07-31|website=Antiques Trade Gazette}}</ref> In October 2008, eBay expanded the ban, disallowing any sales of ivory on eBay.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-10-20|title=eBay To Institute Global Ban on Ivory Sales|url=https://www.ebayinc.com/stories/news/ebay-to-institute-global-ban-on-ivory-sales/|access-date=2021-07-31|website=www.ebayinc.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Jack Guy|title=Elephant ivory still being sold on eBay despite 12-year ban|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/05/business/ebay-ivory-sales-continue-scli-intl/index.html|access-date=2021-07-31|website=CNN|date=5 January 2021 }}</ref>
A more recent sale in 2008 of 108 tonnes from the three countries and South Africa took place to Japan and China.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Economist |title=Campaigners fear for elephants and their own credibility |date=July 2008 |url=http://www.economist.com/node/11751304}}</ref><ref>CITES summary record of Standing Committee 57 2008</ref> The inclusion of China as an "approved" importing country created enormous controversy, despite being supported by CITES, the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] and [[Traffic (conservation programme)|Traffic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.traffic.org/home/2008/10/28/first-ivory-auction-from-southern-africa-takes-place.html|title=Ivory sales|publisher=Traffic|date=2008-10-28|access-date=2017-11-03}}</ref> They argued that China had controls in place and the sale might depress prices. However, the price of ivory in China has skyrocketed.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna37167109|title=Ivory Trade threatens African Elephant|first1=Jason|last1=Strazjuso|first2=Michael|last2=Caesy|first3=William|last3=Foreman|publisher=NBC News|date=2010-05-15|access-date=2022-03-14}}</ref> Some believe this may be due to deliberate price fixing by those who bought the stockpile, echoing the warnings from the Japan Wildlife Conservation Society on price-fixing after sales to Japan in 1997,<ref>{{cite web|title=Elephant poaching? None of our business' Influence of Japanese ivory market on illegal transboundary ivory trade|publisher=Japan Tiger and Elephant Fund (JTEF)|date=March 2010|url=http://www.jtef.jp/english/graph/reportall.pdf|access-date=2011-12-03|archive-date=2022-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516063759/http://www.jtef.jp/english/graph/reportall.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> and monopoly given to traders who bought stockpiles from Burundi and Singapore in the 1980s.
A 2019 peer-reviewed study reported that the rate of African elephant poaching was in decline, with the annual poaching mortality rate peaking at over 10% in 2011 and falling to below 4% by 2017.<ref name="Hauenstein">{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09993-2 | title=African elephant poaching rates correlate with local poverty, national corruption and global ivory price | year=2019 | last1=Hauenstein | first1=Severin | last2=Kshatriya | first2=Mrigesh | last3=Blanc | first3=Julian | last4=Dormann | first4=Carsten F. | last5=Beale | first5=Colin M. | journal=Nature Communications | volume=10 | issue=1 | page=2242 | pmid=31138804 | pmc=6538616 | bibcode=2019NatCo..10.2242H }}</ref> The study found that the "annual poaching rates in 53 sites strongly correlate with proxies of ivory demand in the main Chinese markets, whereas between-country and between-site variation is strongly associated with indicators of corruption and poverty."<ref name=Hauenstein/> Based on these findings, the study authors recommended action to both reduce demand for ivory in China and other main markets and to decrease corruption and poverty in Africa.<ref name=Hauenstein/>
In 2006, nineteen African countries signed the "Accra Declaration" calling for a total ivory trade ban, and twenty range states attended a meeting in Kenya calling for a 20-year moratorium in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|title=African countries set to lock horns over ivory|date=2007-05-31|url=http://www.bt.com.bn/classification/life/features/2007/05/31/african_countries_set_to_lock_horns_over_ivory|publisher=Bt.com.bn|access-date=2017-11-03|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821125326/http://www.bt.com.bn/classification/life/features/2007/05/31/african_countries_set_to_lock_horns_over_ivory|archive-date=2016-08-21}}</ref>
Methods of obtaining ivory can be divided into:
* Shooting the elephant to take its tusks: this method is of concern here.
* Taking tusks from an elephant which has died of natural causes.
* Taking tusks from an elephant which has had to be put down for another reason, for example, severe [[arthritis]], or if its last [[molar teeth]] are worn out and can no longer chew its food.
* Among working elephants which use their tusks to carry logs, there is a best length for their tusks. In former times in India, often their tusks were cut back to this length (and often the shortened tusks' ends were bound in copper). This periodically freed pieces of ivory for the carving trade.
===Controversy and conservation issues===
The use and [[ivory trade|trade of elephant ivory]] have become controversial because they have contributed to seriously declining elephant populations in many countries. It is estimated that consumption in Great Britain alone in 1831 amounted to the deaths of nearly 4,000 elephants.  In 1975, the [[Asian elephant]] was placed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ([[CITES]]), which prevents international trade between member states of species that are threatened by trade. The [[African elephant]] was placed on Appendix I in January 1990. Since then, some southern African countries have had their populations of elephants "downlisted" to Appendix II, allowing the domestic trade of non-ivory items; there have also been two "one off" sales of ivory stockpiles.<ref name="To Save">"To Save An Elephant" by Allan Thornton & [[Dave Currey (environmentalist)|Dave Currey]], Doubleday 1991 {{ISBN|0-385-40111-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cites.org/gallery/species/mammal/asianelephant.html|title=Asian Elephant|publisher=Cites.org|access-date=2017-11-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/26/AR2007022600932.html|title=Increased Demand for Ivory Threatens Elephant Survival|newspaper=Washington Post|date=2007-02-27|access-date=2017-11-03|first=Marc|last=Kaufman}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=3879214|title=Lifting the Ivory Ban Called Premature |publisher=NPR |date=2002-10-31|access-date=2013-06-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/what/globalmarkets/wildlifetrade/faqs-elephant.html|title=WWF Wildlife Trade – elephant ivory FAQs|publisher=World Wildlife Fund|access-date=2017-11-03}}</ref>
In June 2015, more than a ton of [[confiscation|confiscated]] ivory was [[destruction of ivory|crushed]] in [[New York City]]'s [[Times Square]] by the Wildlife Conservation Society to send a message that the [[illegal trade]] will not be tolerated. The ivory, confiscated in New York and [[Philadelphia]], was sent up a conveyor belt into a rock crusher. The Wildlife Conservation Society has pointed out that the global ivory trade leads to the slaughter of up to 35,000 elephants a year in Africa. In June 2018, Conservative MEPs' Deputy Leader Jacqueline Foster MEP urged the EU to follow the UK's lead and introduce a tougher ivory ban across Europe.<ref>{{cite news |author=Foster |first1=Jacqueline |last2=McClarkin |first2=Emma |last3=Flack |first3=John |date=18 July 2018 |title=Foster, McClarkin, Flack: "4 things we've done to improve animal welfare" |url=http://conservativeeurope.com/news/4-things-we-ve-done-to-improve-animal-welfare |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802132008/http://conservativeeurope.com/news/4-things-we-ve-done-to-improve-animal-welfare |archive-date=2 August 2018 |access-date=2 August 2018 |work=Conservatives in the European Parliament}}</ref>
China was the biggest market for poached ivory but announced they would phase out the legal domestic manufacture and sale of ivory products in May 2015. In September of the same year, China and the U.S. announced they would "enact a nearly complete ban on the import and export of ivory."<ref>{{cite news|author=Ryan, F.|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/sep/26/china-and-us-agree-on-ivory-ban-in-bid-to-end-illegal-trade-globally|title=China and US agree on ivory ban in bid to end illegal trade globally|date=26 September 2015|access-date=2 November 2017|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> The Chinese market has a high degree of influence on the elephant population.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/sep/09/elephants-on-the-path-to-extinction-the-facts-chinese-language|title=事实上，大象已经濒临灭绝|trans-title=Elephants on the Path of Extinction: The facts|website=[[The Guardian]]|language=zh|date=8 September 2016|access-date=3 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/sep/09/why-the-guardian-is-publishing-its-elephant-reporting-in-Chinese|author=Isabel Hilton|title=Why the Guardian is publishing its elephant reporting in Chinese|website=The Guardian|date=9 September 2016|access-date=3 November 2017}}</ref>
===Alternatives===
====Fossil mammoth tusks====
Trade in the ivory from the tusks of dead [[woolly mammoth]]s frozen in the [[tundra]] has occurred for 300 years and continues to be legal{{Where|date=June 2024}}. Mammoth ivory is used today to make handcrafted knives and similar implements. Mammoth ivory is rare and costly because mammoths have been extinct for millennia, and scientists are hesitant to sell museum-worthy specimens in pieces.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/25/world/europe/25iht-mammoth.4.11415717.html|title=Trade in mammoth ivory, helped by global thaw, flourishes in Russia|newspaper=New York Times|date=2008-03-25|access-date=2017-11-03|first=Andrew E.|last=Kramer}}</ref> Some estimates suggest that 10 or more million mammoths are still buried in Siberia.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mammoths: giants of the ice age |last1=Lister|first1=Adrian|first2=Paul G.|last2=Bahn|year=2007|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25319-3}}</ref>
====Fossil walrus ivory====
Fossil [[walrus ivory]] from animals that died before 1972 is legal to buy and sell in the United States, unlike many other types of ivory.<ref>{{citation|title=Walrus ivory dos and don'ts|publisher=US Fish and Wildlife Service|type=pamphlet|url=https://www.fws.gov/alaska/fisheries/mmm/mtrp/pdf/factsheets/walrus_ivory_do_dont.pdf|access-date=2017-06-19|archive-date=2017-05-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526210032/https://www.fws.gov/alaska/fisheries/mmm/mtrp/pdf/factsheets/walrus_ivory_do_dont.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
==== Elk Ivory ====
The ancestors of elk had teeth, also known as elk ivory, that protruded outwards, similar to animals that have tusks, they were used as a protective measure against predators. Alongside the use of protective measures, the tusks were used during the mating season to be used for dominance, as their antlers were smaller back then compared to now. Evolution made the antlers bigger and the use of their tusks diminished as antlers grew, making them nothing more than teeth in their mouths.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 5 Fascinating Facts About Elk You Probably Didn't Know |url=https://www.beckandbulow.com/blogs/elk-meat/facts-about-elk |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=Beck & Bulow |language=en}}</ref>
These teeth have the same chemical compound as the ivory found in the highly used and poached elephant tusks,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ten Things That Might Surprise You About Elk |url=https://www.nationalforests.org/blog/ten-things-that-might-surprise-your-about-elk |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=www.nationalforests.org |language=en}}</ref> making it another good alternative when it comes to taking ivory as the teeth can be possibly removed without harming the elk themselves.
Among Indian tribes, elk teeth has major significance when it comes to jewelry. Among women, men wore them as well. Either through bracelets, earrings, and chokers, there was deeper meaning for both men and women within the tribes. For the women, it was believed that it would bring in good luck and good health. As for the men, it was seen that they were a good hunter.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Horowitz |first=Ellen |date=September–October 2012 |title=Rocky Mountain Ivory |url=https://fwp.mt.gov/binaries/content/assets/fwp/montana-outdoors/2012/ivories.pdf |magazine=Montana Outdoors |pages=16–19}}</ref>
====Synthetic ivory====
Ivory can also be produced synthetically.<ref name="mdpi.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-01-lab-grown-horns-tusks-poachingor.html|title=Lab-grown horns and tusks could stop poaching—or not|website=phys.org|date=24 January 2018|access-date=19 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Bio-Inspired Synthetic Ivory as a Sustainable Material for Piano Keys|journal=Sustainability|publisher=Cornwell University|date=13 December 2019|doi=10.3390/su11236538|arxiv=1912.06481|doi-access=free|last1=Fischer|first1=Dieter|last2=Parks|first2=Sarah|last3=Mannhart|first3=Jochen|volume=11|issue=23|page=6538}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/faking-elephant-ivory-180963226/|title=Appalled by the Illegal Trade in Elephant Ivory, a Biologist Decided to Make His Own|publisher=Smithsonian Magazine|date=10 May 2017|access-date=19 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Synthetic ivory fails to stop illegal trade|journal=Nature|date=5 March 2014|doi=10.1038/507040a |last1=Zhou |first1=Zhao-Min |volume=507 |issue=7490 |page=40 |pmid=24598629 |s2cid=12301652 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
====Nuts====
A species of hard nut is gaining popularity as a replacement for ivory, although its size limits its usability. It is sometimes called [[vegetable ivory]], or tagua, and is the [[seed]] [[endosperm]] of the [[ivory nut palm]] commonly found in coastal [[rainforest]]s of [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]] and [[Colombia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/04/26/vegivory/index.html|author=Lara Farrar|agency=CNN|title=Could plant ivory save elephants?|date=2005-04-26|access-date=2017-11-03}}</ref>
==Gallery==
<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:The Bull Leaper Knossos 1500BC.jpg|The Bull Leaper, an ivory figurine from the palace of [[Knossos]], [[Crete]], 1500 BC
File:AGMA Ivory Pyxis with Griffins Attacking Stags.jpg|Ancient Greek ivory [[Pyxis (vessel)|pyxis]] with griffins attacking stags. Late 15th century BC
File:Porphyrogenetus.jpg|A piece of carved ivory from the Pushkin Museum representing [[Christ]] blessing Emperor [[Constantine VII]]. Mid 10th century AD
File:Ivory cover of the Lorsch Gospels, c. 810, Carolingian, Victoria and Albert Museum.jpg|Ivory cover of the [[Codex Aureus of Lorsch]], {{circa|810}}, [[Carolingian dynasty]], [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
File:Madonna with Child, anonymous Filipino artist, 1600s AD, ivory, silver - Cathedral of Seville - Sevilla, Spain - DSC07641.JPG|Madonna with Child from the [[Philippines]], 1600s
File:BigUnTusks6184w.jpg|[[Pig]] tusks
File:กรับพวง.jpg|Ivory musical instrument from Thailand
File:Elhafen Battle of Hannibal and Scipio.jpg|''Battle of Hannibal and Scipio (Alexander's victory over Poros)'', by [[Ignaz Elhafen]], {{circa|1700}}, [[Warsaw Royal Castle]]
File:Mammoth ivory hg.jpg|Section through the ivory tusk of a [[mammoth]]
File:Casket ivory Louvre UCAD4417.jpg|Casket, ivory and silver, Caliphate of Córdoba, 966
File:Ivory carving from Indonesia (40186139422).jpg|Carving from Indonesia
File:Morgan Casket MET DP100742.jpg|The ''[[Morgan Casket]]'', an 11th-century ivory casket attributed to Southern Italy, currently in the collection of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
File:Head of the Virgin Mary from the Philippines, 18th-19th century, carved ivory with inlaid glass eyes.JPG|Virgin Mary head from the Philippines, 18th–19th century
File:Ivory bead A.jpg|A cubical ivory bead or game piece from the collections of the [[Hunt Museum]]
File:Model of Ngo Mon, ivory, wood, mother of pearl - Museum of Vietnamese History - Ho Chi Minh City - DSC06236.JPG|Ngo Mon ivory model from Vietnam
File:Royal Peacock Barge LACMA M.82.154.jpg|A carved ivory [[barge]] from [[Murshidabad district|Murshidabad]], [[India]]
File:Casket with two drawers, North India, 18th-19th century, ivory - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01539.JPG|Ivory casket with two drawers, North India
File:Ivory workers in Calcutta (c. 1903).jpg|Ivory workers in [[Calcutta]], {{circa|1903}}
</gallery>
==See also==
* [[Biobased economy]]
* [[Ivory tower]]
* [[Jim Nyamu]]
* [[RAL 1014 Ivory]]
* [[Schreger line]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{commons category|Ivory}}
* [http://www.traffic.org/home/2012/12/20/new-report-confirms-major-surge-in-ivory-smuggling-in-2011.html TRAFFIC; "New report confirms 'major surge' in ivory smuggling in 2011"]
* [http://www.eia-international.org/blood-ivory-exposing-the-myth-of-a-regulated-market EIA "Blood Ivory: Exposing the myth of a regulated market"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130126062037/http://www.feosl.org/2013/01/10/blood-ivory-to-buddhist-temples/ Federation of Environmental Organizations Sri Lanka: "Blood Ivory to Buddhist Temples?"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081017112001/http://www.bwsmigel.info/GEOL.115.ESSAYS/Gemology.Ivory.html Gemological properties of ivory]
* [http://www.internationalivorysociety.com The International Ivory Society]
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Ivory |volume=15 |pages=92–98 |first=Alfred |last=Maskell |short=1}} Includes several diagrams.
{{Elephants}}
{{Jewellery}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Ivory| ]]
[[Category:Sculpture materials]]