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{{Infobox settlement
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'''Jaghbub''' ({{langx|ar|الجغبوب}}) ({{langx|it|Giarabub}}) is a remote desert village in the [[Al Jaghbub Oasis]] in the eastern [[Libyan Desert]]. It is actually closer to the [[Egypt]]ian town of [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]] than to any Libyan town of note. The oasis is located in [[Butnan District]] and was the administrative seat of the Jaghbub [[Basic People's Congress (administrative division)|Basic People's Congress]]. The town remains highly obscure, in spite of the substantial colonial history the city holds. The town was the birthplace of [[Idris of Libya]] on 12 March 1890.
==Geography==
The Jaghbub oasis is located in a deep [[Depression (geology)|depression]] that extends below sea level. This depression, an area lower than the surrounding region, reaches to about -10 m.<ref>[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/ Elevation data by NASA's SRTM]</ref> The basin of the region is made up of a thin layer of sandy clay.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghoneim |first1=Eman |last2=Benedetti |first2=Michael |last3=El-Baz |first3=Farouk |title=An integrated remote sensing and GIS analysis of the Kufrah Paleoriver, Eastern Sahara |journal=Geomorphology |date=15 February 2012 |volume=139-140 |pages=242–257 |doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.10.025 |bibcode=2012Geomo.139..242G }}</ref> The sand here has the ability to accumulate into waves.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Suwihli |first1=Somaia |title=Geospatial Analyses of Seismic Hazards and Risk Perception in Libya |date=July 2020 |url=https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/3717/ }}</ref>
==History==
Jaghbub was founded in the year 1856.<ref name=Cresti2022>{{cite journal |last1=Cresti |first1=Federico |title=Al-Jaghbūb, the Libyan Holy City of the Ṭarīqa al-Sanūsīya: A Photographic Reconstruction |journal=Africa |volume=4 |issue=1 |date=2022 |pages=37–66, 129 |id={{ProQuest|2682862482}} |doi=10.23744/4436 }}</ref>
===Senussi origins===
In the year of its founding, [[Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi]] established an important [[Zawiya (institution)|Zawiya]] there.<ref name="Ammann-1968">{{cite thesis |last1=Ammann |first1=Karl Albert |title=Italo-Egyptian relations 1922-1937 |date=1968 |hdl=10938/1404 |pages=61-64, 69, 71, 77 }}</ref> The ''Encyclopedia of Africa'' points to him being the founder of Jaghbub.<ref>{{cite book |last=Calvert |first=John |title=Libya: Muhammad Al-Sanusi (c. 1787-1859) and the Sanusiyya |work=Encyclopedia of African History |editor1-first=Kevin |editor1-last=Shillington |publisher=Routledge |edition=1st |date=2004 |url=https://go.openathens.net/redirector/fsu.edu?url=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.credoreference.com%2Fcontent%2Fentry%2Froutafricanhistory%2Flibya_muhammad_al_sanusi_c_1787_1859_and_the_sanusiyya%2F0%3FinstitutionId%3D2057 |access-date=31 March 2023}}</ref> As a result, Jaghbub became the metaphorical capital for the [[Senussi]] movement, and remained so from 1856 to 1895.<ref name="Ahmida-1990">{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|303968030}} |last1=Ahmida |first1=Ali Abdullatif |date=1990 |title=For God, homeland, and clan: Regional and social origins of collaboration and anticolonial resistance, Libya, 1830-1932 }}</ref> The role of Jaghbub as a capital was demonstrated through how regional Senussi sheiks would meet annually in Jaghbub to report and discuss the situation at the zawiyas they ran.<ref name="Ellis-2018">{{cite book |last1=Ellis |first1=Matthew H. |title=Desert Borderland: The Making of Modern Egypt and Libya |date=2018 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-1-5036-0557-2 }}{{page needed|date=May 2023}}</ref> Senussi ended up dying in Jaghbub in 1859.<ref name=Cresti2022/> Jaghbub became a particularly important for the Senussi movement because its location and nomads in the region that were attracted to the Senussi message.<ref name="Zalewski-2008">{{cite journal |id={{Gale|A218606471}} |last1=Zalewski |first1=Zygmunt Stefan |title=The activity of the Islamic order al-Sanusiyah at the turn of the 19th century |journal=Forum on Public Policy |date=22 June 2008 }}</ref> Running Senussi operations from Jaghbub also allowed their work to be disentangled from that of any particular tribe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Worsley |first1=Peter M. |title=The Analysis of Rebellion and Revolution in Modern British Social Anthropology |journal=Science & Society |date=1961 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=26–37 |jstor=40400713 }}</ref> Moreover, the town was along a pilgrimage route to Mecca,<ref name="Passon-2020">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-00145-2_5 |chapter=On Major Trans-Saharan Trails |title=Across the Sahara |year=2020 |last1=Passon |first1=Jacqueline |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Meike |pages=93–163 |isbn=978-3-030-00144-5 |s2cid=226690578 }}</ref> and additional sources point to Jaghbub being founded along a trade route.<ref name="Ammann-1968" /> The Senussi's would actively work there to spread their religious influence.<ref name="Lohnes-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Lohnes |first1=Jonathan M. |title=Reluctant Militants: Colonialism, Territory, and Sanusi Resistance on the Ottoman-Saharan Frontier |journal=Journal of Historical Sociology |date=September 2021 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=466–478 |doi=10.1002/johs.12348 |s2cid=238737906 }}</ref>
The Zawiya founded by Senussi became a site of Islamic intellectual learning and Senussi military training, including horseback training.<ref name="Ahmida-1990"/><ref name="Ahmida-2005">{{cite book |last1=Ahmida |first1=Ali Abdullatif |title=Forgotten Voices: Power and Agency in Colonial and Postcolonial Libya |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-78442-2 |pages=25, 50 }}</ref> It would draw in students all across North Africa.<ref name="Lohnes-2021" /> Notable figures, such as the poet Rajab Hamad Buhwaish al-Minifi, were educated in Jaghbub.<ref name="Ahmida-2005" /> In addition, [[Omar al-Mukhtar]] was provided with military training in Jaghbub as well.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} Moreover, Abd al-Mut'al would also stay in Jaghbub for some time.<ref name="Osman-1982">{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|2238626999}} |last1=Osman |first1=Abdullahi M |date=1982 |title=The Origin and Spread of a Religious Order: The Makashfiya of the Sudan }}</ref>
In the 1880s Jaghbub was receiving smuggled weapons shipments from the Ottoman Empire through the [[Bedouin tribes]].<ref name="Minawi-2016">{{cite book |doi=10.1515/9780804799294 |title=The Ottoman Scramble for Africa |year=2016 |last1=Minawi |first1=Mostafa |isbn=978-0-8047-9929-4 }}{{page needed|date=May 2023}}</ref> During this time, the Turkish governor of Awjala grew angry with how tribespeople were sending massive quantities of grain to Jaghbub as tribute to the Senussis when they often resisted to paying the Ottoman Empire taxes.<ref name="Ahmida-1990"/>
Through the latter part of the 19th century, Jaghbub began to attract a small population of migrants escaping Ottoman expropriation of their property in [[Cyrenacia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lorenz |first1=Fredrick Walter |title=The 'Second Egypt': Cretan Refugees, Agricultural Development, and Frontier Expansion in Ottoman Cyrenaica, 1897–1904 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |date=February 2021 |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=89–105 |doi=10.1017/S0020743820000975 |s2cid=232349800 }}</ref>
===Before World War I===
Both the Ottoman and British Empires laid claim on Jaghbub in the years before the First World War.<ref name="Matsumoto-Best-2007">{{cite journal |last1=Matsumoto-Best |first1=Saho |title=British and Italian Imperial Rivalry in the Mediterranean, 1912–14: The Case of Egypt |journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft |date=6 June 2007 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=297–314 |doi=10.1080/09592290701322408 |s2cid=154006320 }}</ref> Through the duration of the Italo-Turkish war, the British Empire considered Jaghbub to be British territory.<ref>{{cite magazine |id={{ProQuest|1294644257}} |last1=Cana |first1=Frank R |title=Egyptain and Sudan Frontiers |magazine=The Contemporary Review |volume=105 |date=1914 |page=688 }}</ref> By 1912, Jaghbub had reemerged as a center of Senussi power. This began diplomatic disputes between Britain and Italy over control of the town as the Senussis were actively resisting Italy from the town.<ref name="Matsumoto-Best-2007" />
In a meeting between [[Enver Pasha|Enver Bey]], Sayyid Ahmad, and other Ottoman officers at Jaghbub, the Ottoman officers decided to continue resistance against Italian forces, though they could only do so up to 1913.<ref name="Bugaighis-2011">{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|865835536}} |last1=Bugaighis |first1=Saad |date=2011 |title=The Italian Invasion of Libya in 1911 and the Nineteen Years of Libyan Resistance |pages=274, 331, 334 }}</ref>
In 1913, it was uncovered that Dr. Izzet-el-Gindi, sent by the [[Abbas II of Egypt|Egyptian Khedive]] had been acting on behalf of the Italians in secret negotiations between the Khedive of Egypt and Italy to transfer Jaghbub to Italy. More specifically, the Khedive was discovered to have been bribed for doing this. Rodd would later note to the Italian government to stop using the Khedive for the negotiations. Robert Vansittart warned the Khedive that he would be removed from power if something like that were to happen again. Grey would note to an ambassador in London that Britain would not cede Jaghbub as a part of a deal.<ref name="Matsumoto-Best-2007" />
===During and after World War I===
Sayyid arrested Al-Baruni and Hilal in a prison in Jaghbub after Hilal agreed to a plot rejected by Ahmad al-Sharif to get the Senussis to fight the British. However, in 1916 Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif agreed to open an Ottoman front against the British, sending 500 troops through Jaghbub to occupy several oases.<ref name="Bugaighis-2011"/>
The Italians were concerned by the possibility that British corporations might start building infrastructure in Jaghbub, which could counter Italian influence.<ref name="Ellis-2018"/> In response, debates would begin to ensue over what to do about Jaghbub.
In 1920, [[Idris of Libya|Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi]] was able to make a deal with Italy to make himself Amir of Cyrenacia and which would give autonomy to Jaghbub along with other towns. In return, they agreed to the Legge Fondamentale of Italy, to not tax locals beyond what was normal, and to disband their armies. However, they never followed through with disbanding their armies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Lisa |title=The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1820-1980 |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-691-05462-9 |page=208 }}</ref> These events occurred within the context of the background towards the start of the [[Second Italo-Senussi War]].
===Senussi Suppression===
During Italy's suppression campaign and in the context of the [[Second Italo-Senussi War]], Jahgbub became a target for being known to be a major center of rebel organization. Jaghbub had been known to be a conduit for cross border supply transfers for the Senussis from Egyptian sources.<ref name="Ammann-1968" />
As a result, a diplomatic situation arose between Italy and Egypt, with Italy claiming that Egypt was not supposed to own Jaghbub according to a map made around 1841.<ref name="Ammann-1968" /> Amman has argued that Italian desire to control Jaghbub came from the desire to quell the Senussi movement, which would not be possible without controlling the city.<ref name="Ammann-1968" /> Egypt repeatedly emphasized their concerns for not wanting to cede Jaghbub to Italy, citing multiple issues over potential Arab unrest in Egypt, concerns that they would be losing a strategic location, that the promise was made by the British during the first world war, and that the desire to quell the Senussis could be an excuse to demand other Egyptian oasis towns.<ref name="Ammann-1968" /> From the British perspective, people like Fathi considered Jaghbub to be Egyptian lands from a French and a German map. However, Fathi was willing to trade Jaghbub for a piece of territory.<ref name="Ellis-2018"/> As the diplomatic conflict persisted, Italy made their intentions to occupy Jaghbub through force clear.<ref name="Ellis-2018"/>
Initially, the British were completely hostile to the idea of transferring Jaghbub to Italy, though they promised to not "encroach" on Italian lands.<ref name="Ellis-2018"/> Complicating the situation was how the British had promised to transfer Jaghbub to Italian control in exchange for Italy ceding the Sallum region to Egypt, but under what treaty is unclear.<ref name="Ammann-1968" /><ref name="Donnarumma-1948">{{cite thesis |last1=Donnarumma |first1=Carmen F |title=The Anglo-Italian Entente, 1923-1929 |date=1948 |url=https://research.library.fordham.edu/dissertations/AAI28443216/ }}</ref> A dissertation by Donnarumma argues this occurs within the context of Italy and Britain sharing the Mediterranean sea.<ref name="Donnarumma-1948"/> Eventually, a treaty was signed between Italy and Egypt which transferred Jaghbub to Italy on December 6, 1925.<ref name="Ellis-2018"/> This treaty was sometimes referred to as the treaty of Jaghbub.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farag |first1=Mona |title=Egyptian National Security and the Perils of Egyptian–Libyan Border Management |journal=Contemporary Arab Affairs |date=1 March 2020 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=23–45 |id={{Gale|A622907113}} |doi=10.1525/caa.2020.13.1.23 |s2cid=216402748 }}</ref> To avoid Bedouin arrest, the Egyptian government asked the Italians to respect the religion of the locals and to protect the grand Senussi's tomb.<ref name="Ellis-2018"/> After the treaty was signed, debate persisted on whether the locals of Jaghbub would be able to choose their nationality.<ref name="Ellis-2018"/> In their historical analysis, Rappas argues that the deal was agreed to by Britain to improve relations with Italy in an effort to check French power in Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rappas |first1=Alexis |title=The Transnational Formation of Imperial Rule on the Margins of Europe: 1 British Cyprus and the Italian Dodecanese in the Interwar Period |journal=European History Quarterly |date=July 2015 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=467–505 |doi=10.1177/0265691415587684 |s2cid=152185863 }}</ref> Around the same year the treaty was signed, the capital for Senussi operations was moved from Jaghbub to [[Kufra]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Evans-Pritchard |first1=E. E. |title=The Distribution of Sanusi Lodges |journal=Africa |date=October 1945 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=183–187 |doi=10.2307/1157070 |jstor=1157070 |s2cid=144408685 }}</ref>
After Italy retained control over Jaghbub, they began to construct the [[Frontier Wire (Libya)|Frontier Wire]], which was a 270&nbsp;km long wall that stretched from the Mediterranean coastline all the way to Jaghbub.<ref name=Ebner2018>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-62923-0_10 |chapter=Fascist Violence and the 'Ethnic Reconstruction' of Cyrenaica (Libya), 1922–1934 |title=Violence, Colonialism and Empire in the Modern World |year=2018 |last1=Ebner |first1=Michael R. |pages=197–218 |isbn=978-3-319-62922-3 }}</ref> This wall was made in part from barbed wire.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Rud |editor1-first=Søren |editor2-last=Ivarsson |editor2-first=Søren |title=Rethinking the Colonial State |date=2017 |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing |isbn=978-1-78743-003-7 }}{{page needed|date=May 2023}}</ref> The construction of the wall allowed the Italians to control cross border movement supporting Alwad Ali and prevent rebel leaders, particularly Omar Mukhtar, from escaping into Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-92342-0 |title=Tribal Politics in the Borderland of Egypt and Libya |year=2019 |last1=Hüsken |first1=Thomas |isbn=978-3-319-92341-3 |s2cid=158911242 }}{{page needed|date=May 2023}}</ref> Around early 1926, with the help of the Frontier Wire, the Italians were able to successfully occupy Jaghbub, quelling the Senussi armed movement. In 1928, Senussis flocked from Kufra as the Italians had managed to occupy the region, moving back to Jaghbub.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Cyrenaica: Culture and Antiquities |journal=Nature |date=February 1941 |volume=147 |issue=3721 |pages=223–225 |doi=10.1038/147223a0 |bibcode=1941Natur.147..223. |s2cid=4140166 |doi-access=free }}</ref> By 1932, Jaghbub began to lose its prominence as a trading center.<ref name=Cresti2022/>
===World War II===
The [[Siege of Giarabub]] was fought between [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] and [[Fascist Italy (1922–43)|Italian]] forces during [[World War II]]. Italian and Libyan colonial troops led by Colonel [[Salvatore Castagna]] resisted a siege by mostly Australian troops for three months before being forced to surrender on 23 March 1941.<ref>{{cite web |last=Chen |first=C. Peter |title=Battle of Giarabub |url=https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=252 |access-date=2017-01-03 |work=World War II Database}}</ref> The resistance of the Italian troops was celebrated by the [[Italian Fascism|fascist regime]] and used to minimize the military defeat in [[Cyrenaica]].
===Postwar===
During WWII, questions arose over how to assign [[colonial territory]] of the Italian empire postwar. Though some suggestions were made to transfer Jaghbub back into Egyptian control as an autonomous province, an Egyptian ambassador to Britain and a British North African military leader were hesitant to do this out of fear of angering Arab populations and being perceived as harsh.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=Saul |title=Desert Conquests: Early British Planning on the Future of the Italian Colonies, June 1940–September 1943 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=2014 |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=1006–1026 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2014.933424 |jstor=24585703 |s2cid=144849154 |url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/desert-conquests(d5f46b6c-8628-4b0f-b0cc-c6030aeee71c).html }}</ref>
Italian oil company CORI, which was partnered with [[Agip|AGIP]] acquired a grant to purchase vast swaths of Libyan land southwest of Jaghbub, where it eventually struck oil.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fauri |first1=Francesca |last2=Strangio |first2=Donatella |title=The economic bases of migration from Italy: the distinct cases of Tunisia and Libya (1880s–1960s) |journal=The Journal of North African Studies |date=3 May 2020 |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=447–471 |doi=10.1080/13629387.2019.1608188 |s2cid=155740296 |hdl=11585/685740 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
===Under the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya===
During the 1977 war between [[Egyptian-Libyan War|Egypt and Libya]], Jaghbub was the site of a prominent battle which killed 2000 people.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hodson |first1=H. V. |title=The Annual Register |date=1978 |publisher=Longmans |isbn=978-0-582-50225-3 |oclc=872989720 |url=https://archive.org/details/annualregisterwo0000unse_u7y4 }}{{page needed|date=May 2023}}</ref>
During [[Gaddafi|Gaddafi's]] reign, the graves of historical figures in Jaghbub were targeted. The Senussi college and mosque there were ordered to be demolished in 1984.<ref name=Cresti2022/> As a part of the demolition process, the bodies of Senussi and his brother in law were either excavated and dumped in the desert or were stolen.<ref name=Cresti2022/> A news article written by Michel Cousins asserted that this move failed, as around 2011 pro-Senussi sentiment was likely the highest it had been since the 1960s.<ref>{{cite news |id={{ProQuest|870394803}} |last1=Cousins |first1=Michel |title=The return of the king in Libya's radical uprising? |newspaper=McClatchy-Tribune Business News |date=7 June 2011 }}</ref>
== Historical sites and architecture ==
Cresti points to all of the religious historical sites in Jaghbub being destroyed in concert with the grave desecration of the Senussis ordered by Gaddafi.<ref name=Cresti2022/> They also note that photos of these religious sites however can be obtained at the [[Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Roma|National Central Library of Rome]].<ref name=Cresti2022/>
The Zawiya in Jaghbub underwent significant redesign circa the 1870s, which changed its size, shape, and added a wall to the city.<ref name=Cresti2022/> This wall had a distinct trapezoidal shape from an aerial view.<ref name=Cresti2022/> The Qabba there, which housed the tombs of the grand Senussi and his family members, was ornamented with a large dome and was described by Cresti as being the iconic focus of the city.<ref name=Cresti2022/> The tomb of the grand Senussi in particular was housed in gold-like covering.<ref name=Cresti2022/> A minaret also used to be part of the religious complex.<ref name=Cresti2022/> Cresti points to the source of the architectural design of the Qabba to being associated with revivalist-religious Egyptian architecture.<ref name=Cresti2022/>
Old photos of the city show the presence of the existence of old windmills no longer in use.<ref name=Cresti2022/> In addition, one of the structures in Jaghbub that utilized an arch was given a stucco decoration after Italy asserted control over the city.<ref name=Cresti2022/>
== Historical controversy and disputes ==
It appears to be a critical and repeatedly mentioned narrative within secondary sources, and particularly in a dissertation by Ahmida that Senussi moved over to Jaghbub in 1856 in order to escape Ottoman surveillance or interference.<ref name="Ahmida-1990"/> However, Osman disputes this, arguing that Jaghbub's location in the path of camel caravan mecca pilgrimage route is why the Senussis chose it as a base of their operations.<ref name="Osman-1982"/> Yet Shibeika claimed this move was done in light of worsening relations with the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Shibeika |first1=M. E. |title=The Sudan and the Mahdist Revolution of 1881–1885 |date=1949 |url=https://repository.royalholloway.ac.uk/items/4155426b-3f80-47da-b08a-81b48721bc0d/1/ }}</ref> However, this was disputed by Minawi and Ladjal, arguing relations were improving between the Senussis and the Ottomans.<ref name="Minawi-2016"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ladjal |first1=Tarek |title=Tribe and state in the history of modern Libya: A Khaldunian reading of the development of Libya in the modern era 1711–2011 |journal=Cogent Arts & Humanities |date=31 December 2016 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1183278 |doi=10.1080/23311983.2016.1183278 |s2cid=55852902 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Miwawi further elaborated on this situation by explaining that Mahdi Al-Senussi wanted to escape the challenge to authority he had over the Bedouin tribes presented by the kaymakamlik created in Jaghbub, which was operated by Tripoli administrators.<ref name="Minawi-2016" /> Other sources have insisted that this escape was done to flee the conflicts that Senussi faced over his heretical views.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Feder |first1=Milton |title=Great power relations in the origin and development of the kingdom of Libya |date=1960 |oclc=61546047 }}</ref> Everd-Pritchard argued that the move to Jaghbub may have occurred since the Senussis did not consider the Ottomans to be the Caliphs of Islam.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Evans-Pritchard |first1=E. E. |title=The Sanusi of Cyrenaica |journal=Africa |date=April 1945 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=61–79 |doi=10.2307/1156202 |jstor=1156202 |s2cid=162744794 }}</ref> Vandewalle stands out among other sources for asserting that Jaghbub became a capital for Senussi operations beginning in 1855, and for asserting that the location was chosen to avoid French confrontation.<ref name="Vandewalle-2012">{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139094580 |title=A History of Modern Libya |year=2012 |last1=Vandewalle |first1=Dirk |isbn=978-1-107-01939-3 }}{{page needed|date=May 2023}}</ref> Zalewski insisted that the initial move was done to avoid Ottoman, French, and Egyptian involvement in their affairs.<ref name="Zalewski-2008"/>
===Senussi suppression===
One source claims that the British directed the Italians to negotiate the border issue with the Egyptians themselves.<ref name="Donnarumma-1948"/> However, seeing that British officials like Fathi also had an interest in the issue, more research and secondary sources are needed to clarify what is meant.<ref name="Ellis-2018"/> Alternatively, this could be an outright contradiction in which one of the sources is incorrect.
There appears to be agreement that Jaghbub was promised to the Italians by the British, but under what treaty has been disputed. Donnarumma claims this promise was made under the treaty of London in return for transferring the Sallum area to Egypt.<ref name="Donnarumma-1948" /> However, Ammann clarifies the town was promised under the Milner Scialoia agreement of 1920, with Milner and Sciaola agreeing to it because of the London pact.<ref name="Vandewalle-2012" />
===Move away from Jaghbub===
Some sources claim that the move away from Jaghbub was done to avoid disputes and situations with the Ottomans.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} However, other sources particularly stress this move was more the Senussis seeing greater opportunity to expand their influence from making this move.<ref name="Passon-2020"/> Klaus suggests part of this opportunity came from the desire to strengthen critical trade routes, which would have been difficult to do from Jaghbub.<ref name="Passon-2020" />
The question of who or what made the transition of moving the Senussi capital from Jaghbub to Kufra in 1895 also remains disputed. Some sources credit the move to Sheikh al-Mahdi.<ref name="Bugaighis-2011"/> However, Minawi stands out for implying the date of the move was 1896, and that mosque members incentivized the move to Kufra by moving there.<ref name="Minawi-2016" />
===Length of the Fence===
There was even variation between sources on the length of the fence. Vandewalle claimed that the fence was 300&nbsp;km long.<ref name="Vandewalle-2012" /> However, the majority of others point to the fence being 270&nbsp;km long. One source that supports this assertion written by Michael Ebner claims the length of the fence to be 270&nbsp;km long.<ref name=Ebner2018/>
== Miscellaneous ==
===Demographics===
Jaghbub has grown from roughly 466 people in 1950, 884 in 1970, 2,220 people in 2000, to around 2,960 people with a median age of 29 as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Al Jaghbūb, Libya – statistics 2023 |url=https://zhujiworld.com/ly/39387-al-jaghbub/ |access-date=2023-05-03 |website=zhujiworld.com}}{{unreliable source?|date=May 2023}}</ref>
===Food===
Jaghbub was an oasis associated with providing dates to caravan travelers.<ref name="Zurqani Mikhailova Post et al 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Zurqani |first1=Hamdi A. |last2=Mikhailova |first2=Elena A. |last3=Post |first3=Christopher J. |last4=Schlautman |first4=Mark A. |last5=Elhawej |first5=Azzeddin R. |title=A Review of Libyan Soil Databases for Use within an Ecosystem Services Framework |journal=Land |date=18 May 2019 |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=82 |id={{ProQuest|2582830724}} |doi=10.3390/land8050082 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Exploration===
In 1926, an Italian geographer and geologist Desai went to Jaghbub to learn more about geology and geography there.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goudie |first1=Andrew |title=Desert exploration in North Africa: some generalisations |journal=Libyan Studies |date=November 2019 |volume=50 |pages=59–62 |doi=10.1017/lis.2019.9 |s2cid=210632464 }}</ref> James Holland was the first documented American to have traveled to Jaghbub, where he took pictures of famous Senussi figures.<ref>{{cite news |id={{ProQuest|457712746}} |last1=Jad'on |first1=Kelly |title=Award-Winning Photojournalist, James Holland Publishes Memoir |newspaper=McClatchy-Tribune Business News |date=14 August 2009 }}</ref>
===References in Popular Culture===
The construction of the fence was dramatized in the film ''[[Lion of the Desert]]''. In addition, the movie ''[[Giarabub (film)|Giarabub]]'' made in 1942 depicted the conquest of an Italian fort in Libya.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sorlin |first1=Pierre |title=Italian National Cinema, 1896-1996 |date=1996 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-11697-8 }}{{page needed|date=May 2023}}</ref> Also, Giarabub is the subject of an Italian WW2 war song "La Sagra di Giarabub".<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLdPRpNtoxE La Sagra di Giarabub (Youtube) consulted on 9 dec 2023]</ref>
== See also ==
* [[List of North African airfields during World War II]]
* [[Butnan District]]
* [[Districts of Libya]]
* [[Al Jaghbub Oasis]]
* [[Bedouin]]
== Recommended readings ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Pargeter |first1=Alison |title=Localism and radicalization in North Africa: local factors and the development of political Islam in Morocco, Tunisia and Libya |journal=International Affairs |date=September 2009 |volume=85 |issue=5 |pages=1031–1044 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2009.00845.x }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kane |first1=Susan |last2=Raynolds |first2=William |last3=Carrier |first3=Sam |title=American Mission activities in Libya 2005–16: report |journal=Libyan Studies |date=November 2017 |volume=48 |pages=135–147 |doi=10.1017/lis.2017.3 |s2cid=133939683 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Salem |first1=Zenhom El-Said |title=Subsurface thermal regime to delineate the paleo-groundwater flow system in an arid area, Al Kufra, Libya |journal=NRIAG Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics |date=December 2016 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=451–462 |doi=10.1016/J.Nrjag.2016.10.002 |bibcode=2016JAsGe...5..451S |s2cid=132919496 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Weisbrode |first1=Kenneth |title=International Administration Between the Wars: A Reappraisal |journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft |date=16 April 2009 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=30–49 |doi=10.1080/09592290902813114 |s2cid=153670593 }}
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Braun i Passon |first=Klaus i Jacqueline |title=Across the Sahara: Tracks, Trade, and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Libya |publisher=Springer Cham |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-030-00144-5 |edition=1st |pages=158, 243}}
* {{Cite web |last=Chen |first=Peter, C. |title=Battle of Giarabub |url=https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=252 |access-date=April 19, 2023 |website=World War II Database}}
{{Al Butnan}}
{{National Parks of Libya}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Populated places in Butnan District|J]]
[[Category:Oases of Libya|J]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Libya]]
[[Category:Baladiyat of Libya]]
[[Category:Villages in Libya]]