View source for Jazz

{{short description|Musical style and genre}}
{{Other uses}}
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{{Use American English|date=November 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox music genre
| name              = Jazz
| native_name       =
| etymology         = See: [[Jazz (word)]]
| other_names       =
| image             =
| alt               =
| caption           =
| stylistic_origins = {{flatlist|
*[[Blues]]
*[[ragtime]] (including [[classical ragtime]])
*[[spirituals]]
*[[Folk music|folk]]
*[[American march music|marches]]
*[[Classical music|classical European music]]
*[[West African music]] }}
| cultural_origins  = Late 19th century, [[New Orleans]], U.S.
| instruments       = {{hlist|[[Double bass]]|[[Drum kit|drums]]|[[guitar]] (typically [[electric guitar]])|[[piano]]|[[saxophone]]|[[trumpet]]|[[clarinet]]|[[trombone]]|[[tuba]]|[[Singing|vocals]]|[[vibraphone]]|[[Hammond organ]]|[[harmonica]]}}
| derivatives       = *[[Rock and roll]]
*[[rock music|rock]]
*[[jump blues]]
*[[traditional pop]]
*[[reggae]]
*[[rhythm and blues]]
*[[ska]]
*[[funk]]
*[[hip hop music|hip hop]]
*[[house music|house]]
*[[neo soul]]
*[[lounge music|lounge]]
| subgenres         = {{Hidden
| header = Subgenres
| content =
* [[jazz fusion]]
*[[jazz poetry]]
* [[Avant-garde jazz]]
* [[bebop]]
* [[big band]]
* [[chamber jazz]]
* [[cool jazz]]
* [[free jazz]]
* [[gypsy jazz]]
* [[hard bop]]
* [[Latin jazz]]
* [[mainstream jazz]]
* [[modal jazz]]
* [[M-Base]]
* [[Neo-bop jazz|neo-bop]]
* [[orchestral jazz]]
* [[post-bop]]
* [[progressive jazz]]
* [[soul jazz]]
* [[straight-ahead jazz]]
* [[Swing music|swing]]
* [[third stream]]
* [[Trad jazz|traditional jazz]]
}}
| subgenrelist      = List of jazz genres
| fusiongenres      = {{Hidden
| header = Fusion genres
| content =
* [[Acid jazz]]
* [[Afrobeat]]
* [[Afro fusion]]
* [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]]
* [[bossa nova]]
* [[dansband]]
* [[folk jazz]]
* [[free funk]]
* [[humppa]]
* [[Indo jazz]]
* [[jam band]]
* [[jazzcore]]
* [[jazz-funk]]
* [[jazz fusion]]
* [[jazz rap]]
* [[kwela]]
* [[Mambo (music)|Mambo]]
* [[Manila Sound]]
* [[nu jazz]]
* [[neo soul]]
* [[punk jazz]]
* [[ska jazz]]
* [[smooth jazz]]
* [[swing revival]]
* [[Western swing]]
* [[world fusion]]
}}
| regional_scenes   = {{Hidden
| header = Regional scenes
| content =
* [[Australian jazz|Australia]]
* [[Armenian jazz|Armenia]]
* [[Azerbaijani jazz|Azerbaijan]]
* [[Balkan jazz|Balkans]] ([[Bulgarian jazz|Bulgaria]])
* [[Baltimore jazz|Baltimore]]
* [[Belgian jazz|Belgium]]
* [[Brazilian jazz|Brazil]]
* [[Canadian jazz|Canada]]
* [[Dixieland#Chicago style|Chicago]]
* [[Cuban jazz|Cuba]]
* [[Danish jazz|Denmark]]
* [[French jazz|France]]
* [[German jazz|Germany]]
* [[Mini-jazz|Haiti]]
* [[Indian jazz|India]]
* [[Iranian jazz|Iran]]
* [[Italian jazz|Italy]]
* [[Japanese jazz|Japan]]
* [[Kansas City jazz|Kansas City]]
* [[Music of Malawi|Malawi]]
* [[Mexican jazz|Mexico]]
* [[Dutch jazz|Netherlands]]
* [[Dixieland|New Orleans]]
* [[Orchestral jazz|New York City]]
* [[Polish jazz|Poland]]
* [[South African jazz|South Africa]] ([[Cape jazz]])
* [[Spanish jazz|Spain]]
* [[Swedish jazz|Sweden]]
* [[British jazz|UK]]
* [[West Coast jazz|U.S. West Coast]]
* [[music of Washington, D.C.|Washington, D.C.]]
}}
| local_scenes      =
| other_topics      = {{flatlist|
* [[List of jazz clubs|Jazz clubs]]
* [[Jazz standard]]
* [[Jazz (word)]] }}
| footnotes         =
| current_year      = yes
}}
'''Jazz''' is a [[music genre]] that originated in the [[African Americans|African-American]] communities of [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]], in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with its roots in [[blues]], [[ragtime]], European [[harmony]], African rhythmic rituals, [[spirituals]], [[hymns]], [[march (music)|marches]], [[vaudeville]] song, and [[dance music]]. Since the 1920s [[Jazz Age]], it has been recognized as a major form of musical expression in [[traditional music|traditional]] and [[popular music]]. Jazz is characterized by [[swung note|swing]] and [[blue note]]s, complex [[Chord (music)|chords]], [[Call and response (music)|call and response vocals]], [[polyrhythm]]s and [[Jazz improvisation|improvisation]].
As jazz spread around the world, it drew on national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave rise to different styles. [[Dixieland|New Orleans jazz]] began in the early 1910s, combining earlier [[brass band]] marches, French [[quadrille]]s, [[biguine]], ragtime and blues with collective [[polyphony|polyphonic]] [[Musical improvisation|improvisation]]. However, jazz did not begin as a single musical tradition in New Orleans or elsewhere.<ref name="Hennessey">{{Cite thesis |last=Hennessey |first=Thomas |year=1973 |title=From Jazz to Swing: Black Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1917–1935 |type=Ph.D. dissertation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvskngEACAAJ |publisher=[[Northwestern University]] |page=470 }}</ref> In the 1930s, arranged dance-oriented [[Swing (music)|swing]] [[big band]]s, [[Kansas City jazz]] (a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style), and [[gypsy jazz]] (a style that emphasized [[Bal-musette|musette]] waltzes) were the prominent styles. [[Bebop]] emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music" which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. [[Cool jazz]] developed near the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ventura |first=David |date=2018-05-22 |title=WJEC & EDUQAS GCSE Music Revision Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_haDwAAQBAJ&dq=Cool+jazz+developed+near+the+end+of+the+1940s&pg=PT36 |publisher=Rhinegold Education |isbn=978-1-78759-098-4 |language=en}}</ref>
The mid-1950s saw the emergence of [[hard bop]], which introduced influences from [[rhythm and blues]], [[gospel music|gospel]], and blues to small groups and particularly to saxophone and piano. [[Modal jazz]] developed in the late 1950s, using the [[musical mode|mode]], or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation, as did [[free jazz]], which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal structures. [[Jazz fusion|Jazz-rock fusion]] appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with [[rock music]]'s rhythms, electric instruments, and highly amplified stage sound. In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called [[smooth jazz]] became successful, garnering significant radio airplay. Other styles and genres abound in the 21st century, such as [[Latin jazz|Latin]] and [[Afro-Cuban jazz]].
{{TOC limit|3}}
== <span id="Definition"></span> Etymology and definition==
{{Main|Jazz (word)|l1=''Jazz'' (word)}}
[[File:EubieBlake.jpg|thumb|American jazz composer, lyricist, and pianist [[Eubie Blake]] made an early contribution to the genre's etymology.]]
The origin of the word ''[[jazz (word)|jazz]]'' has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to ''jasm'', a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning {{gloss|pep, energy}}.<ref name="baseball" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2018-02-26 |title=Where Did 'Jazz,' the Word, Come From? Follow a Trail of Clues, in Deep Dive with Lewis Porter |url=https://www.wbgo.org/music/2018-02-26/where-did-jazz-the-word-come-from-follow-a-trail-of-clues-in-deep-dive-with-lewis-porter |access-date=2024-02-09 |website=WBGO |language=en}}</ref> The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' in which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a 'jazz ball' "because it wobbles and you simply can't do anything with it".<ref name="baseball">{{cite news |last1=Wilton |first1=Dave |title=The Baseball Origin of 'Jazz' |url=http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2015/04/jazz-baseball/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407014127/http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2015/04/jazz-baseball/  |archive-date=April 7, 2015 |access-date=20 June 2016 |work=OxfordDictionaries.com |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=6 April 2015 }}</ref><ref name=":2" />
The use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the ''[[Chicago Daily Tribune]].''<ref name=":2" /><ref name=CDT>{{Cite news |url=http://www.omf.paris-sorbonne.fr/IMG/pdf/1915_article_Seagrove.pdf |title=Blues is Jazz and Jazz Is Blues |last=Seagrove |first=Gordon |newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune|Chicago Daily Tribune]] |date=July 11, 1915 |access-date=November 4, 2011  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130130212/http://www.omf.paris-sorbonne.fr/IMG/pdf/1915_article_Seagrove.pdf |archive-date=January 30, 2012 |via=[[Paris-Sorbonne University]] }} Archived at Observatoire Musical Français, [[Paris-Sorbonne University]].</ref> Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14, 1916, ''[[Times-Picayune]]'' article about "jas bands".<ref>{{cite web|author=Benjamin Zimmer|author-link=Benjamin Zimmer| title="Jazz": A Tale of Three Cities |url=http://www.visualthesaurus.com/cm/wordroutes/1876/ |website=Word Routes |publisher=The Visual Thesaurus|date=June 8, 2009 |access-date=June 8, 2009 }}</ref> In an interview with [[National Public Radio]], musician [[Eubie Blake]] offered his recollections of the slang connotations of the term, saying: "When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z'. It wasn't called that. It was spelled 'J-A-S-S'. That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't say it in front of ladies."<ref name="Vitale">{{cite news |last1=Vitale |first1=Tom |title=The Musical That Ushered In The Jazz Age Gets Its Own Musical |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/03/19/470879654/the-musical-that-ushered-in-the-jazz-age-gets-its-own-musical |website=NPR |access-date= January 2, 2019 |date= March 19, 2016}}</ref> The [[American Dialect Society]] named it the [[word of the year|Word of the 20th Century]].<ref name="century">{{cite web |title=1999 Words of the Year, Word of the 1990s, Word of the 20th Century, Word of the Millennium |url=https://www.americandialect.org/1999_words_of_the_year_word_of_the_1990s_word_of_the_20th_century |website=American Dialect Society |access-date=2 January 2019 |date=13 January 2000}}</ref>
[[File:Albert Gleizes, 1915, Composition pour Jazz, oil on cardboard, 73 x 73 cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York.jpg|thumb|[[Albert Gleizes]], 1915, ''[[Composition for "Jazz"]]'' from the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York]]
Jazz is difficult to define because it encompasses a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years, from [[ragtime]] to [[rock music|rock]]-infused [[Jazz fusion|fusion]]. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But critic [[Joachim-Ernst Berendt]] argues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader,<ref name="Joachim E. Berendt 1981. Page 371">Joachim E. Berendt. ''The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond''. Translated by H. and B. Bredigkeit with Dan Morgenstern. 1981. Lawrence Hill Books, p. 371.</ref> defining jazz as a "form of [[art music]] which originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music"<ref name="Berendt1964">{{cite book|last=Berendt|first=Joachim Ernst|title=The New Jazz Book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pjgYAQAAIAAJ|access-date=4 August 2013 |year=1964 |publisher=P. Owen |page=278 }}</ref> and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a "special relationship to time defined as 'swing{{'"}}. Jazz involves "a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role" and contains a "sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician".<ref name="Joachim E. Berendt 1981. Page 371"/>
A broader definition that encompasses different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson: "it is music that includes qualities such as swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being open to different musical possibilities".<ref name="Elsdon" /> Krin Gibbard argued that "jazz is a construct" which designates "a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition".<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Cooke, Mervyn |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_e1x9 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Jazz |author2=Horn, David G. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-66388-5 |location=New York |pages=1, 6 |url-access=registration}}</ref> [[Duke Ellington]], one of jazz's most famous figures, said, "It's all music."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Luebbers |first=Johannes |date=September 8, 2008 |title=It's All Music |journal=Resonate}}</ref>
==Elements==
===Improvisation===
{{Main|Jazz improvisation}}
Although jazz is considered difficult to define, in part because it contains many subgenres, [[musical improvisation|improvisation]] is one of its defining elements. The centrality of improvisation is attributed to the influence of earlier forms of music such as [[blues]], a form of folk music which arose in part from the [[work song]]s and [[field holler]]s of African-American slaves on plantations. These work songs were commonly structured around a repetitive [[Call and response (music)|call-and-response]] pattern, but early blues was also improvisational. [[Classical music]] performance is evaluated more by its fidelity to the [[sheet music|musical score]], with less attention given to interpretation, ornamentation, and accompaniment. The classical performer's goal is to play the composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz is often characterized by the product of interaction and collaboration, placing less value on the contribution of the composer, if there is one, and more on the performer.{{sfn|Giddins|1998|p=70}} The jazz performer interprets a tune in individual ways, never playing the same composition twice. Depending on the performer's mood, experience, and interaction with band members or audience members, the performer may change melodies, harmonies, and time signatures.{{sfn|Giddins|1998|p=89}}
In early [[Dixieland]], a.k.a. New Orleans jazz, performers took turns playing melodies and improvising [[countermelodies]]. In the [[Swing music|swing]] era of the 1920s–40s, [[big bands]] relied more on [[arrangements]] which were written or learned by ear and memorized. Soloists improvised within these arrangements. In the [[bebop]] era of the 1940s, big bands gave way to small groups and minimal arrangements in which the melody was stated briefly at the beginning and most of the piece was improvised. [[Modal jazz]] abandoned [[chord progressions]] to allow musicians to improvise even more. In many forms of jazz, a soloist is supported by a [[rhythm section]] of one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar), double bass, and drums. The rhythm section plays chords and rhythms that outline the composition structure and complement the soloist.<ref>[http://www.drumbook.org/drum-lessons/jazz-drums/jazz-drumming/ Jazz Drum Lessons] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027050049/http://www.drumbook.org/drum-lessons/jazz-drums/jazz-drumming/ |date=October 27, 2010 }} – Drumbook.org</ref> In [[avant-garde jazz|avant-garde]] and [[free jazz]], the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales, and meters.
===Traditionalism===
Since the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a "tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form".<ref name="Elsdon">{{harvnb|Elsdon|2003}}</ref> Regarding the [[Dixieland jazz]] revival of the 1940s, Black musicians rejected it as being shallow nostalgia entertainment for white audiences.<ref name="Baraka">Baraka, Amiri (1999). ''[[iarchive:bluespeoplenegrobara|Blues People: Negro Music in White America]]''. Harper Perennial. {{ISBN|978-0688184742}}.</ref><ref name="Davis">Davis, Miles & Troupe, Quincy (1990). ''[[iarchive:milesautobiograp00davi|Miles: The Autobiography]]''. Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|0-671-63504-2}}.</ref> On the other hand, traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, and [[jazz fusion]] as forms of debasement and betrayal. An alternative view is that jazz can absorb and transform diverse musical styles.<ref name="gilbert">{{cite web|url=http://www.metrotimes.com/music/features/19/12/jazz.html |title=Jazz Inc.: The bottom line threatens the creative line in corporate America's approach to music |access-date=2001-07-20  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010720153446/http://www.metrotimes.com/music/features/19/12/jazz.html |archive-date=2001-07-20 }} by Andrew Gilbert, ''[[Metro Times]]'', December 23, 1998.</ref> By avoiding the creation of norms, jazz allows avant-garde styles to emerge.<ref name="Elsdon" />
== Diversity in jazz ==
===Jazz and race===
For some African Americans, jazz has drawn attention to African-American contributions to culture and history. For others, jazz is a reminder of "an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions".<ref>{{cite news|title=African American Musicians Reflect On 'What Is This Thing Called Jazz?' In New Book By UC Professor |newspaper=[[Oakland Post (California)|Oakland Post]]|date=20 March 2002 |volume=38 |issue=79 |page=7 |id={{ProQuest|367372060}} }}</ref> [[Amiri Baraka]] argues that there is a "white jazz" genre that expresses [[Whiteness studies|whiteness]].<ref name="BarakaReader">{{cite book |last1=Baraka |first1=Amiri |url=https://archive.org/details/leroijonesamirib00bara |title=The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka reader |date=2000 |publisher=Thunder's Mouth Press |isbn=978-1-56025-238-2 |edition=2nd |page=42 |url-access=registration}}</ref> White jazz musicians appeared in the Midwest and in other areas throughout the U.S. [[Papa Jack Laine]], who ran the Reliance band in New Orleans in the 1910s, was called "the father of white jazz".<ref name="Yurochko">{{cite book |last1=Yurochko |first1=Bob |title=A Short History of Jazz |date=1993 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8304-1595-3 |page=10 |quote=He is known as the 'Father of White Jazz'}}</ref> The [[Original Dixieland Jazz Band]], whose members were white, were the first jazz group to record, and [[Bix Beiderbecke]] was one of the most prominent jazz soloists of the 1920s.<ref name="Larkin">{{cite book |last1=Larkin |first1=Philip |title=Jazz Writings |url=https://archive.org/details/jazzwritingsessa00lark |url-access=limited |date=2004 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-7699-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/jazzwritingsessa00lark/page/94 94]}}</ref> The Chicago Style was developed by white musicians such as [[Eddie Condon]], [[Bud Freeman]], [[Jimmy McPartland]], and [[Dave Tough]]. Others from Chicago such as [[Benny Goodman]] and [[Gene Krupa]] became leading members of swing during the 1930s.<ref name="midwest">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n3Xn7jMx1RYC&pg=PA569 |title=The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00349-2 |editor1-last=Cayton |editor1-first=Andrew R.L. |page=569 |editor2-last=Sisson |editor2-first=Richard |editor3-last=Zacher |editor3-first=Chris}}</ref> Many bands included both Black and white musicians. These musicians helped change attitudes toward race in the U.S.<ref name="HowHentoff">{{cite news |last1=Hentoff |first1=Nat |title=How Jazz Helped Hasten the Civil Rights Movement |work=The Wall Street Journal |date= January 15, 2009}}</ref>
===Roles of women===
{{Main|Women in jazz}}
[[File:Ethel_Waters_-_William_P._Gottlieb.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[Ethel Waters]] sang "[[Stormy Weather (song)|Stormy Weather]]" at the [[Cotton Club]]. ]]
Female jazz performers and composers have contributed to jazz throughout its history. Although [[Betty Carter]], [[Ella Fitzgerald]], [[Adelaide Hall]], [[Billie Holiday]], [[Peggy Lee]], [[Abbey Lincoln]], [[Anita O'Day]], [[Dinah Washington]], and [[Ethel Waters]] were recognized for their vocal talent, less familiar were bandleaders, composers, and instrumentalists such as pianist [[Lil Hardin Armstrong]], trumpeter [[Valaida Snow]], and songwriters [[Irene Higginbotham]] and [[Dorothy Fields]]. Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s, drawing particular recognition on piano.<ref name=Murph>{{cite web |title=NPR's Jazz Profiles: Women In Jazz, Part 1 |url= https://news.npr.org/programs/jazzprofiles/archive/women_1.html |website=NPR |access-date= June 16, 2021 |first=John |last=Murph }}</ref>
When male jazz musicians were drafted during World War II, many [[all-female bands]] replaced them.<ref name=Murph /> [[The International Sweethearts of Rhythm]], which was founded in 1937, was a popular band that became the first all-female integrated band in the U.S. and the first to travel with the [[USO]], touring Europe in 1945. Women were members of the big bands of [[Woody Herman]] and [[Gerald Wilson]]. Beginning in the 1950s, many women jazz instrumentalists were prominent, some sustaining long careers. Some of the most distinctive improvisers, composers, and bandleaders in jazz have been women.<ref name="Placksin">{{cite book |last1=Placksin |first1=Sally |title=Jazzwomen |date=1985 |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |location=London}}</ref> Trombonist [[Melba Liston]] is acknowledged as the first female horn player to work in major bands and to make a real impact on jazz, not only as a musician but also as a respected composer and arranger, particularly through her collaborations with [[Randy Weston]] from the late 1950s into the 1990s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1999-apr-28-mn-31919-story.html|title=Melba Liston; Jazz Trombonist, Composer|first=Myrna|last=Oliver|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=April 28, 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.cocosse-journal.org/2019/04/the-first-woman-trombonist-in-big-bands.html|title=The First Woman Trombonist in Big Bands – Melba Liston, 1926–1999|first=S. |last=Beckett|journal=Cocosse Journal|date=April 2019}}</ref>
===Jews in jazz===
{{Main|Jews in jazz|Jewish women in jazz}}
[[File:Al_Jolson_-_publicity.JPG|thumb|right|175px|[[Al Jolson]] in 1929]]
Jewish Americans played a significant role in jazz. As jazz spread, it developed to encompass many different cultures, and the work of Jewish composers in [[Tin Pan Alley]] helped shape the many different sounds that jazz came to incorporate.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/9-jews-who-changed-jazz-1.5352736 |title=Nine Jews Who Changed the Sound of Jazz |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113023418/https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/9-jews-who-changed-jazz-1.5352736 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Jewish Americans were able to thrive in Jazz because of the probationary whiteness that they were allotted at the time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marin|first=Reva|date=December 2015|title=Representations of Identity in Jewish Jazz Autobiography|journal=Canadian Review of American Studies|volume=45|issue=3|pages=323–353|doi=10.3138/cras.2015.s10|s2cid=162673161|issn=0007-7720}}</ref> George Bornstein wrote that African Americans were sympathetic to the plight of the Jewish American and vice versa. As disenfranchised minorities themselves, Jewish composers of popular music saw themselves as natural allies with African Americans.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/music/howard-reich/ct-ent-jazz-body-soul-0207-story.html |title='Body and Soul' doc explores links between jazz and Jews |website=[[Chicago Tribune]] |date=February 6, 2018 |access-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113014541/https://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/music/howard-reich/ct-ent-jazz-body-soul-0207-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
''[[The Jazz Singer]]'' with [[Al Jolson]] is one example of how Jewish Americans were able to bring jazz, music that African Americans developed, into popular culture.<ref>{{Citation|title=The jazz singer.|isbn=978-1-78543-944-5|oclc=970692281}}</ref> [[Benny Goodman]] was a vital Jewish American to the progression of Jazz. Goodman was the leader of a racially integrated band named King of Swing. His jazz concert in the [[Carnegie Hall]] in 1938 was the first ever to be played there. The concert was described by Bruce Eder as "the single most important jazz or popular music concert in history".<ref>{{Citation|last=Goodman|first=Benny|title=Benny Goodman live at Carnegie Hall, 1938: complete.|date=2006|publisher=AVID Entertainment|oclc=213466278}}</ref>
[[Shep Fields]] also helped to popularize "Sweet" Jazz music through his appearances and [[Big band remote]] broadcasts from such landmark venues as Chicago's [[Palmer House Hilton|Palmer House]], Broadway's [[Paramount Theater (New York City)|Paramount Theater]] and the Starlight Roof at the famed [[Waldorf-Astoria Hotel]]. He entertained audiences with a light elegant musical style which remained popular with audiences for nearly three decades from the 1930s until the late 1950s.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=oaYrAAAAIBAJ&sjid=5fwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6717,4906729&dq=broadcast+hotel+shep+fields&hl=en The Telegraph, Feb. 24, 1981 p. 9 Shep Field Obituary on Google]</ref><ref name="The Big Bands - 4th Edition">[https://books.google.com/books?id=gj4DAwAAQBAJ&q=Shep+Fields&pg=PT325 ''The Big Bands - 4th Edition''] George T. Simon. Schirmer Trade Books, London, 2012 {{ISBN|978-0-85712-812-6}} "Shep Fields Biography" on Books.google.com</ref><ref name="nyt1">{{cite web |title=SHEP FIELDS, LEADER OF BIG BAND KNOWEN FOR RIPPLING RYTHEM (Published 1981) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/02/24/obituaries/shep-fields-leader-of-big-band-knowen-for-rippling-rythem.html |website=The New York Times |accessdate=28 October 2020 |date=24 February 1981}}</ref>
== Early development ==
Jazz originated in the late-19th to early-20th century.  It developed out of many forms of music, including [[blues]], [[ragtime]], European [[harmony]], African rhythmic rituals, [[spirituals]], [[hymns]], [[march (music)|marches]], [[vaudeville]] song, and [[dance music]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/jazz |title=Jazz |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=September 2, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm|title=Jazz Origins in New Orleans – New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=March 19, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sbg.ac.at/ges/people/wagnleitner/usa3/nov26frame.htm |title='The Jazz Book': A Map of Jazz Styles |last=Germuska |first=Joe |publisher=WNUR-FM, Northwestern University |via=[[University of Salzburg]] |access-date=March 19, 2017}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |title=On the Instrumental Origins of Jazz |last=Roth |first=Russell |journal=[[American Quarterly]] |issn=0003-0678 |date=1952 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=305–16 |doi=10.2307/3031415 |jstor=3031415 }}</ref><ref>Ferris, Jean (1993). ''America's Musical Landscape''. Brown and Benchmark. {{ISBN|0-697-12516-5}}. pp. 228, 233.</ref><ref>Starr, Larry, and Christopher Waterman. [http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/publication/2008/08/20080812212457eaifas0.7410852.html#axzz3QeZKNVtc "Popular Jazz and Swing: America's Original Art Form"] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203024847/http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/publication/2008/08/20080812212457eaifas0.7410852.html#axzz3QeZKNVtc |date=February 3, 2017 }}). IIP Digital. Oxford University Press, 26 July 2008.</ref><ref name=encyclopedia>{{cite book |author1= Tammy L. Kernodle |author2= Horace Maxile |author3= Emmett G. Price III |date=2010 |title=Encyclopedia of African American Music |publisher=Greenwood |page=426}}</ref>{{citekill|date=November 2024}} It also incorporated interpretations of American and European classical music, entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture.<ref name=listverse>{{cite web|title=15 Most Influential Jazz Artists|url=http://listverse.com/2010/02/27/15-most-influential-jazz-artists/|publisher=Listverse|access-date= July 27, 2014|date=February 27, 2010}}</ref> Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer's personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre.<ref name=definejazz>{{cite web|last1=Criswell |first1=Chad |title=What Is a Jazz Band? |url=https://suite.io/chad-criswell/88s26b |access-date= July 25, 2014  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728201650/https://suite.io/chad-criswell/88s26b |archive-date= July 28, 2014 }}</ref>
===Blended African and European music sensibilities===
[[File:Dancing in Congo Square - Edward Winsor Kemble, 1886.jpg|thumb|right|Dance in Congo Square in the late 1700s, artist's conception by [[E. W. Kemble]] from a century later]]
[[File:Slave dance to banjo, 1780s.jpg|thumb|right|The late 18th-century painting ''[[The Old Plantation]]'', depicting African-Americans on a [[Virginia]] plantation dancing to percussion and a banjo]]
By the 18th century, slaves in the New Orleans area gathered socially at a special market, in an area which later became known as [[Congo Square]], famous for its African dances.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm|title = Jazz Origins in New Orleans|publisher = U.S. National Park Service|website = New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park|date = April 14, 2015}}</ref>
By 1866, the [[Atlantic slave trade]] had brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/|title=How Many Slaves Landed in the U.S.? |website =The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross |date= January 2, 2013|publisher=PBS|url-status=live  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921182328/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/ |archive-date=September 21, 2015|author-link=Henry Louis Gates Jr|last = Gates|first = Henry Louis Jr.}}</ref> The slaves came largely from [[West Africa]] and the greater [[Congo River]] basin and brought strong musical traditions with them.{{sfn|Cooke|1999|pp=7–9}} The African traditions primarily use a single-line melody and [[Call and response (music)|call-and-response]] pattern, and the rhythms have a [[cross-beat|counter-metric]] structure and reflect African speech patterns.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=DeVeaux|first=Scott|date=1991|title=Constructing the Jazz Tradition: Jazz Historiography|jstor=3041812|journal=[[Black American Literature Forum]]|volume=25|issue=3|pages=525–560|doi=10.2307/3041812|issn=0148-6179 }}</ref>
An 1885 account says that they were making strange music (Creole) on an equally strange variety of 'instruments'—washboards, washtubs, jugs, boxes beaten with sticks or bones and a drum made by stretching skin over a flour-barrel.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Hearn2017">{{cite book|last=Hearn|first=Lafcadio |title=Delphi Complete Works of Lafcadio Hearn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XlwvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT4079|access-date= January 2, 2019|date= August 3, 2017|publisher=Delphi Classics|isbn=978-1-78656-090-2|pages=4079–}}</ref>
Lavish festivals with African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo Square, in New Orleans until 1843.<ref>"The primary instrument for a cultural music expression was a long narrow African drum. It came in various sized from three to eight feet long and had previously been banned in the South by whites. Other instruments used were the triangle, a jawbone, and early ancestors to the banjo. Many types of dances were performed in Congo Square, including the 'flat-footed-shuffle' and the 'Bamboula.'" [http://www.aaregistry.org/historic_events/view/congo-square-soul-new-orleans African American Registry.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202083601/http://aaregistry.org/historic_events/view/congo-square-soul-new-orleans |date=December 2, 2014 }}</ref> There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States. [[Robert Palmer (American writer)|Robert Palmer]] said of percussive slave music:
<blockquote>Usually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the year's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered "gumbo box", apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion. There are quite a few [accounts] from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850. Some of the earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War.{{sfn|Palmer|1981|p=37}}
</blockquote>
Another influence came from the harmonic style of [[hymn]]s of the church, which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music as [[spirituals]].{{sfn|Cooke|1999|pp=14–17, 27–28}} The [[origins of the blues]] are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as [[Gerhard Kubik]] points out, whereas the spirituals are [[Homophony|homophonic]], rural blues and early jazz "was largely based on concepts of [[heterophony]]".{{sfn|Kubik|1999|p=112}}
[[File:Virginia Minstrels, 1843.jpg|thumb|right|The blackface [[Virginia Minstrels]] in 1843, featuring tambourine, fiddle, banjo, and [[Bones (instrument)|bones]]]]
During the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own [[cakewalk]] dances. In turn, European American [[minstrel show]] performers in [[blackface]] popularized the music internationally, combining [[syncopation]] with European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer [[Louis Moreau Gottschalk]] adapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African American cultures.
===African rhythmic retention===
{{See also|Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony}}
The [[Black Codes (United States)|Black Codes]] outlawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the Caribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through "body rhythms" such as stomping, clapping, and [[Juba dance|patting juba dancing]].{{sfn|Palmer|1981|p=39}}
In the opinion of jazz historian [[Ernest Borneman]], what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was "Afro-Latin music", similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time.<ref>Borneman, Ernest (1969: 104). "Jazz and the Creole Tradition." ''Jazz Research'' I: 99–112.</ref> A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as [[tresillo (rhythm)|''tresillo'']] is a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as the [[Afro-Caribbean music|Afro-Caribbean]] folk dances performed in New Orleans Congo Square and Gottschalk's compositions (for example "Souvenirs From Havana" (1859)). Tresillo (shown below) is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic [[cell (music)|cell]] in [[sub-Saharan African music traditions]] and the music of the [[African Diaspora]].<ref name="Sublette">{{cite book |last1=Sublette |first1=Ned |title=The World That Made New Orleans: From Spanish Silver to Congo Square |date=2008 |publisher=Chicago Review Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1-55652-958-0 |pages=124, 287}}</ref>{{sfn|Peñalosa|2010|pp=38–46}}
:<score override_audio="Tresillo divisive.mid">
\new RhythmicStaff {
\clef percussion
\time 2/4
\repeat volta 2 { c8. c16 r8[ c] }
}
</score>
[[Tresillo (rhythm)|Tresillo]] is heard prominently in New Orleans [[second line (parades)|second line]] music and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present.<ref>Wynton Marsalis states that [[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]] is the New Orleans "[[clave (rhythm)|clave]]". "Wynton Marsalis part 2." ''60 Minutes''. CBS News (June 26, 2011).</ref> "By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions," jazz historian [[Gunther Schuller]] observed. "Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed."{{sfn|Schuller|1968|p=19}}
In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums, snare drums and fifes, and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures.{{sfn|Kubik|1999|p=52}} This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. "The snare and bass drummers played syncopated [[cross beat|cross-rhythms]]," observed the writer Robert Palmer, speculating that "this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it could have not have developed in the first place if there hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured."{{sfn|Palmer|1981|p=39}}
===Afro-Cuban influence===
{{Further|Music of African heritage in Cuba}}
[[African-American music]] began incorporating [[Afro-Cuban]] rhythmic motifs in the 19th century when the [[habanera (music)|habanera]] (Cuban [[contradanza]]) gained international popularity.<ref>"[Afro]-Latin rhythms have been absorbed into black American styles far more consistently than into white popular music, despite Latin music's popularity among whites" (Roberts 1979: 41).</ref> Musicians from [[Havana]] and New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City. [[John Storm Roberts]] states that the musical genre habanera "reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published."<ref name="JSRoberts">{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=John Storm |title=Latin Jazz |url=https://archive.org/details/latinjazzfirstof00robe |url-access=registration |date=1999 |publisher=Schirmer Books |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/latinjazzfirstof00robe/page/12 12], 16|isbn=978-0-02-864681-7 }}</ref> For the more than quarter-century in which the [[cakewalk]], [[ragtime]], and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.<ref name="JSRoberts" />
Habaneras were widely available as sheet music and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif (1803).<ref name="Manuel">{{cite book |last1=Manuel |first1=Peter |title=Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean |date=2000 |publisher=Temple University Press |location=Philadelphia |pages=67, 69}}</ref> From the perspective of African-American music, the "habanera rhythm" (also known as "congo"),<ref name="Manuel" /> "tango-congo",<ref name="Acosta">{{cite book |last1=Acosta |first1=Leonardo |title=Cubano Be Cubano Bop: One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba |date=2003 |publisher=Smithsonian Books |location=Washington, D.C. |page=5}}</ref> or [[tango (music)|tango]].<ref name="Salsa">{{cite book |last1=Mauleon |title=Salsa guidebook: For Piano and Ensemble |date=1999 |publisher=Sher Music |location=Petaluma, California |isbn=0-9614701-9-4 |page=4}}</ref> can be thought of as a combination of [[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]] and the [[beat (music)|backbeat]].{{sfn|Peñalosa|2010|p=42}} The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.
: <score override_audio="Tresillo+ backbeat.mid" lang="lilypond">
\new Staff <<
\relative c' {
\clef percussion
\time 2/4
\repeat volta 2 { g8. g16 d'8 g, }
}
>>
</score>
New Orleans native [[Louis Moreau Gottschalk]]'s piano piece "Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)" (1860) was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba: the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand.<ref name="Sublette" />{{rp|125}} In Gottschalk's symphonic work "A Night in the Tropics" (1859), the tresillo variant [[cinquillo]] appears extensively.<ref name="SubletteCuba">{{cite book |last1=Sublette |first1=Ned |title=Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo |date=2008 |publisher=Chicago Review Press |location=Chicago |page=125}}</ref> The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers.
:<score override_audio="Cinquillo.mid">
\new RhythmicStaff {
\clef percussion
\time 2/4
\repeat volta 2 { c8 c16 c r[ c c r] }
}
</score>
Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba, [[Wynton Marsalis]] observes that [[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]] is the New Orleans "clavé", a Spanish word meaning "code" or "key", as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery.<ref>"Wynton Marsalis part 2." ''60 Minutes''. CBS News (June 26, 2011).</ref> Although the pattern is only half a [[Clave (rhythm)|clave]], Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is the [[bell pattern|guide-pattern]] of New Orleans music. [[Jelly Roll Morton]] called the rhythmic figure the [[Spanish tinge]] and considered it an essential ingredient of jazz.<ref name="ReferenceB">Morton, Jelly Roll (1938: Library of Congress Recording) ''The Complete Recordings By Alan Lomax''.</ref>
===Ragtime===
{{Main|Ragtime}}
[[File:Scott Joplin 19072.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Scott Joplin]] in 1903]]
The abolition of [[slavery]] in 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, [[minstrel show]]s, and in [[vaudeville]], during which time many marching bands were formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs, and brothels, as [[ragtime]] developed.{{sfn|Cooke|1999|pp=28, 47}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cnx.org/content/m10878/latest/ |title=Ragtime |access-date=October 18, 2007 |author=Catherine Schmidt-Jones |year=2006 |publisher=Connexions }}</ref>
Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainer [[Ernest Hogan]], whose hit songs appeared in 1895. Two years later, [[Vess Ossman]] recorded a medley of these songs as a [[banjo]] solo known as "Rag Time Medley".{{sfn|Cooke|1999|pp=28–29}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/firstragtimerecords.html |title=The First Ragtime Records (1897–1903) |access-date=October 18, 2007 |archive-date=December 1, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201055033/http://www.redhotjazz.com/firstragtimerecords.html  }}</ref> Also in 1897, the white composer [[William Krell]] published his "[[Mississippi Rag]]" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and [[Tom Turpin]] published his "Harlem Rag", the first rag published by an African-American.
Classically trained pianist [[Scott Joplin]] produced his "[[Original Rags]]" in 1898 and, in 1899, had an international hit with "[[Maple Leaf Rag]]", a multi-[[strain (music)|strain]] ragtime [[march (music)|march]] with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copious [[seventh chord]]s. Its structure was the basis for many other rags, and the [[syncopation]]s in the right hand, especially in the transition between the first and second strain, were novel at the time.<ref name="TMG">{{cite book |last1=Tanner |first1=Paul |last2=Megill |first2=David W. |last3=Gerow |first3=Maurice |title=Jazz |date=2009 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=Boston |pages=328–331 |edition=11}}</ref> The last four measures of Scott Joplin's "Maple Leaf Rag" (1899) are shown below.
:<score override_audio="Maple Leaf Rag seventh chord resolution.mid"> {
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff <<
\new Voice \relative c' {
\clef treble \key aes \major \time 2/4
<f aes>16 bes <f aes>8 <fes aes> <fes bes>16 <es aes>~
<es aes> bes' <es, c'> aes bes <es, c'>8 <d aes'>16~
<d aes'> bes' <d, c'> aes' r <des, bes'>8 es16
<c aes'>8 <g' des' es> <aes c es aes>
}
>>
\new Staff <<
\relative c, {
\clef bass \key aes \major \time 2/4
<des des'>8 <des des'> <bes bes'> <d d'>
<es es'> <es' aes c> <es, es'> <e e'>
<f f'> <f f'> <g g'> <g g'> <aes aes'> <es es'> <aes, aes'> \bar "|."
}
>>
>>
}
</score>
African-based rhythmic patterns such as [[Tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]] and its variants, the habanera rhythm and [[cinquillo]], are heard in the ragtime compositions of Joplin and Turpin. Joplin's "[[Solace (Joplin)|Solace]]" (1909) is generally considered to be in the habanera genre:<ref name="ReferenceA">Manuel, Peter (2009: 69). ''Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean''. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.</ref><ref>Matthiesen, Bill (2008: 8). ''Habaneras, Maxixies & Tangos The Syncopated Piano Music of Latin America''. Mel Bay. {{ISBN|0-7866-7635-3}}.</ref> both of the pianist's hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a [[March (music)|march]] rhythm. [[Ned Sublette]] postulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm "found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,"<ref>Sublette, Ned (2008:155). ''Cuba and its Music; From the First Drums to the Mambo.'' Chicago: Chicago Review Press.</ref> whilst Roberts suggests that "the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime's European bass".<ref>Roberts, John Storm (1999: 40). ''The Latin Tinge''. Oxford University Press.</ref>
===Ragtime in other regions===
In the northeastern United States, a "hot" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably [[James Reese Europe]]'s symphonic [[Clef Club]] orchestra in New York City, which played a benefit concert at [[Carnegie Hall]] in 1912.<ref name=hellfighters>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/hellfighters.html|title=Jim Europe's 369th Infantry "Hellfighters" Band|access-date=October 24, 2007|author=Floyd Levin|year=1911|publisher=The Red Hot Archive|archive-date=August 18, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818065421/http://www.redhotjazz.com/hellfighters.html}}</ref>{{sfn|Cooke|1999|p=78}} The Baltimore rag style of [[Eubie Blake]] influenced [[James P. Johnson]]'s development of [[stride piano]] playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline.{{sfn|Cooke|1999|pp=41–42}}
In Ohio and elsewhere in the mid-west the major influence was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon by the Black middle-class.{{sfn|Palmer|1968|p=67}}{{full citation needed|date=November 2024}}
===Blues===
{{Main|Blues}}
====African genesis====
{{Image frame|content=<score sound="1"> {
\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
\relative c' {
\clef treble \time 6/4
c4^\markup { "C blues scale" } es f fis g bes c2
} }
</score>
<score sound="1"> {
\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
\relative c' {
\clef treble \time 5/4
c4^\markup { "C minor pentatonic scale" } es f g bes c2
} }
</score>|width=300|caption=A hexatonic [[blues scale]] on C, ascending}}Blues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre,<ref>Kunzler's ''Dictionary of Jazz'' provides two separate entries: blues, an originally African-American genre (p. 128), and the blues form, a widespread musical form (p. 131).</ref> which originated in [[African-American]] communities of primarily the [[Deep South]] of the United States at the end of the 19th century from their [[spiritual (music)|spirituals]], [[work song]]s, [[field holler]]s, [[Ring shout|shouts]] and [[chant]]s and rhymed simple narrative [[ballad (music)|ballads]].<ref name="The Evolution of Differing Blues Styles">{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Differing Blues Styles |publisher=How To Play Blues Guitar |access-date=August 11, 2008 |url=http://how-to-play-blues-guitar.com/the-blues/the-evolution-of-different-blues-styles/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100719033905/http://how-to-play-blues-guitar.com/the-blues/the-evolution-of-different-blues-styles/ |archive-date=July 19, 2010  }}</ref>
The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development of [[blue note]]s in blues and jazz.{{sfn|Cooke|1999|pp=11–14}} As Kubik explains:
<blockquote>Many of the rural blues of the Deep South are ''stylistically'' an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt:
* A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as found for example among the [[Hausa people|Hausa]]. It is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory voice.
* An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents.{{sfn|Kubik|1999|p=96}}</blockquote>
====W. C. Handy: early published blues====
[[File:WC Handy age 19 handyphoto10.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[W. C. Handy]] at 19, 1892]]
[[W. C. Handy]] became interested in folk blues of the Deep South while traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range, sounding like a field holler, and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another "voice".{{sfn|Palmer|1981|p=46}} Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format and arrange them in a popular music form.
Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues:
<blockquote>The primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor. Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always the same. Till then, however, I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, or by any white man. I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major ... , and I carried this device into my melody as well.{{sfn|Handy|1941|p=99}}</blockquote>
The publication of his "[[The Memphis Blues|Memphis Blues]]" sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although [[Gunther Schuller]] argues that it is not really a blues, but "more like a cakewalk").{{sfn|Schuller|1968|loc=66, 145n}} This composition, as well as his later "[[St. Louis Blues (song)|St. Louis Blues]]" and others, included the habanera rhythm,{{sfn|Handy|1941|p=99–100}} and would become [[jazz standard]]s. Handy's music career began in the pre-jazz era and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music.
===New Orleans origins===
{{Main|Dixieland jazz|Music of Louisiana}}
{{Culture of Louisiana}}
[[File:Bolden band.gif|thumb|left|[[Buddy Bolden|The Bolden Band]] around 1905]]
The music of [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]] had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. In New Orleans, slaves could practice elements of their culture such as voodoo and playing drums.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.neworleansonline.com/neworleans/music/musichistory/jazzbirthplace.html |title=Birthplace of Jazz |website=www.neworleansonline.com|access-date=2017-12-14}}</ref> Many early jazz musicians played in the bars and brothels of the red-light district around Basin Street called [[Storyville, New Orleans|Storyville]].{{sfn|Cooke|1999|pp=47, 50}} In addition to dance bands, there were marching bands which played at lavish funerals (later called [[jazz funeral]]s). The instruments used by marching bands and dance bands became the instruments of jazz: brass, drums, and reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale. Small bands contained a combination of self-taught and formally educated musicians, many from the funeral procession tradition. These bands traveled in black communities in the deep south. Beginning in 1914, [[Louisiana Creole people|Louisiana Creole]] and African-American musicians played in [[vaudeville]] shows which carried jazz to cities in the northern and western parts of the U.S.<ref name=creoleorch>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/creole.html|title=Original Creole Orchestra|access-date=October 23, 2007|publisher=The Red Hot Archive|archive-date=November 5, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105235418/http://www.redhotjazz.com/creole.html}}</ref> Jazz became international in 1914, when the Creole Band with cornettist [[Freddie Keppard]] performed the first ever jazz concert outside the United States, at the [[Pantages Playhouse Theatre]] in [[Winnipeg]], Canada.<ref>{{cite web|title=Such Melodious Racket|date=March 3, 2004|publisher=Quill and Quire|url=https://quillandquire.com/review/such-melodious-racket-the-lost-history-of-jazz-in-canada-1914-1949/|access-date=January 3, 2021}}</ref>
In New Orleans, a white bandleader named [[Papa Jack Laine]] integrated blacks and whites in his marching band. He was known as "the father of white jazz" because of the many top players he employed, such as [[George Brunies]], [[Sharkey Bonano]], and future members of the [[Original Dixieland Jass Band]]. During the early 1900s, jazz was mostly performed in African-American and [[mulatto]] communities due to segregation laws. Storyville brought jazz to a wider audience through tourists who visited the port city of New Orleans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/jazz-map.htm|title=Jazz Neighborhoods }}</ref> Many jazz musicians from African-American communities were hired to perform in bars and brothels. These included [[Buddy Bolden]] and [[Jelly Roll Morton]] in addition to those from other communities, such as [[Lorenzo Tio]] and [[Alcide Nunez]]. [[Louis Armstrong]] started his career in Storyville<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.storyvillelife.com/eksempel-side/ |title=The characters |access-date=January 13, 2016 |archive-date=January 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104182749/http://www.storyvillelife.com/eksempel-side/  }}</ref> and found success in Chicago. Storyville was shut down by the U.S. government in 1917.<ref name="web.archive.org">{{cite web |url=http://web.wm.edu/americanstudies/370/2001/sp3/legend_of_storyville.htm |title=The Legend of Storyville |date= May 6, 2014 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506062223/http://web.wm.edu/americanstudies/370/2001/sp3/legend_of_storyville.htm |archive-date=May 6, 2014 }}</ref>
==== Syncopation ====
[[File:MortonBricktopRowCropMortonFace.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|[[Jelly Roll Morton]], a [[Louisiana Creole people|Louisiana Creole]] jazz artist, {{Circa|1917}} or 1918]]
Cornetist Buddy Bolden played in New Orleans from 1895 to 1906. No recordings by him exist. His band is credited with creating the big four: the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/jazz/classroom/rhythmicinnovations.htm |title=Marsalis, Wynton (2000: DVD n.1). ''Jazz''. PBS |website=Pbs.org |access-date=October 2, 2013}}</ref> As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.
:<score override_audio="Big four Buddy Bolden.mid" lang="lilypond">
\new Staff <<
\relative c' {
\clef percussion
\time 4/4
\repeat volta 2 { g8 \xNote a' g, \xNote a' g, \xNote a'16. g,32 g8 <g \xNote a'> }
\repeat volta 2 { r8 \xNote a'\noBeam g, \xNote a' g, \xNote a'16. g,32 g8 <g \xNote a'> }
}
>>
</score>
Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville. Beginning in 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows to southern cities, Chicago, and New York City. In 1905, he composed "[[Jelly Roll Blues]]", which became the first jazz arrangement in print when it was published in 1915. It introduced more musicians to the New Orleans style.{{sfn|Cooke|1999|pp=38, 56}}
Morton considered the tresillo/habanera, which he called the [[Spanish tinge]], an essential ingredient of jazz.<ref>Roberts, John Storm 1979. ''The Latin Tinge: The impact of Latin American music on the United States''. Oxford.</ref> "Now in one of my earliest tunes, "New Orleans Blues," you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz."<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
An excerpt of "New Orleans Blues" is shown below. In the excerpt, the left hand plays the tresillo rhythm, while the right hand plays variations on cinquillo.
:<score override_audio="New orleans blues corrected.mid">
{
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff <<
\relative c'' {
\clef treble \key bes \major \time 2/2
f8 <f, f'> <g g'> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f f'> <g d' g>4
r8 <f f'> <g g'> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f f'> <g d' g>4
r8 <f d' f> <g d' g> <f~ cis'> <f d'> <f d' f> <g d' g> <f d' f>
}
>>
\new Staff <<
\relative c {
\clef bass \key bes \major \time 2/2
<bes bes'>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4
<bes f' bes>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4
<bes f' bes>4. <f' d'>8~ <f d'>4 <f, f'>4
}
>>
>> }
</score>
Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the early jazz form known as ragtime to [[jazz piano]], and could perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a series of recordings for the Library of Congress in which he demonstrated the difference between the two styles. Morton's solos, however, were still close to ragtime, and were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in later jazz, but his use of the blues was of equal importance.
====Swing in the early 20th century====
{{Image frame|content=<score override_audio="Shuffle feel straight.mid">
\new RhythmicStaff {
\clef percussion
\time 4/4
\repeat volta 2 { c8^\markup { "Even subdivisions" } c16 c c8 c16 c c8 c16 c c8 c16 c }
}
</score>
<score override_audio="Shuffle feel.mid">
\new RhythmicStaff {
\clef percussion
\time 4/4
\repeat volta 2 { c8[^\markup { "Swung correlative" } \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] }  c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] }  c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] }  c8[ \tuplet 3/2 { c16 r c] } }
}
</score>|width=385|caption=}}Morton loosened ragtime's rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a [[Swing (jazz performance style)|swing]] feeling.<ref>Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 61). ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', 7th edn.</ref> Swing is the most important and enduring African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft quoted definition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: "if you don't feel it, you'll never know it."{{sfn|Schuller|1968|p=6}} ''The New Harvard Dictionary of Music'' states that swing is: "An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz...Swing defies analysis; claims to its presence may inspire arguments." The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple subdivisions:<ref>''The New Harvard Dictionary of Music'' (1986: 818).</ref> swing superimposes six subdivisions of the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions. This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple and duple-pulse "grids".<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Peñalosa|author2= Peter Greenwood|title=The Clave Matrix: Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins |date=2009 |publisher=Bembe Books |location=Redway, CA |isbn=978-1-886502-80-2 |page=229}}</ref>
New Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans' [[Camelia Brass Band]], D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also credited with the abandonment of ragtime's stiffness in favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any other musician, codified the rhythmic technique of swing in jazz and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gridley |first1=Mark C. |title=Jazz Styles: History & Analysis |date=2000 |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |isbn=978-0-13-021227-6 |pages=72–73 |edition=7th |url=http://www.biblio.com/9780130212276}}</ref>
The [[Original Dixieland Jass Band]] made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their "[[Livery Stable Blues]]" became the earliest released jazz record.<ref>{{cite web|last=Schoenherr |first=Steven |title=Recording Technology History |website=history.sandiego.edu |url=http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/notes.html |access-date=December 24, 2008  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100312213800/http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/notes.html |archive-date=March 12, 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Henry |last2=Waters |first2=Keith |title=Jazz: The First 100 Years |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |year=2005 |page=55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kuz4EHH05I4C&q=first+jazz+recording&pg=PT84 |isbn=978-0-534-62804-8 }}</ref> That year, numerous other bands made recordings featuring "jazz" in the title or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War I, James Reese Europe's [[369th Infantry Regiment (United States)|"Hellfighters" infantry]] band took ragtime to Europe,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=Emmett J. |author-link=Emmett Jay Scott |year=1919 |title=Scott's Official History of the American Negro in the World War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obUHAAAAIAAJ |chapter=Chapter XXI: Negro Music That Stirred France |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obUHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA300 |location=Chicago |publisher=Homewood Press |isbn=978-0-243-62721-9 |access-date=19 June 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Cooke|1999|p=44}} then on their return recorded Dixieland standards including "[[Darktown Strutters' Ball]]".<ref name=hellfighters/>
== The Jazz Age ==
{{Main|Jazz Age}}
[[File:Jazzing orchestra 1921.png|thumb|right|The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921]]
From 1920 to 1933, [[Prohibition in the United States]] banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies which became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music, dance songs, novelty songs, and show tunes. Jazz began to get a reputation as immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as a threat to the old cultural values by promoting the decadent values of the Roaring 20s. [[Henry van Dyke]] of Princeton University wrote, "... it is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion."<ref name=ward/> ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that Siberian villagers used jazz to scare away bears, but the villagers had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.<ref name=ward>{{harvnb|Ward|Burns|2000|pp=78-79}}</ref>
{{listen|type=music|filename=OriginalDixielandJassBand-JazzMeBlues.ogg|title=Jazz Me Blues |description= The [[Original Dixieland Jass Band]] performing "Jazz Me Blues", an example of a jazz piece from 1921}}
In 1919, [[Kid Ory]]'s Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.{{sfn|Cooke|1999|p=54}}<ref name=ory>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/ory.html|title=Kid Ory|access-date=October 29, 2007|publisher=The Red Hot Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827025414/http://www.redhotjazz.com/ory.html|archive-date=August 27, 2013}}</ref> During the same year, [[Bessie Smith]] made her first recordings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/bessie.html|title=Bessie Smith|access-date=October 29, 2007|publisher=The Red Hot Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016081233/http://redhotjazz.com/Bessie.html|archive-date=October 16, 2007}}</ref> Chicago was developing "[[Hot Jazz]]", and [[Joe "King" Oliver|King Oliver]] joined [[Bill Johnson (double-bassist)|Bill Johnson]]. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.
Despite its Southern black origins, there was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras. In 1918, [[Paul Whiteman]] and his orchestra became a hit in San Francisco. He signed a contract with [[Victor Talking Machine Company|Victor]] and became the top bandleader of the 1920s, giving hot jazz a white component, hiring white musicians such as [[Bix Beiderbecke]], [[Jimmy Dorsey]], [[Tommy Dorsey]], [[Frankie Trumbauer]], and [[Joe Venuti]]. In 1924, Whiteman commissioned [[George Gershwin]]'s ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]'', which was premiered by his orchestra. Jazz began to be recognized as a notable musical form. [[Olin Downes]], reviewing the concert in ''The New York Times'', wrote, "This composition shows extraordinary talent, as it shows a young composer with aims that go far beyond those of his ilk, struggling with a form of which he is far from being master. ... In spite of all this, he has expressed himself in a significant and, on the whole, highly original form. ... His first theme ... is no mere dance-tune ... it is an idea, or several ideas, correlated and combined in varying and contrasting rhythms that immediately intrigue the listener."<ref name="Downes">{{cite news |last1=Downes |first1=Olin |title=A Concert of Jazz |work=The New York Times |date=February 13, 1924 |page=16}}</ref>
After Whiteman's band successfully toured Europe, huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with other whites, including [[Fred Waring]], [[Jean Goldkette]], and [[Nathaniel Shilkret]]. According to Mario Dunkel, Whiteman's success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read "white") a previously inchoate (read "black") kind of music.<ref name="Dunkel">{{cite journal |last1=Dunkel |first1=Mario |title=W. C. Handy, Abbe Niles, and (Auto)biographical Positioning in the Whiteman Era |journal=Popular Music and Society |date=2015 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=122–139|doi=10.1080/03007766.2014.994320 |s2cid=191480580 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Louis_Armstrong_restored.jpg|thumb|right|[[Louis Armstrong]] began his career in New Orleans and became one of jazz's most recognizable performers.]]
Whiteman's success caused black artists to follow suit, including [[Earl Hines]] (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago in 1928), Washington, D.C.-native [[Duke Ellington]] (who opened at the [[Cotton Club]] in Harlem in 1927), [[Lionel Hampton]], [[Fletcher Henderson]], [[Claude Hopkins]], and [[Don Redman]], with Henderson and Redman developing the "talking to one another" formula for "hot" swing music.{{sfn|Cooke|1999|pp=82–83, 100–103}}
In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. By 1924, one of [[Louis Armstrong|Armstrong]]'s favorite "Sweet Jazz" [[Big bands]] was also formed in Canada by [[Guy Lombardo]]. His Royal Canadians Orchestra specialized in performances of "the Sweetest music this side of Heaven" which transcended racial boundaries.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=m8W2AgAAQBAJ&dq=Guy+Lombardo+recordings&pg=PA379 Encyclopedia of music in the 20th Century. Stacey, Lee. Henderson, Lol Editors. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group London 2014 p. 379 Guy Lombardo Biography on Google Books]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=__DTvryrBZkC&dq=Guy+Lombardo+band+popularity&pg=PA472 Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World Volume 8- Genres North America. Horn, David. Shephard, John Editors. Bloombury Publishing 2012 p. 472 "Armstrong and Lombardo did not view their worlds as diametrically opposed, nor did many other contemporary musicians of the 1930s. ...Lombardo himself always took great pride in the number of black orchestras that imitated his style." Guy lombardo band popularity on Google Books]</ref>  The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young [[Coleman Hawkins]]), sounded "stiff, stodgy", with "jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality".{{sfn|Schuller|1968|p=91}} The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by [[George W. Meyer]] and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).{{sfn|Schuller|1968|p=93}} Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his [[Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five|Hot Five]] band, where he popularized [[scat singing]].{{sfn|Cooke|1999|pp=56–59, 78–79, 66–70}}
===Swing in the 1920s and 1930s===
{{Main|Swing music|1930s in jazz}}
[[File:BennyGoodmanStageDoorCanteen.jpg|thumb|left|Benny Goodman (1943)]]
The 1930s belonged to popular [[swing (music)|swing]] big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers [[Count Basie]], [[Cab Calloway]], [[Jimmy Dorsey|Jimmy]] and [[Tommy Dorsey]], [[Duke Ellington]], [[Benny Goodman]], [[Fletcher Henderson]], [[Earl Hines]], [[Harry James]], [[Jimmie Lunceford]], [[Glenn Miller]] and [[Artie Shaw]]. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be complex "important" music.
Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist [[Teddy Wilson]], vibraphonist [[Lionel Hampton]] and guitarist [[Charlie Christian]] to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist [[Lester Young]] marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or [[jump blues]] used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on [[boogie woogie (music)|boogie-woogie]] from the 1930s.
===The influence of Duke Ellington===
[[File:Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club 1943.jpg|thumb|upright|Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club (1943)]]
While swing was reaching the height of its popularity, [[Duke Ellington]] spent the late 1920s and 1930s in Washington, D.C.'s jazz scene, developing an innovative musical idiom for his orchestra. Abandoning the conventions of swing, he experimented with orchestral sounds, harmony, and [[musical form]] with complex compositions that still translated well for popular audiences; some of his tunes became [[hit single|hits]], and his own popularity spanned from the United States to Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last=Van de Leur |first=Walter |chapter=12 "Seldom seen, but always heard": Billy Strayhorn and Duke Ellington |title=The Cambridge Companion to Duke Ellington |editor-last=Green |editor-first=Edward |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-316-19413-3 |year=2015}}</ref>
Ellington called his music ''American Music'', rather than ''jazz'', and liked to describe those who impressed him as "beyond category".<ref>{{Harvnb|Tucker|1995|p=6}} writes "He tried to avoid the word 'jazz' preferring 'Negro' or 'American' music. He claimed there were only two types of music, 'good' and 'bad' ... And he embraced a phrase coined by his colleague [[Billy Strayhorn]] – 'beyond category' – as a liberating principle."</ref> These included many musicians from his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the most popular jazz orchestras in the history of jazz. He often composed for the style and skills of these individuals, such as "Jeep's Blues" for [[Johnny Hodges]], "Concerto for Cootie" for [[Cootie Williams]] (which later became "[[Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me]]" with [[Bob Russell (songwriter)|Bob Russell]]'s lyrics), and "The Mooche" for [[Tricky Sam Nanton]] and [[Bubber Miley]]. He also recorded compositions written by his bandsmen, such as [[Juan Tizol]]'s "[[Caravan (1937 song)|Caravan]]" and "[[Perdido (song)|Perdido]]", which brought the "Spanish Tinge" to big-band jazz. Several members of the orchestra remained with him for several decades. The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theoryjazz.com/artists/ellington.html |title=Jazz Musicians – Duke Ellington |publisher=Theory Jazz |access-date=July 14, 2009  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903233432/http://theoryjazz.com/artists/ellington.html |archive-date=September 3, 2015 }}</ref>
===Beginnings of European jazz===
As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, and [[Lonnie Johnson (musician)|Lonnie Johnson]], who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Wynn |editor-first1=Neil A.|title=Cross the Water Blues: African American music in Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/crosswaterbluesa00wynn |url-access=limited |date=2007 |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |location=Jackson, MS |isbn=978-1-60473-546-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/crosswaterbluesa00wynn/page/n79 67] |edition=1 }}</ref> The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.
British jazz began with a [[Original Dixieland Jass Band#London tour|tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919]]. In 1926, [[Fred Elizalde]] and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC. Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous.<ref name="Godolt">{{cite book |last1=Godbolt |first1=Jim |title=A History of Jazz in Britain 1919–1950 |date=2010 |publisher=Northway |location=London |isbn=978-0-9557888-1-9 |edition=4th}}</ref>
This style entered full swing in France with the [[Quintette du Hot Club de France]], which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jackson | first=Jeffrey |title=Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927–1934 |journal=[[French Historical Studies]]| year=2002 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=149–170 |doi=10.1215/00161071-25-1-149 | s2cid=161520728 }}</ref> Belgian guitarist [[Django Reinhardt]] popularized [[gypsy jazz]], a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "[[Bal-musette|musette]]", and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments were steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as guitar and bass form the rhythm section. Some researchers believe [[Eddie Lang]] and [[Joe Venuti]] pioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/edlango.html |title=Ed Lang and his Orchestra |access-date=March 28, 2008 |website=redhotjazz.com |archive-date=April 10, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410160536/http://www.redhotjazz.com/edlango.html  }}</ref> which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on [[Okeh Records]] in the late 1920s.<ref>{{cite book |first=Bill |last=Crow |title=Jazz Anecdotes |url=https://archive.org/details/jazzanecdotes0000crow |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |year=1990 }}</ref>
== Post-war jazz ==
{{see also|1940s in jazz|1950s in jazz|1960s in jazz|1970s in jazz|album era}}
[[image:Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Max Roach (Gottlieb 06941).jpg|thumb|left|The "classic quintet": [[Charlie Parker]], [[Tommy Potter]], [[Miles Davis]], [[Dizzy Gillespie]], and [[Max Roach]] performing at Three Deuces in [[New York City]]. Photograph by [[William P. Gottlieb]] (August 1947), [[Library of Congress]].]]
The outbreak of [[World War II]] marked a turning point for jazz. The swing-era jazz of the previous decade had challenged other popular music as being representative of the nation's culture, with big bands reaching the height of the style's success by the early 1940s; swing acts and big bands traveled with U.S. military overseas to Europe, where it also became popular.<ref name="Burchett"/> Stateside, however, the war presented difficulties for the big-band format: conscription shortened the number of musicians available; the military's need for [[shellac]] (commonly used for pressing [[gramophone records]]) limited record production; a shortage of rubber (also due to the war effort) discouraged bands from touring via road travel; and a demand by the musicians' union for a commercial recording ban limited music distribution between 1942 and 1944.<ref name="grove">{{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Mark|last2=Jackson|first2=Travis|year=2015|title=Jazz: Grove Music Essentials|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-026871-8|chapter=7. Traditional and Modern Jazz in the 1940s}}</ref>
Many of the big bands who were deprived of experienced musicians because of the war effort began to enlist young players who were below the age for conscription, as was the case with saxophonist [[Stan Getz]]'s entry in a band as a teenager.<ref name="Trynka"/> This coincided with a nationwide resurgence in the Dixieland style of pre-swing jazz; performers such as clarinetist [[George Lewis (clarinetist)|George Lewis]], cornetist [[Bill Davison]], and trombonist [[Turk Murphy]] were hailed by conservative jazz critics as more authentic than the big bands.<ref name="grove"/> Elsewhere, with the limitations on recording, small groups of young musicians developed a more uptempo, improvisational style of jazz,<ref name="Burchett"/> collaborating and experimenting with new ideas for melodic development, rhythmic language, and [[harmonic substitution]], during informal, late-night jam sessions hosted in small clubs and apartments. Key figures in this development were largely based in New York and included pianists [[Thelonious Monk]] and [[Bud Powell]], drummers [[Max Roach]] and [[Kenny Clarke]], saxophonist [[Charlie Parker]], and trumpeter [[Dizzy Gillespie]].<ref name="grove"/> This musical development became known as [[bebop]].<ref name="Burchett"/>
Bebop and subsequent post-war jazz developments featured [[Bebop scale|a wider set of notes]], played in more complex [[Melodic pattern|patterns]] and at faster tempos than previous jazz.<ref name="Trynka">{{cite book|pages=[https://archive.org/details/saxbrassbook0000prie/page/45 45, 48–49]|last=Trynka|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Trynka|title=The Sax & Brass Book|publisher=[[Hal Leonard Corporation]]|year=2003|isbn=0-87930-737-4|url=https://archive.org/details/saxbrassbook0000prie/page/45}}</ref> According to [[Clive James]], bebop was "the post-war musical development which tried to ensure that jazz would no longer be the spontaneous sound of joy ... Students of race relations in America are generally agreed that the exponents of post-war jazz were determined, with good reason, to present themselves as challenging artists rather than tame entertainers."<ref>{{cite book|last=James|first=Clive|author-link=Clive James|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturalamnesian00jame/page/163 163]|title=Cultural Amnesia: Necessary Memories from History and the Arts|publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Company]]|year=2007|isbn=978-0-393-06116-1|url=https://archive.org/details/culturalamnesian00jame/page/163}}</ref> The end of the war marked "a revival of the spirit of experimentation and musical pluralism under which it had been conceived", along with "the beginning of a decline in the popularity of jazz music in America", according to American academic Michael H. Burchett.<ref name="Burchett">{{cite book|last=Burchett|first=Michael H.|year=2015|editor-last=Ciment|editor-first=James|title=Postwar America: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-46235-4|chapter=Jazz|page=730}}</ref>
With the rise of bebop and the end of the swing era after the war, jazz lost its cachet as [[pop music]]. Vocalists of the famous big bands moved on to being marketed and performing as solo pop singers; these included [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Peggy Lee]], [[Dick Haymes]], and [[Doris Day]].<ref name="Trynka"/> Older musicians who still performed their pre-war jazz, such as Armstrong and Ellington, were gradually viewed in the mainstream as passé. Other younger performers, such as singer [[Big Joe Turner]] and saxophonist [[Louis Jordan]], who were discouraged by bebop's increasing complexity, pursued more lucrative endeavors in rhythm and blues, [[jump blues]], and eventually [[rock and roll]].<ref name="Burchett"/> Some, including Gillespie, composed intricate yet danceable pieces for bebop musicians in an effort to make them more accessible, but bebop largely remained on the fringes of American audiences' purview. "The new direction of postwar jazz drew a wealth of critical acclaim, but it steadily declined in popularity as it developed a reputation as an academic genre that was largely inaccessible to mainstream audiences", Burchett said. "The quest to make jazz more relevant to popular audiences, while retaining its artistic integrity, is a constant and prevalent theme in the history of postwar jazz."<ref name="Burchett"/> During its swing period, jazz had been an uncomplicated musical scene; according to [[Paul Trynka]], this changed in the post-war years:
{{blockquote|Suddenly jazz was no longer straightforward. There was bebop and its variants, there was the last gasp of swing, there were strange new brews like the [[progressive jazz]] of [[Stan Kenton]], and there was a completely new phenomenon called revivalism – the rediscovery of jazz from the past, either on old records or performed live by aging players brought out of retirement. From now on it was no good saying that you liked jazz, you had to specify what kind of jazz. And that is the way it has been ever since, only more so. Today, the word 'jazz' is virtually meaningless without further definition.<ref name="Trynka"/>}}
===Bebop===
{{Main|Bebop}}
In the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music". The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists [[Bud Powell]] and [[Thelonious Monk]], trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie and [[Clifford Brown]], and drummer [[Max Roach]]. Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popular and commercial appeal.
Composer [[Gunther Schuller]] wrote: "In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings."<ref>[[Gunther Schuller]], November 14, 1972. {{harvnb|Dance|1983|p=290}}.</ref>
Dizzy Gillespie wrote: "People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here...naturally each age has got its own shit."{{sfn|Dance|1983|p=260}}
Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the [[ride cymbal]] was used to keep time while the snare and bass drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncopated music with a linear rhythmic complexity.<ref name="Floyd, Samuel A. 1995">Floyd, Samuel A., Jr. (1995). ''The Power of Black Music: Interpreting its history from Africa to the United States''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref>
Bebop musicians employed several harmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an added chromatic passing note;{{sfn|Levine|1995|p=171}} bebop also uses "passing" chords, [[substitute chord]]s, and [[altered chord]]s. New forms of [[chromaticism]] and [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]] were introduced into jazz, and the dissonant [[tritone]] (or "flatted fifth") interval became the "most important interval of bebop"<ref>Joachim Berendt. ''The Jazz Book'', 1981, p. 15.</ref> Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era tunes and reused with a new and more complex melody or reharmonized with more complex chord progressions to form new compositions, a practice which was already well-established in earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style. Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I–IV–V, but often infused with ii–V motion) and "[[rhythm changes]]" (I-vi-ii-V) – the chords to the 1930s pop standard "[[I Got Rhythm]]". Late bop also moved towards extended forms that represented a departure from pop and show tunes.
The harmonic development in bebop is often traced back to a moment experienced by Charlie Parker while performing "Cherokee" at [[Clark Monroe's Uptown House]], New York, in early 1942. "I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped changes that were being used...and I kept thinking there's bound to be something else. I could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it...I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did, I found that by using the higher intervals of a chord as a melody line and backing them with appropriately related changes, I could play the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive."<ref name="Kubik">{{harvnb|Kubik|2005}}</ref> [[Gerhard Kubik]] postulates that harmonic development in bebop sprang from blues and [[Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony|African-related tonal sensibilities]] rather than 20th-century Western classical music. "Auditory inclinations were the African legacy in [Parker's] life, reconfirmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound world at odds with the Western diatonic chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of the blues as a basis for drawing upon various African matrices."<ref name="Kubik" />
Samuel Floyd states that blues was both the bedrock and propelling force of bebop, bringing about a new harmonic conception using extended chord structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and melodic variety, a developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity in which the blue note of the fifth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device; and reestablishment of the blues as the primary organizing and functional principle.<ref name="Floyd, Samuel A. 1995"/> Kubik wrote:
<blockquote>While for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to be inspired by experiences in Western "serious" music, from [[Claude Debussy]] to [[Arnold Schoenberg]], such a scheme cannot be sustained by the evidence from a cognitive approach. Claude Debussy did have some influence on jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing. And it is also true that Duke Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music. West Coast jazz would run into such debts as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate significance of all this is that the experiments in jazz during the 1940s brought back to [[African-American music]] several structural principles and techniques rooted in African traditions.{{sfn|Kubik|2005}}</blockquote>
These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time met a divided, sometimes hostile response among fans and musicians, especially swing players who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed filled with "racing, nervous phrases".<ref>Joachim Berendt. ''The Jazz Book''. 1981, p. 16.</ref> But despite the friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary.
===Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)===
{{Main|Afro-Cuban jazz}}
[[File:Machito and his sister Graciella Grillo.jpg|thumb|upright|Machito (maracas) and his sister Graciella Grillo (claves)]]
====Machito and Mario Bauza====
The general consensus among musicians and musicologists is that the first original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was "Tanga" (1943), composed by Cuban-born [[Mario Bauza]] and recorded by [[Machito]] and his Afro-Cubans in New York City. "Tanga" began as a spontaneous [[descarga]] (Cuban jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.<ref>In 1992 Bauza recorded "Tanga" in the expanded form of an Afro-Cuban suite, consisting of five movements. ''Mario Bauza and his Afro-Cuban Orchestra''. Messidor CD (1992).</ref>
This was the birth of [[Afro-Cuban jazz]]. The use of clave brought the African ''timeline'', or ''[[bell pattern|key pattern]]'', into jazz. Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which is a complex level of African [[cross beat|cross-rhythm]].{{sfn|Peñalosa|2010|p=56}} Within the context of jazz, however, harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and the harmonic "one" is always understood to be "one". If the progression begins on the "three-side" of clave, it is said to be in ''3–2 clave'' (shown below). If the progression begins on the "two-side", it is in ''2–3 clave''.{{sfn|Peñalosa|2010|pp=131–136}}
:<score override_audio="3-2 son clave.mid">
\new RhythmicStaff {
\clef percussion
\time 4/4
\repeat volta 2 { c8. c16 r8[ c] r[ c] c4 }
}
</score>
====Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo====
[[File:Dizzy Gillespie playing horn 1955.jpg|thumb|upright|Dizzy Gillespie, 1955]]
[[Mario Bauzá]] introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to Cuban conga drummer and composer [[Chano Pozo]]. Gillespie and Pozo's brief collaboration produced some of the most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. "[[Manteca (song)|Manteca]]" (1947) is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal [[guajeo]]s (Afro-Cuban [[ostinato]]s) of the A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the bridge. Gillespie recounted: "If I'd let it go like [Chano] wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was writing an eight-bar bridge, but ... I had to keep going and ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gillespie|first1=Dizzy|last2=Fraser|first2=Al|title=To Be or Not to Bop: Memoirs of Dizzy Gillespie|year=1985|publisher=Da Capo Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-306-80236-2|page=77|title-link=To Be or Not to Bop}}</ref> The bridge gave "Manteca" a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauza's modal "Tanga" of a few years earlier.
Gillespie's collaboration with Pozo brought specific African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the boundaries of harmonic improvisation, ''cu-bop'' also drew from African rhythm. Jazz arrangements with a Latin A section and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during solos, became common practice with many Latin tunes of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be heard on pre-1980 recordings of "Manteca", "[[A Night in Tunisia]]", "Tin Tin Deo", and "[[On Green Dolphin Street (song)|On Green Dolphin Street]]".
==== "Un Poco Loco" ====
Another jazz composition critical to the development of Afro-Cuban jazz was Bud Powell's "[[Un Poco Loco]]," recorded with [[Curley Russell]] on bass and Max Roach on drums. Noted for its "frenetic energy" and "clanging cowbell and polyrhythmic accompaniment,"<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perry |first=Russell |date=2017-09-01 |title=Jazz at 100 Hour 27: Un Poco Loco - The Intensity of Bud Powell (1946 - 1953) |url=https://www.wtju.net/jazz-at-100-hour-27-un-poco-loco-the-intensity-of-bud-powell/ |access-date=2023-11-23 |website=WTJU 91.1 FM |language=en-US}}</ref> the composition combined Afro-Cuban rhythm with polytonality and preceded further use of modality and avant-garde harmony in Latin jazz.<ref>DeMotta, David J. (2015) The contributions of Earl "Bud" Powell to the modern jazz style. Doctoral dissertation, The City University of New York.</ref>
====African cross-rhythm====
[[File:Mongo Santamaria 1969.JPG|thumb|upright|Mongo Santamaria (1969)]]
Cuban percussionist [[Mongo Santamaria]] first recorded his composition "[[Afro Blue]]" in 1959.<ref>"Afro Blue", ''Afro Roots'' (Mongo Santamaria) Prestige CD 24018-2 (1959).</ref>
"Afro Blue" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) [[cross-rhythm]], or [[hemiola]].{{sfn|Peñalosa|2010|p=26}} The piece begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of {{music|time|12|8}}, or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2).
The following example shows the original [[ostinato]] "Afro Blue" bass line. The cross noteheads indicate the main [[Beat music|beats]] (not bass notes).
: <score>
\new Staff <<
\new voice \relative c {
\set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic bass"
\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 105
\time 12/8
\clef bass
\stemUp \repeat volta 2 { d4 a'8~ a d4 d,4 a'8~ a d4 }
}
\new voice \relative c {
\override NoteHead.style = #'cross
\stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4. g g g }
}
>>
</score>
When [[John Coltrane]] covered "Afro Blue" in 1963, he inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a {{music|time|3|4}} jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3). Originally a B{{music|flat}} [[Pentatonic scale|pentatonic]] blues, Coltrane expanded the harmonic structure of "Afro Blue".
Perhaps the most respected [[Afro-cuban jazz]] combo of the late 1950s was vibraphonist [[Cal Tjader]]'s band. Tjader had [[Mongo Santamaria]], [[Armando Peraza]], and [[Willie Bobo]] on his early recording dates.
===Dixieland revival===
In the late 1940s, there was a revival of [[Dixieland]], harking back to the contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types of musicians involved in the revival: the first group was made up of those who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as [[Bob Crosby]]'s Bobcats, [[Max Kaminsky (musician)|Max Kaminsky]], [[Eddie Condon]], and [[Wild Bill Davison]].<ref name="Collier, 1978">{{harvnb|Collier|1978}}</ref> Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those in the [[Lu Watters]] band, [[Conrad Janis]], and [[Ward Kimball]] and his [[Firehouse Five Plus Two]] Jazz Band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.<ref name="Collier, 1978"/>
===Hard bop===
{{Main|Hard bop}}
[[File:Art Blakey 1973.jpg|thumb|Art Blakey (1973)]]
Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or "bop") music that incorporates influences from blues, rhythm and blues, and gospel, especially in saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues. It has been described as "funky" and can be considered a relative of [[soul jazz]].<ref name="gridley">{{Citation |last=Gridley |first=Mark C. |title=[[All Music Guide to Jazz]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/allmusicguidetoj00wynn/page/11 11–12] |year=1994 |editor=Ron Wynn |others=M. Erlewine, V. Bogdanov |place=San Francisco |publisher=Miller Freeman |isbn=0-87930-308-5 |editor-link=Ron Wynn}}</ref> Some elements of the genre were simplified from their bebop roots.<ref name=":1" />
Miles Davis' 1954 performance of "Walkin'" at the first [[Newport Jazz Festival]] introduced the style to the jazz world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Natambu |first1=Kofi |date=2014 |title=Miles Davis: A New Revolution in Sound |journal=Black Renaissance/Renaissance Noire |volume=2 |page=39}}</ref> Further leaders of hard bop's development included the [[Clifford Brown]]/Max Roach Quintet, Art Blakey's [[The Jazz Messengers|Jazz Messengers]], the Horace Silver Quintet, and trumpeters [[Lee Morgan]] and [[Freddie Hubbard]]. The late 1950s to early 1960s saw hard boppers form their own bands as a new generation of blues- and bebop-influenced musicians entered the jazz world, from pianists [[Wynton Kelly]] and [[Tommy Flanagan]]<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Rosenthal |first=David H. |date=1988 |title=Hard Bop and Its Critics |journal=The Black Perspective in Music |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=21–29 |doi=10.2307/1215124 |jstor=1215124 |issn=0090-7790}}</ref> to saxophonists [[Joe Henderson]] and [[Hank Mobley]]. Coltrane, [[Johnny Griffin]], Mobley, and Morgan all participated on the album ''[[A Blowin' Session]]'' (1957), considered by Al Campbell to have been one of the high points of the hard bop era.<ref>{{Citation |title=A Blowin' Session – Johnny Griffin {{!}} Songs, Reviews, Credits {{!}} AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/a-blowin-session-mw0000243668 |language=en |access-date=2022-04-30}}</ref>
Hard bop was prevalent within jazz for about a decade spanning from 1955 to 1965,<ref name=":02"/> but has remained highly influential on mainstream<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=hardbopz |url=http://www.scottyanow.com/hardbopz.html |access-date=2022-04-30 |website=www.scottyanow.com}}</ref> or "straight-ahead" jazz. It went into decline in the late 1960s through the 1970s due to the emergence of other styles such as jazz fusion, but again became influential following the Young Lions Movement and the emergence of [[neo-bop]].<ref name=":1" />
===Modal jazz===
{{Main|Modal jazz}}
Modal jazz is a development which began in the later 1950s which takes the [[musical mode|mode]], or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a solo was meant to fit into a given [[chord progression]], but with modal jazz, the soloist creates a melody using one (or a small number of) modes. The emphasis is thus shifted from harmony to melody:{{sfn|Litweiler|1984|pp=110–111}} "Historically, this caused a seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale)",{{sfn|Levine|1995|p=30}} explained pianist [[Mark Levine (musician)|Mark Levine]].
The modal theory stems from a work by [[George Russell (composer)|George Russell]]. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater jazz world with ''[[Kind of Blue]]'' (1959), an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis' earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation, ''Kind of Blue'' was composed as a series of modal sketches in which the musicians were given scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yudkin|first1=Jeremy|title=The Naming of Names: "Flamenco Sketches" or "All Blues"? Identifying the Last Two Tracks on Miles Davis's Classic Album Kind of Blue|journal=[[The Musical Quarterly]]|date=2012|volume=95|issue=1|pages=15–35|doi=10.1093/musqtl/gds006}}</ref>
"I didn't write out the music for ''Kind of Blue'', but brought in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity,"<ref>Davis, Miles (1989: 234). ''The Autobiography''. New York: Touchstone.</ref> recalled Davis. The track "So What" has only two chords: [[dominant seventh chord|D-7]] and E{{music|b}}-7.{{sfn|Levine|1995|p=29}}
Other innovators in this style include [[Jackie McLean]],{{sfn|Litweiler|1984|pp=120–123}} and two of the musicians who had also played on ''Kind of Blue'': John Coltrane and Bill Evans.
===Free jazz===
{{Main|Free jazz}}
[[File:John Coltrane 1963.jpg|thumb|upright|John Coltrane, 1963]]
Free jazz, and the related form of [[avant-garde jazz]], broke through into an open space of "free tonality" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of [[world music]] from India, Africa, and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing.<ref>Joachim Berendt. ''The Jazz Book''. 1981. Page 21.</ref> While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist [[Charles Mingus]] is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres.
The first major stirrings came in the 1950s with the early work of [[Ornette Coleman]] (whose 1960 album ''[[Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation]]'' coined the term) and [[Cecil Taylor]]. In the 1960s, exponents included [[Albert Ayler]], [[Gato Barbieri]], [[Carla Bley]], [[Don Cherry (trumpeter)|Don Cherry]], [[Larry Coryell]], [[John Coltrane]], [[Bill Dixon]], [[Jimmy Giuffre]], [[Steve Lacy (saxophonist)|Steve Lacy]], [[Michael Mantler]], [[Sun Ra]], [[Roswell Rudd]], [[Pharoah Sanders]], and [[John Tchicai]]. In developing his late style, Coltrane was especially influenced by the dissonance of Ayler's trio with bassist [[Gary Peacock]] and drummer [[Sunny Murray]], a rhythm section honed with [[Cecil Taylor]] as leader. In November 1961, Coltrane played a gig at the Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classic ''Chasin' the 'Trane'', which ''DownBeat'' magazine panned as "anti-jazz". On his 1961 tour of France, he was booed, but persevered, signing with the new [[Impulse! Records]] in 1960 and turning it into "the house that Trane built", while championing many younger free jazz musicians, notably [[Archie Shepp]], who often played with trumpeter [[Bill Dixon]], who organized the 4-day "[[October Revolution in Jazz]]" in Manhattan in 1964, the first free jazz festival.
A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the first half of 1965 show Coltrane's playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like [[multiphonics]], utilization of overtones, and playing in the [[altissimo]] register, as well as a mutated return to Coltrane's [[sheets of sound]]. In the studio, he all but abandoned his soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with increasing freedom. The group's evolution can be traced through the recordings ''[[The John Coltrane Quartet Plays]]'', ''[[Living Space (album)|Living Space]]'' and ''[[Transition (John Coltrane album)|Transition]]'' (both June 1965), ''[[New Thing at Newport]]'' (July 1965), ''[[Sun Ship]]'' (August 1965), and ''[[First Meditations]]'' (September 1965).
In June 1965, Coltrane and 10 other musicians recorded ''[[Ascension (John Coltrane album)|Ascension]]'', a 40-minute-long piece without breaks that included adventurous solos by young avant-garde musicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos. [[Dave Liebman]] later called it "the torch that lit the free jazz thing". After recording with the quartet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of the instrument.
====Free jazz in Europe====
[[File:Peter-broetzmann.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Peter Brötzmann]] is a key figure in European free jazz.]]
Free jazz was played in Europe in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, [[Steve Lacy (saxophonist)|Steve Lacy]], and [[Eric Dolphy]] spent extended periods of time there, and European musicians such as [[Michael Mantler]] and [[John Tchicai]] traveled to the U.S. to experience American music firsthand. European contemporary jazz was shaped by [[Peter Brötzmann]], [[John Surman]], [[Krzysztof Komeda]], [[Zbigniew Namysłowski]], [[Tomasz Stanko]], [[Lars Gullin]], [[Joe Harriott]], [[Albert Mangelsdorff]], [[Kenny Wheeler]], [[Graham Collier]], [[Michael Garrick]] and [[Mike Westbrook]]. They were eager to develop approaches to music that reflected their heritage.
Since the 1960s, creative centers of jazz in Europe have developed, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam. Following the work of drummer [[Han Bennink]] and pianist [[Misha Mengelberg]], musicians started to explore by improvising collectively until a form (melody, rhythm, a famous song) is found Jazz critic [[Kevin Whitehead]] documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his book ''New Dutch Swing''. Since the 1990s Keith Jarrett has defended free jazz from criticism. British writer [[Stuart Nicholson (jazz historian)|Stuart Nicholson]] has argued European contemporary jazz has an identity different from American jazz and follows a different trajectory.<ref name="Nicholson">{{cite book |last1=Nicholson |first1=Stuart |title=Is Jazz Dead? Or Has it Moved to a New Address? |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York}}</ref>
===Latin jazz===
{{Main|Latin jazz}}
Latin jazz is jazz that employs Latin American rhythms and is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. A more precise term might be ''Afro-Latin jazz'', as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa or exhibit an African rhythmic influence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are [[Afro-Cuban jazz]] and Brazilian jazz.
In the 1960s and 1970s, many jazz musicians had only a basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as "Latin tunes", with no distinction between a Cuban [[son montuno]] and a Brazilian [[bossa nova]]. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridley's ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', a bossa nova bass line is referred to as a "Latin bass figure".<ref>Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 444). ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', 7th edn.</ref> It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cuban [[tumbao]] while the drumset and bass played a Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such as "Manteca", "On Green Dolphin Street" and "Song for My Father" have a "Latin" A section and a swung B section. Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth "Latin" feel in the A section of the head and swing throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like [[Cal Tjader]] tended to be the exception. For example, on a 1959 live Tjader recording of "A Night in Tunisia", pianist [[Vince Guaraldi]] soloed through the entire form over an authentic [[mambo (music)|mambo]].<ref>Tjader, Cal (1959). ''Monterey Concerts''. Prestige CD. ASIN: B000000ZCY.</ref>
====Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance====
For most of its history, Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of the 1970s, a new generation of New York City musicians had emerged who were fluent in both [[salsa (music)|salsa]] dance music and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and trumpet) and Andy (bass).<ref>Andy Gonzalez interviewed by Larry Birnbaum. Ed. Boggs, Vernon W. (1992: 297–298). ''Salsiology; Afro-Cuban Music and the Evolution of Salsa in New York City''. New York: Greenwood Press. {{ISBN|0-313-28468-7}}</ref> During 1974–1976, they were members of one of [[Eddie Palmieri]]'s most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.
This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba<ref>Acosta, Leonardo (2003). ''Cubano Be, Cubano Bop: One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba'', p. 59. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. {{ISBN|1-58834-147-X}}</ref> The first Cuban band of this new wave was [[Irakere]]. Their "Chékere-son" (1976) introduced a style of "Cubanized" bebop-flavored horn lines that departed from the more angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was based on Charlie Parker's composition "Billie's Bounce", jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn lines.<ref>Moore, Kevin (2007) "History and Discography of Irakere". [http://www.timba.com/encyclopedia_pages/history-and-discography-of-irakere ''Timba.com''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326234736/http://www.timba.com/encyclopedia_pages/history-and-discography-of-irakere |date=March 26, 2013 }}</ref> In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakere's Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion, their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz and in the jazzy and complex contemporary form of popular dance music known as [[timba]].
====Afro-Brazilian jazz====
[[File:Naná Vasconcelos.jpg|thumb|upright|Naná Vasconcelos playing the Afro-Brazilian [[Berimbau]]]]
Brazilian jazz, such as [[bossa nova]], is derived from [[samba]], with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English, whilst the related jazz-samba is an adaptation of street samba into jazz.
The bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians [[João Gilberto]] and [[Antônio Carlos Jobim]] and was made popular by [[Elizete Cardoso]]'s recording of "[[Chega de Saudade]]" on the ''[[Canção do Amor Demais]]'' LP. Gilberto's initial releases, and the 1959 film ''[[Black Orpheus]]'', achieved significant popularity in [[Latin America]]; this spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by [[Charlie Byrd]] and Stan Getz cemented bossa nova's popularity and led to a worldwide boom, with 1963's ''[[Getz/Gilberto]]'', numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as [[Ella Fitzgerald]] and [[Frank Sinatra]], and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music.
Brazilian percussionists such as [[Airto Moreira]] and [[Naná Vasconcelos]] also influenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater audience to them.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yanow|first=Scott|url={{AllMusic|class=artist|id=p36965/biography|pure_url=yes}}|title=Airto Moreira|website=AllMusic|date=August 5, 1941|access-date=October 22, 2011}}</ref><ref>[{{AllMusic|class=artist|id=p6300/biography|pure_url=yes}} Allmusic Biography]</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Palmer|first=Robert|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F01E6DF123BF93BA15755C0A964948260|title=Jazz Festival – A Study Of Folk-Jazz Fusion – Review|newspaper=The New York Times|date=June 28, 1982|access-date=July 7, 2012}}</ref>
While bossa nova has been labeled as jazz by music critics, namely those from outside of Brazil, it has been rejected by many prominent bossa nova musicians such as Jobim, who once said "Bossa nova is not Brazilian jazz."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Blount |first=Jeb |date=1994-12-09 |title=APPRECIATION |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1994/12/09/appreciation/87317f96-19bd-4bae-8ae1-d66d221bf510/ |access-date=2022-05-05 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Friad |first=William |date=2004-03-04 |title=Brazil's Melgaço: The Music of Silence |url=https://www.brazzil.com/14899-brazil-s-melga-ccedil-o-the-music-of-silence/ |access-date=2022-05-05 |website=Brazzil |language=en-US}}</ref>
===African-inspired===
[[File:Randy Weston.jpg|thumb|upright|Randy Weston]]
====Rhythm====
The first [[jazz standard]] composed by a non-Latino to use an overt African {{music|time|12|8}} cross-rhythm was [[Wayne Shorter]]'s "[[Footprints (composition)|Footprints]]" (1967).<ref>"Footprints" ''Miles Smiles'' (Miles Davis). Columbia CD (1967).</ref> On the version recorded on ''Miles Smiles'' by [[Miles Davis]], the bass switches to a {{music|time|4|4}} [[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]] figure at 2:20. "Footprints" is not, however, a [[Latin jazz]] tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed directly by [[Ron Carter]] (bass) and [[Tony Williams (drummer)|Tony Williams]] (drums) via the rhythmic sensibilities of [[Swing (jazz performance style)|swing]]. Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. The following example shows the {{music|time|12|8}} and {{music|time|4|4}} forms of the bass line. The slashed noteheads indicate the main [[beat music|beats]] (not bass notes), where one ordinarily taps their foot to "keep time".
: <score lang="lilypond">
{
\relative c, <<
\new Staff <<
\new voice {
\clef bass \time 12/8 \key c \minor
\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100
\stemDown \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \repeat volta 2 { es4. es es es }
}
\new voice {
\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100
\time 12/8
\stemUp \repeat volta 2 { c'4 g'8~ g c4 es4.~ es4 g,8 } \bar ":|."
} >>
\new Staff <<
\new voice {
\clef bass \time 12/8 \key c \minor
\set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 4/4
\scaleDurations 3/2 {
\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 8 = 100
\stemDown \override NoteHead.style = #'cross \repeat volta 2 { es,4 es es es }
}
}
\new voice \relative c' {
\time 12/8
\set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 4/4
\scaleDurations 3/2 {
\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100
\stemUp \repeat volta 2 { c,8. g'16~ g8 c es4~ es8. g,16 } \bar ":|."
}
} >>
>> }
</score>
====Pentatonic scales====
The use of [[pentatonic scale]]s was another trend associated with Africa. The use of pentatonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of years.<ref>"An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of ''pentatonic'' song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents ... reaches back perhaps thousands of years to early West African sorgum agriculturalists."{{harvnb|Kubik|1999|p=95}}</ref>
[[McCoy Tyner]] perfected the use of the pentatonic scale in his solos,<ref>Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 270). ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', 7th ed.</ref> and also used parallel fifths and fourths, which are common harmonies in West Africa.<ref>Map showing distribution of harmony in Africa. Jones, A. M. (1959). ''Studies in African Music.'' Oxford Press.</ref>
The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by [[Joe Henderson]] on [[Horace Silver]]'s "African Queen" (1965).{{sfn|Levine|1995|p=235}}
Jazz pianist, theorist, and educator [[Mark Levine (musician)|Mark Levine]] refers to the scale generated by beginning on the fifth step of a pentatonic scale as the ''V pentatonic scale''.<ref>Levine, Mark (1989: 127). ''The Jazz Piano Book''. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music. ASIN: B004532DEE</ref>
[[File:I IV V pentatonic.tiff|thumb|center|upright=2.05|C pentatonic scale beginning on the I (C pentatonic), IV (F pentatonic), and V (G pentatonic) steps of the scale.{{clarify|date=August 2012}}<!--the text above says the fifth step of a pentatonic scale, but this shows the fifth step of the C major diatonic scale-->]]
Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all three chords of the standard II–V–I jazz progression.<ref>Levine (1989: 127).</ref> This is a very common progression, used in pieces such as Miles Davis' "Tune Up". The following example shows the V pentatonic scale over a II–V–I progression.<ref>After Mark Levine (1989: 127). ''The Jazz Piano Book''.</ref>
[[File:II V I.tiff|thumb|center|upright=2.05|V pentatonic scale over II–V–I chord progression]]
Accordingly, John Coltrane's "[[Giant Steps]]" (1960), with its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied [[Nicolas Slonimsky]]'s ''Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns'', which contains material that is virtually identical to portions of "Giant Steps".<ref>Bair, Jeff (2003: 5). [https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4348/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf ''Cyclic Patterns in John Coltrane's Melodic Vocabulary as Influenced by Nicolas Slonimsky's Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns: An Analysis of Selected Improvisations''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816120320/https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4348/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf |date=August 16, 2017 }}. PhD Thesis. University of North Texas.</ref> The harmonic complexity of "Giant Steps" is on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music. Superimposing the pentatonic scale over "Giant Steps" is not merely a matter of harmonic simplification, but also a sort of "Africanizing" of the piece, which provides an alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes that when mixed in with more conventional "playing the changes", pentatonic scales provide "structure and a feeling of increased space".<ref>Levine, Mark (1995: 205). ''The Jazz Theory Book''. Sher Music. {{ISBN|1-883217-04-0}}.</ref>
===Sacred and liturgical jazz===
{{Main|Sacred jazz}}
As noted above, jazz has incorporated from its inception aspects of African-American sacred music including spirituals and hymns. Secular jazz musicians often performed renditions of spirituals and hymns as part of their repertoire or isolated compositions such as "Come Sunday", part of "Black and Beige Suite" by [[Duke Ellington]]. Later many other jazz artists borrowed from black [[gospel music]]. However, it was only after World War II that a few jazz musicians began to compose and perform extended works intended for religious settings or as religious expression. Since the 1950s, sacred and liturgical music has been performed and recorded by many prominent jazz composers and musicians.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bowes |first1=Malcolm |title=Jazz in the chapel |journal=Music Journal |date=January 11, 1966 |volume=24 |issue=9 |page=45 }}</ref> The "Abyssinian Mass" by [[Wynton Marsalis]] (Blueengine Records, 2016) is a recent example.
Relatively little has been written about sacred and liturgical jazz. In a 2013 doctoral dissertation, Angelo Versace examined the development of sacred jazz in the 1950s using disciplines of musicology and history. He noted that the traditions of black gospel music and jazz were combined in the 1950s to produce a new genre, "sacred jazz".<ref name="Versace">{{cite web |last1=Versace |first1=Angelo |title=The Evolution of Sacred Jazz as Reflected in the Music of Mary Lou Williams, Duke Ellington, John Coltrane and Recognized Contemporary Sacred Jazz Artists |url=https://scholarlyrepository.miami.edu/oa_dissertations/991 |website=Open Access Dissertations |publisher=University of Miami |access-date= March 28, 2020 |date= April 30, 2013}}</ref> Versace maintained that the religious intent separates sacred from secular jazz. Most prominent in initiating the sacred jazz movement were pianist and composer [[Mary Lou Williams]], known for her jazz masses in the 1950s and [[Duke Ellington]]. Prior to his death in 1974 in response to contacts from Grace Cathedral in San Francisco, [[Duke Ellington]] wrote three Sacred Concerts: 1965 – A Concert of Sacred Music; 1968 – Second Sacred Concert; 1973 – Third Sacred Concert.
The most prominent form of sacred and liturgical jazz is the jazz mass. Although most often performed in a concert setting rather than church worship setting, this form has many examples. An eminent example of composers of the jazz mass was [[Mary Lou Williams]]. Williams converted to Catholicism in 1957, and proceeded to compose three masses in the jazz idiom.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.commonwealmagazine.org/jazz-mass|last1=Corbin |first1=Ian Marcus |title=A jazz mass? The vexing legacy of Mary Lou Williams |magazine=[[Commonweal (magazine)|Commonweal]]|date=December 7, 2012 |volume=139 |issue=12 |pages=13–15 |access-date= November 1, 2020}}</ref> One was composed in 1968 to honor the [[Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.|recently assassinated Martin Luther King Jr.]] and the third was commissioned by a pontifical commission. It was performed once in 1975 in St Patrick's Cathedral in New York City. However the [[Catholic Church]] has not embraced jazz as appropriate for worship. In 1966 Joe Masters recorded "Jazz Mass" for Columbia Records. A jazz ensemble was joined by soloists and choir using the English text of the Roman Catholic Mass.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Connor |first1=Norman |title=The Jazz Mass by Joe Masters |journal=Choral Journal |date= February 1, 1970 |volume=10 |issue=5 |page=19 }}</ref> Other examples include "Jazz Mass in Concert" by [[Lalo Schiffrin]] (Aleph Records, 1998, UPC 0651702632725) and "Jazz Mass" by [[Vince Guaraldi]] (Fantasy Records, 1965). In England, classical composer [[Will Todd]] recorded his "Jazz Missa Brevis" with a jazz ensemble, soloists and the St Martin's Voices on a 2018 Signum Records release, "Passion Music/Jazz Missa Brevis" also released as "Mass in Blue", and jazz organist James Taylor composed "The Rochester Mass" (Cherry Red Records, 2015).<ref>{{cite news |last1=Peel |first1=Adrian |title='The Rochester Mass,' a new concept from organist James Taylor |url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/a-and-e/music/the-rochester-mass-a-new-concept-from-organist-james-taylor/article/450967 |access-date= March 27, 2020 |agency=Digital Journal |publisher=Digital Journal |date= December 2, 2015}}</ref> In 2013, Versace put forth bassist [[Ike Sturm]] and New York composer Deanna Witkowski as contemporary exemplars of sacred and liturgical jazz.<ref name="Versace" />
===Jazz fusion===
{{Main|Jazz fusion}}
[[File:Miles Davis 24.jpg|thumb|right|Fusion trumpeter [[Miles Davis]] in 1989]]
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of jazz-rock [[Jazz fusion|fusion]] was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as [[Jimi Hendrix]] and [[Frank Zappa]]. Jazz fusion often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords, and harmonies.
According to [[AllMusic]]:
<blockquote>... until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate. [However, ...] as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with [[hard bop]] and did not want to play strictly [[free jazz|avant-garde music]], the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/d299|title=Explore: Fusion|website=AllMusic|access-date=November 7, 2010|archive-date=February 19, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219122445/http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/d299|url-status=dead}}</ref></blockquote>
====Miles Davis' new directions====
In 1969, Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with ''[[In a Silent Way]]'', which can be considered his first fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by producer [[Teo Macero]], this quiet, static album would be equally influential to the development of [[ambient music]].
As Davis recalls:
<blockquote>The music I was really listening to in 1968 was [[James Brown]], the great guitar player [[Jimi Hendrix]], and a new group who had just come out with a hit record, "[[Dance to the Music (Sly and the Family Stone album)|Dance to the Music]]", [[Sly and the Family Stone]] ... I wanted to make it more like rock. When we recorded ''In a Silent Way'' I just threw out all the chord sheets and told everyone to play off of that.<ref>Davis, Miles, with Quincy Troupe (1989: 298), ''The Autobiography''. New York: Simon and Schuster.</ref></blockquote>
Two contributors to ''In a Silent Way'' also joined organist [[Larry Young (musician)|Larry Young]] to create one of the early acclaimed fusion albums: [[Emergency! (album)|''Emergency!'']] (1969) by [[The Tony Williams Lifetime]].
====Psychedelic-jazz====
=====Weather Report=====
[[Weather Report]]'s self-titled electronic and psychedelic ''[[Weather Report (1971 album)|Weather Report]]'' debut album caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971, thanks to the pedigree of the group's members (including percussionist [[Airto Moreira]]), and their unorthodox approach to music. The album featured a softer sound than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing [[soprano saxophone]], and with no [[synthesizer]]s involved), but is still considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant-garde experiments which [[Joe Zawinul]] and Shorter had pioneered with Miles Davis on ''[[Bitches Brew]]'', including an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favor of continuous rhythm and movement – but took the music further. To emphasize the group's rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable avant-garde atmospheric piece "Milky Way", which featured by Shorter's extremely muted saxophone inducing vibrations in Zawinul's piano strings while the latter pedaled the instrument. ''[[DownBeat]]'' described the album as "music beyond category", and awarded it Album of the Year in the magazine's polls that year.
Weather Report's subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works.<ref>Dan, Morgenstern (1971). ''DownBeat'' May 13.</ref>
====Jazz-rock====
Although some jazz purists protested against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock (such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful amplification, [[Distortion (music)|"fuzz" pedals]], [[wah-wah pedal]]s and other effects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, [[Eddie Harris]], keyboardists [[Joe Zawinul]], [[Chick Corea]], and Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist [[Gary Burton]], drummer [[Tony Williams (drummer)|Tony Williams]], violinist [[Jean-Luc Ponty]], guitarists [[Larry Coryell]], [[Al Di Meola]], [[John McLaughlin (musician)|John McLaughlin]], [[Ryo Kawasaki]], and [[Frank Zappa]], saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassists [[Jaco Pastorius]] and [[Stanley Clarke]]. Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan, where the band [[Casiopea]] released more than thirty fusion albums.
According to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, "just as free jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s ... jazz-rock briefly suggested the promise of doing the same" with albums such as Williams' ''[[Emergency! (album)|Emergency!]]'' (1970) and Davis' ''[[Agharta (album)|Agharta]]'' (1975), which Nicholson said "suggested the potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before." This development was stifled by commercialism, Nicholson said, as the genre "mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio" at the end of the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book|page=614|last1=Harrison|first1=Max|last2=Thacker|first2=Eric|last3=Nicholson|first3=Stuart|title=The Essential Jazz Records: Modernism to Postmodernism|year=2000|publisher=[[A&C Black]]|isbn=978-0-7201-1822-3}}</ref>
==== Electronic music ====
Although jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the 1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include [[Pat Metheny]], [[John Abercrombie (guitarist)|John Abercrombie]], [[John Scofield]] and the Swedish group [[Esbjörn Svensson Trio|e.s.t.]] Since the beginning of the 1990s, electronic music had significant technical improvements that popularized and created new possibilities for the genre. Jazz elements such as improvisation, rhythmic complexities and harmonic textures were introduced to the genre and consequently had a big impact in new listeners and in some ways kept the versatility of jazz relatable to a newer generation that did not necessarily relate to what the traditionalists call real jazz (bebop, cool and modal jazz).<ref>Nicholson, Stuart (January 3, 2003), [https://jazztimes.com/features/jazztronica-a-brief-history-of-the-future-of-jazz/ "Jazztronica: A Brief History of the Future of Jazz"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713032002/https://jazztimes.com/features/jazztronica-a-brief-history-of-the-future-of-jazz/|date=July 13, 2019}}, ''[[JazzTimes]]''.</ref> Artists such as [[Squarepusher]], [[Aphex Twin]], [[Flying Lotus]] and sub genres like [[Intelligent dance music|IDM]], [[drum 'n' bass]], [[jungle music|jungle]] and [[techno]] ended up incorporating a lot of these elements.<ref>Kalouti, Noor, et al. (July 11, 2016), [https://flypaper.soundfly.com/discovery/nu-jazz-6-artists-fuse-jazz-electronic-music/ "6 Genre-Bending Artists Fusing Jazz with Electronic Music"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713032000/https://flypaper.soundfly.com/discovery/nu-jazz-6-artists-fuse-jazz-electronic-music/|date=July 13, 2019}}, ''Soundfly''.</ref> Squarepusher being cited as one big influence for jazz performers drummer [[Mark Guiliana]] and pianist [[Brad Mehldau]], showing the correlations between jazz and electronic music are a two-way street.<ref>Larkin, Cormac (October 13, 2015),[http://www.irishtimes.com/culture/music/who-can-keep-up-with-mark-guiliana-1.2385618 "Who Can Keep up with Mark Guiliana?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104041224/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/music/who-can-keep-up-with-mark-guiliana-1.2385618|date=November 4, 2020}} ''[[The Irish Times]]''.</ref>
===Jazz-funk===
{{Main|Jazz-funk}}
By the mid-1970s, the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong [[beat (music)|back beat]] ([[Groove (music)|groove]]), electrified sounds<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rhapsody.com/jazz/jazzfunk/more.html |title=Free Jazz-Funk Music: Album, Track and Artist Charts |access-date=November 28, 2010 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920131709/http://www.rhapsody.com/jazz/jazzfunk/more.html |archive-date=2008-09-20 }}, ''Rhapsody Online&nbsp;— Rhapsody.com'' (October 20, 2010).</ref> and, often, the presence of electronic [[analog synthesizers]]. Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban rhythms and Jamaican [[reggae]], notably Kingston bandleader [[Sonny Bradshaw]]. Another feature is the shift of emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. The integration of [[funk]], [[soul music|soul]], and [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]] music into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide and ranges from strong [[Musical improvisation#Jazz improvisation|jazz improvisation]] to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz [[riff]]s and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.<ref name=allmusic>{{cite web|url=http://allmusic.com/explore/style/d202 |title=Explore: Jazz-Funk |website=[[AllMusic]] |access-date=October 19, 2010 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019041451/http://allmusic.com/explore/style/d202 |archive-date=October 19, 2010 }}</ref>
Early examples are Herbie Hancock's [[The Headhunters|Headhunters]] band and Miles Davis' ''[[On the Corner]]'' album, which, in 1972, began Davis' foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed, an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for [[rock and roll|rock]] and funk. While there is a discernible rock and funk influence in the [[timbre]]s of the instruments employed, other tonal and rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the ''[[musique concrète]]'' approach that Davis and producer [[Teo Macero]] had begun to explore in the late 1960s.
===Straight-ahead jazz===
{{main|Straight-ahead jazz|1980s in jazz}}
[[File:Wynton Marsalis 2009 09 13.jpg|thumb|right|[[Wynton Marsalis]]]]
The 1980s saw something of a reaction against the fusion and free jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter [[Wynton Marsalis]] emerged early in the decade, and strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by artists such as [[Louis Armstrong]] and [[Duke Ellington]], as well as the hard bop of the 1950s. It is debatable whether Marsalis' critical and commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularly [[modal jazz]] and [[post-bop]]); nonetheless there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if fusion and free jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.
For example, several musicians who had been prominent in the [[Jazz fusion|fusion]] genre during the 1970s began to record acoustic jazz once more, including [[Chick Corea]] and [[Herbie Hancock]]. Other musicians who had experimented with electronic instruments in the previous decade had abandoned them by the 1980s; for example, [[Bill Evans]], [[Joe Henderson]], and [[Stan Getz]]. Even the 1980s music of [[Miles Davis]], although certainly still fusion, adopted a far more accessible and recognizably jazz-oriented approach than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return to a theme-and-solos approach.
A similar reaction{{Vague|date=January 2018}} took place against free jazz. According to [[Ted Gioia]]:<blockquote>the very leaders of the avant garde started to signal a retreat from the core principles of free jazz. Anthony Braxton began recording standards over familiar chord changes. [[Cecil Taylor]] played duets in concert with [[Mary Lou Williams]], and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as David Murray or [[Don Pullen]] may have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they never forgot all the other ways one could play African-American music for fun and profit.<ref>{{cite web |title=Where Did Our Revolution Go? (Part Three) – Jazz.com &#124; Jazz Music – Jazz Artists – Jazz News |url=http://www.jazz.com/jazz-blog/2008/2/27/where-did-our-revolution-go-part-three  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517181105/http://www.jazz.com/jazz-blog/2008/2/27/where-did-our-revolution-go-part-three |archive-date=May 17, 2013 |access-date=October 2, 2013 |website=Jazz.com}}</ref></blockquote>Pianist [[Keith Jarrett]]—whose bands of the 1970s had played only original compositions with prominent free jazz elements—established his so-called 'Standards Trio' in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring collective improvisation, has primarily performed and recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected them for the 1970s.
In 1987, the United States House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative [[John Conyers Jr.]] to define jazz as a unique form of American music, stating "jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated." It passed in the House on September 23, 1987, and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.<ref name="HR57">HR-57 Center [http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz and Blues, with the six-point mandate.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918100538/http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html|date=September 18, 2008}}</ref>
In 2001, [[Ken Burns]]'s documentary ''[[Jazz (TV series)|Jazz]]'' premiered on [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]], featuring Wynton Marsalis and other experts reviewing the entire history of American jazz to that time. It received some criticism, however, for its failure to reflect the many distinctive non-American traditions and styles in jazz that had developed, and its limited representation of US developments in the last quarter of the 20th century.
==== Neo-bop ====
{{main|Neo-bop|}}
The emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians' groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz community. In the 1970s, the groups of [[Betty Carter]] and [[The Jazz Messengers|Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers]] retained their conservative jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz-rock, and in addition to difficulty booking their acts, struggled to find younger generations of personnel to authentically play traditional styles such as [[hard bop]] and [[bebop]]. In the late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz players in Blakey's band began to occur. This movement included musicians such as [[Valery Ponomarev]] and [[Bobby Watson]], [[Dennis Irwin]] and [[James Williams (musician)|James Williams]]. In the 1980s, in addition to [[Wynton Marsalis|Wynton]] and [[Branford Marsalis]], the emergence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such as [[Donald Brown (musician)|Donald Brown]], [[Mulgrew Miller]], and later, Benny Green, bassists such as [[Charles Fambrough]], [[Lonnie Plaxico]] (and later, [[Peter Washington]] and Essiet Essiet) horn players such as [[Bill Pierce (saxophonist)|Bill Pierce]], [[Donald Harrison]] and later [[Javon Jackson]] and [[Terence Blanchard]] emerged as talented jazz musicians, all of whom made significant contributions in the 1990s and 2000s.
The young Jazz Messengers' contemporaries, including [[Roy Hargrove]], [[Marcus Roberts]], [[Wallace Roney]] and [[Mark Whitfield]] were also influenced by [[Wynton Marsalis]]'s emphasis toward jazz tradition. These younger rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead championed the acoustic jazz sound of Charlie Parker, [[Thelonious Monk]] and early recordings of the first [[Miles Davis]] quintet. This group of "Young Lions" sought to reaffirm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of classical music.<ref name="Guilliatt, Richard">{{cite web |last1=Guilliatt |first1=Richard |title=Jazz: The Young Lions' Roar |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-09-13-ca-1495-story.html|website=Los Angeles Times |access-date= January 14, 2018 |date= September 13, 1992}}</ref>
In addition, [[Betty Carter]]'s rotation of young musicians in her group foreshadowed many of New York's preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers. Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumni [[Benny Green (pianist)|Benny Green]], [[Branford Marsalis]] and [[Ralph Peterson Jr.]], as well as [[Kenny Washington (musician)|Kenny Washington]], [[Lewis Nash]], [[Curtis Lundy]], [[Cyrus Chestnut]], [[Mark Shim]], [[Craig Handy]], Greg Hutchinson and [[Marc Cary]], [[Taurus Mateen]] and [[Geri Allen]]. [[Out of the Blue (American band)|O.T.B.]] ensemble included a rotation of young jazz musicians such as [[Kenny Garrett]], [[Steve Wilson (jazz musician)|Steve Wilson]], [[Kenny Davis (musician)|Kenny Davis]], [[Renee Rosnes]], [[Ralph Peterson Jr.]], [[Billy Drummond]], and [[Robert Hurst (musician)|Robert Hurst]].<ref name="Out">{{cite web|last1=Yanow|first1=Scott |title=Out of the Blue |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/out-of-the-blue-mn0000419825/biography|website=AllMusic|access-date= January 14, 2018}}</ref>
Starting in the 1990s, a number of players from largely straight-ahead or post-bop backgrounds emerged as a result of the rise of neo-traditionalist jazz, including pianists [[Jason Moran (musician)|Jason Moran]] and [[Vijay Iyer]], guitarist [[Kurt Rosenwinkel]], vibraphonist [[Stefon Harris]], trumpeters [[Roy Hargrove]] and [[Terence Blanchard]], saxophonists [[Chris Potter (jazz saxophonist)|Chris Potter]] and [[Joshua Redman]], clarinetist [[Ken Peplowski]] and bassist [[Christian McBride]].
===Smooth jazz===
{{Main|Smooth jazz}}
[[File:David Sanborn 2008 2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[David Sanborn]], 2008]]
In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called "pop fusion" or "smooth jazz" became successful, garnering significant radio airplay in "[[quiet storm]]" time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S. This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including [[Al Jarreau]], [[Anita Baker]], [[Chaka Khan]], and [[Sade Adu|Sade]], as well as saxophonists including [[Grover Washington Jr.]], [[Kenny G]], [[Kirk Whalum]], [[Boney James]], and [[David Sanborn]]. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are of 90–105 [[beats per minute]]), and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, and [[legato]] electric guitar are popular).
In his ''[[Newsweek]]'' article "The Problem With Jazz Criticism",<ref>{{cite web|title=Opinion: The Problem With Jazz Criticism|author=Stanley Crouch|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/58477|website=Newsweek|date=June 5, 2003|access-date=April 9, 2010}}</ref> [[Stanley Crouch]] considers Miles Davis' playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negative perceptions of smooth jazz, stating:
<blockquote>I challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9722/|title=Caught Between Jazz and Pop: The Contested Origins, Criticism, Performance Practice, and Reception of Smooth Jazz|website=Digital.library.unt.edu|date=October 23, 2010|access-date=November 7, 2010}}</ref></blockquote>
===Acid jazz, nu jazz, and jazz rap===
{{Main|Acid jazz|Nu jazz|Jazz rap}}
[[Acid jazz]] developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced by [[jazz-funk]] and [[electronic music|electronic dance music]]. Acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including [[Sampling (music)|sampling]] or live DJ cutting and [[scratching]]), but it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance. Richard S. Ginell of AllMusic considers [[Roy Ayers]] "one of the prophets of acid jazz".<ref name="Ginell">{{cite web |last1=Ginell |first1=Richard S. |title=Roy Ayers |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/roy-ayers-mn0000345168/biography |website=AllMusic |access-date= July 21, 2018}}</ref>
[[Nu jazz]] is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of live instrumentation with the beats of jazz [[house music|house]] (as exemplified by [[Saint Germain (musician)|St Germain]], [[Jazzanova]], and [[Fila Brazillia]]) to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example, [[The Cinematic Orchestra]], [[Kobol (band)|Kobol]] and the Norwegian "future jazz" style pioneered by [[Bugge Wesseltoft]], [[Jaga Jazzist]], and [[Nils Petter Molvær]]).
[[Jazz rap]] developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s and incorporates jazz influences into [[hip hop]]. In 1988, [[Gang Starr]] released the debut single "Words I Manifest", which sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 "Night in Tunisia", and [[Stetsasonic]] released "Talkin' All That Jazz", which sampled [[Lonnie Liston Smith]]. Gang Starr's debut LP ''[[No More Mr. Nice Guy (Gang Starr album)|No More Mr. Nice Guy]]'' (1989) and their 1990 track "Jazz Thing" sampled Charlie Parker and [[Ramsey Lewis]]. The groups which made up the [[Native Tongues Posse]] tended toward jazzy releases: these include the [[Jungle Brothers]]' debut ''[[Straight Out the Jungle]]'' (1988), and [[A Tribe Called Quest]]'s ''[[People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm]]'' (1990) and ''[[The Low End Theory]]'' (1991). Rap duo [[Pete Rock & CL Smooth]] incorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debut ''[[Mecca and the Soul Brother]]''. Rapper [[Guru (rapper)|Guru]]'s [[Jazzmatazz, Vol. 1|Jazzmatazz]] series began in 1993 using jazz musicians during the studio recordings.
Although jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis' final album ''[[Doo-Bop]]'' (released posthumously in 1992) was based on hip hop beats and collaborations with producer [[Easy Mo Bee]]. Davis' ex-bandmate [[Herbie Hancock]] also absorbed hip-hop influences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album ''[[Dis Is Da Drum]]'' in 1994.
The mid-2010s saw an increased influence of R&B, hip-hop, and pop music on jazz. In 2015, [[Kendrick Lamar]] released his third studio album, ''[[To Pimp a Butterfly]]''. The album heavily featured prominent contemporary jazz artists such as [[Thundercat (musician)|Thundercat]]<ref name="booklet">{{cite AV media notes |title=To Pimp a Butterfly |url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/to-pimp-a-butterfly-mw0002835159/credits |publisher=[[Interscope Records]]}}</ref> and redefined jazz rap with a larger focus on improvisation and live soloing rather than simply sampling. In that same year, saxophonist [[Kamasi Washington]] released his nearly three-hour long debut, ''[[The Epic (album)|The Epic]]''. Its hip-hop inspired beats and R&B vocal interludes was not only acclaimed by critics for being innovative in keeping jazz relevant,<ref>{{cite web |author=Russell Warfield |date=May 5, 2015 |title=The Epic |url=http://drownedinsound.com/releases/18781/reviews/4148955  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012095408/http://drownedinsound.com/releases/18781/reviews/4148955 |archive-date=October 12, 2017 |access-date=October 12, 2017 |website=drownedinsound.com}}</ref> but also sparked a small resurgence in jazz on the internet.
===Punk jazz and jazzcore===
[[File:John Zorn.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[John Zorn]] performing in 2006]]
The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with [[post-punk]] in London and New York City led to a new appreciation of jazz. In London, [[the Pop Group]] began to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk rock.<ref>Dave Lang, ''Perfect Sound Forever'', February 1999. {{cite web|url=http://www.furious.com/Perfect/popgroup.html |title=The Pop Group |access-date=January 23, 2016  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990420123739/http://www.furious.com/perfect/popgroup.html |archive-date=April 20, 1999 }} Access date: November 15, 2008.</ref> In New York, [[No Wave]] took direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include [[Lydia Lunch]]'s ''Queen of Siam'',<ref name="bangs">Bangs, Lester. "Free Jazz / Punk Rock". ''Musician Magazine'', 1979. [http://www.notbored.org/bangs.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110163919/http://www.notbored.org/bangs.html|date=January 10, 2021}} Access date: July 20, 2008.</ref> Gray, the work of [[James Chance and the Contortions]] (who mixed [[Soul music|Soul]] with free jazz and [[punk rock|punk]])<ref name=bangs/> and the [[Lounge Lizards]]<ref name=bangs/> (the first group to call themselves "[[punk jazz]]").
[[John Zorn]] took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the ''[[Spy vs Spy (album)|Spy vs. Spy]]'' album in 1986, a collection of [[Ornette Coleman]] tunes done in the contemporary [[thrashcore]] style.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonic.net/~goblin/8zorn.html |title="House Of Zorn", Goblin Archives, at |website=Sonic.net |access-date=November 7, 2010  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019024244/http://sonic.net/~goblin/8zorn.html |archive-date=October 19, 2010 }}</ref> In the same year, [[Sonny Sharrock]], [[Peter Brötzmann]], [[Bill Laswell]], and [[Ronald Shannon Jackson]] recorded the first album under the name [[Last Exit (free jazz band)|Last Exit]], a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.progressiveears.com/asp/reviews.asp?albumID=4193&bhcp=1 |title=Progressive Ears Album Reviews |website=Progressiveears.com |date=October 19, 2007 |access-date=November 7, 2010  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607145159/http://www.progressiveears.com/asp/reviews.asp?albumID=4193&bhcp=1 |archive-date=June 7, 2011 }}</ref> These developments are the origins of ''jazzcore'', the fusion of free jazz with [[hardcore punk]].
===M-Base===
{{Main| M-Base}}
[[File:Steve Coleman 1611.JPG|thumb|Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004]]
The [[M-Base]] movement started in the 1980s, when a loose collective of young African-American musicians in New York which included [[Steve Coleman]], [[Greg Osby]], and [[Gary Thomas (musician)|Gary Thomas]] developed a complex but grooving<ref>"... circular and highly complex polymetric patterns which preserve their danceable character of popular Funk-rhythms despite their internal complexity and asymmetries ..." (Musicologist and musician Ekkehard Jost, ''Sozialgeschichte des Jazz'', 2003, p. 377).</ref> sound.
In the 1990s, most M-Base participants turned to more conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept.<ref name="allaboutjazz.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/musician.php?id=5820|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805045312/http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/musician.php?id=5820|archive-date=August 5, 2010|title=All About Jazz|access-date=March 13, 2011}}</ref>
Coleman's audience decreased, but his music and concepts influenced many musicians, according to pianist Vijay Iver and critic Ben Ratlifff of ''The New York Times''.<ref name="Blumenfeld">{{cite web|last1=Blumenfeld|first1=Larry|title=A Saxophonist's Reverberant Sound|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703302604575294532527380178|website=The Wall Street Journal|access-date= January 14, 2018|date= June 11, 2010|quote=It's hard to overstate [Coleman's] influence. He's affected more than one generation, as much as anyone since John Coltrane ... It's not just that you can connect the dots by playing seven or 11 beats. What sits behind his influence is this global perspective on music and life. He has a point of view of what he does and why he does it.}}</ref><ref name="Undead">{{cite news|last1=Ratliff|first1=Ben|title=Undead Jazzfest Roams the West Village|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/15/arts/music/15undead.html?_r=1|website=The New York Times|access-date= January 14, 2018|date= June 14, 2010|quote=His recombinant ideas about rhythm and form and his eagerness to mentor musicians and build a new vernacular have had a profound effect on American jazz.}}</ref>
M-Base changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman "school",<ref>{{cite web|author=Michael J. West|url=http://jazztimes.com/articles/26044-steve-coleman-vital-information|title=Jazz Articles: Steve Coleman: Vital Information|website=[[JazzTimes]]|date=June 2, 2010|access-date=June 5, 2011}}</ref> with a much advanced but already originally implied concept.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.m-base.com/mbase_explanation.html|title=What Is M-Base?|website=M-base.com|access-date=June 5, 2011}}</ref> Steve Coleman's music and [[M-Base]] concept gained recognition as "next logical step" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and Ornette Coleman.<ref>In 2014 drummer Billy Hart said that "Coleman has quietly influenced the whole jazz musical world", and is the "next logical step" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and Ornette Coleman. (Source: Kristin E. Holmes, ''Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redefining jazz'', October 9, 2014, ''Philly.com'', Philadelphia Media Network) Already in 2010 pianist Vijay Iyer (who was chosen as "Jazz Musician of the Year 2010" by the Jazz Journalists Association) said: "To me, Steve [Coleman] is as important as [John] Coltrane. He has contributed an equal amount to the history of the music. He deserves to be placed in the pantheon of pioneering artists." (Source: Larry Blumenfeld, ''A Saxophonist's Reverberant Sound'', June 11, 2010, ''The Wall Street Journal'') In September 2014, Coleman was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship (a.k.a. "Genius Grant") for "redefining the vocabulary and vernaculars of contemporary music". (Source: Kristin E. Holmes, ''Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redefining jazz'', October 9, 2014, ''Philly.com'', Philadelphia Media Network).</ref>
=== Jazz pluralism ===
Since the 1990s, jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide range of styles and genres are popular. Individual performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in the same performance. Pianist [[Brad Mehldau]] and [[The Bad Plus]] have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A firm avant-garde or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players, such as saxophonists [[Greg Osby]] and [[Charles Gayle]], while others, such as [[James Carter (musician)|James Carter]], have incorporated free jazz elements into a more traditional framework.
[[File:2-11-2018- Andrea Motis & Joan Chamorro Quintet-1 (48597630236).jpg|thumb|Joan Chamorro (bass), [[Andrea Motis]] (trumpet), and [[Ignasi Terraza]] (piano) in 2018]]
[[Harry Connick Jr.]] began his career playing stride piano and the Dixieland jazz of his home, New Orleans, beginning with his first recording when he was 10 years old.<ref name="Bush">{{cite web|last1=Bush|first1=John|title=Harry Connick, Jr|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/harry-connick-jr-mn0000949259/biography|website=AllMusic|access-date= January 14, 2018}}</ref> Some of his earliest lessons were at the home of pianist [[Ellis Marsalis Jr.|Ellis Marsalis]].<ref name="home">{{Cite episode| title =Branford Marsalis and Harry Connick Jr.| series =Finding Your Roots| first =Henry Louis| last = Gates Jr. (host)| network =PBS| date =July 17, 2010| season =1| number =1|type=DVD}}</ref> Connick had success on the pop charts after recording the soundtrack to the movie ''[[When Harry Met Sally]]'', which sold over two million copies.<ref name="Bush" /> Crossover success has also been achieved by [[Diana Krall]], [[Norah Jones]], [[Cassandra Wilson]], [[Kurt Elling]], and [[Jamie Cullum]].
Additionally, the era saw the release of recordings and videos from the previous century, such as a Just Jazz tape broadcast by a band led by [[Gene Ammons]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-18 |title=Dan Morgenstern: Producer |url=https://media.music.txst.edu/morgenstern/Morgenstern-Editor-Author/Morgenstern-JustJazz.html |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=media.music.txst.edu |language=en}}</ref> and studio archives such as ''Just Coolin''' by [[The Jazz Messengers|Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Whiteis |first=David |date=2020-07-22 |title=Art Blakey & the Jazz Messengers: Just Coolin' (Blue Note) |url=https://jazztimes.com/reviews/albums/art-blakey-the-jazz-messengers-just-coolin-blue-note/ |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=JazzTimes |language=en-US}}</ref>
==== Social media ====
An internet-aided trend of 2010's jazz was that of extreme [[reharmonization]], inspired by both virtuosic players known for their speed and rhythm such as [[Art Tatum]], as well as players known for their ambitious voicings and chords such as Bill Evans. Supergroup [[Snarky Puppy]] adopted this trend, allowing players like [[Cory Henry]]<ref>{{cite web|author=David Hochman|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhochman/2018/05/15/grammy-winning-keyboardist-cory-henry-on-inspiration-and-funky-improvisation/#72e76b0738ce|title=Grammy-Winning Keyboardist Cory Henry On Inspiration And Funky Improvisation|website=[[Forbes]]|date=May 15, 2018|access-date=May 16, 2018}}</ref> to shape the grooves and harmonies of modern jazz soloing. [[YouTube]] phenomenon [[Jacob Collier]] also gained recognition for his ability to play an incredibly large number of instruments and his ability to use [[microtones]], advanced polyrhythms, and blend a spectrum of genres in his largely homemade production process.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-08|title=UNESCO World Jazz Day Present {{!}} TeRra Magazine|url=https://magazineterra.com/worldwide-celebration-of-international-jazz-day-30-april/|access-date=2021-03-06|language=en-US|archive-date=March 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305223824/https://magazineterra.com/worldwide-celebration-of-international-jazz-day-30-april/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Michael Bailey|url=http://www.afr.com/lifestyle/arts-and-entertainment/music/jacob-collier-review-youtuber-gets-gen-y-into-jazz-20180501-h0zhx1|title=Jacob Collier review: Youtuber gets Gen Y into jazz|work=[[The Australian Financial Review]]|date=May 1, 2018|access-date=May 16, 2018}}</ref>
Other jazz musicians gained popularity through social media during the 2010s and 2020s. These included [[Joan Chamorro]], a bassist and bandleader based in [[Barcelona]] whose big band and jazz combo videos have received tens of millions of views on YouTube,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-10-31 |title=The Sant Andreu Jazz Band: Our Newest Jazz Stars Are From—Barcelona? – The Syncopated Times |url=https://syncopatedtimes.com/the-sant-andreu-jazz-band-our-newest-jazz-stars-are-from-barcelona/ |access-date=2023-03-11 |language=en-US}}</ref> and [[Emmet Cohen]], who broadcast a series of performances live from New York starting in March 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Morrison |first=Allen |date=2022-07-18 |title=Live From Emmet's Place: inside New York's most exclusive jazz concert |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2022/jul/18/live-from-emmets-place-jazz |access-date=2023-03-11 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Jazz|Music|United States}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Jazz (Henri Matisse)]]
* [[Jazz piano]]
* [[Jazz royalty]]
* [[Victorian Jazz Archive]]
* [[Hogan Jazz Archive]]
* [[International Jazz Day]]
* [[Bibliography of jazz]]
* [[Timeline of jazz education]]
* [[List of certified jazz recordings]]
* [[List of jazz festivals]]
* [[List of jazz genres]]
* [[List of jazz musicians]]
* [[List of jazz standards]]
* [[List of jazz venues]]
* [[List of jazz venues in the United States]]
{{div col end}}
{{Clear}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
=== General and cited references ===
* {{Cite book|last=Cooke|first=Mervyn|year=1999|title=Jazz|location=London|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-20318-7|url=https://archive.org/details/jazz00cook}}.
* {{cite book|last=Collier|first=James Lincoln|author-link=James Lincoln Collier|title=The Making of Jazz: A Comprehensive History|publisher=Dell Publishing|year=1978}}
* {{cite book|last=Dance|first=Stanley|author-link=Stanley Dance|year=1983|title=The World of Earl Hines|publisher=Da Capo Press|isbn=0-306-80182-5}} Includes a 120-page interview with Hines plus many photos.
* {{cite journal|last=Elsdon|first=Peter|year=2003|title=Review: ''The Cambridge Companion to Jazz'', edited by Mervyn Cooke and David Horn|journal=[[Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft]]|number=6|pages=159–175|url=http://www.fzmw.de/2003/2003_12.htm|access-date=April 30, 2013|archive-date=November 1, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101142244/http://www.fzmw.de/2003/2003_12.htm}}
* {{cite book|last=Giddins|first=Gary|author-link=Gary Giddins|year=1998|title=Visions of Jazz: The First Century|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-507675-3}}
* {{cite book |first=W. C. |last=Handy |title=Father of the Blues: An Autobiography |editor=Arna Bontemps |editor-link=Arna Bontemps |others=Foreword by Abbe Niles |publisher=Macmillan Company |location=New York |year=1941}} (no ISBN in this first printing).
* {{cite book|last=Kubik|first=Gerhard|author-link=Gerhard Kubik|year=1999|title=Africa and the Blues|location=Jackson, Mississippi|publisher=University Press of Mississippi}}
* {{cite journal|last=Kubik|first=Gerhard|title=Bebop: A Case in Point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices|journal=[[Black Music Research Journal]]|date=March 22, 2005}}
* {{cite book|last=Levine|first=Mark|author-link=Mark Levine (musician)|title=The Jazz theory book|year=1995|publisher=Sher Music|location=Petaluma, California|isbn=978-1-883217-04-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iyNQpJ4oaMcC&pg=PT6 }}
* {{cite book|last=Litweiler|first=John|title=The Freedom Principle: Jazz After 1958|publisher=Da Capo|year=1984|isbn=978-0-306-80377-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Robert |title=Deep Blues |date=1981 |publisher=Viking |location=New York |isbn=978-0-670-49511-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/deepblues00palme }}
* {{cite book|last=Peñalosa|first=David|year=2010|title=The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins|location=Redway, CA|publisher=Bembe Inc.|isbn=978-1-886502-80-2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Schuller|first=Gunther|author-link=Gunther Schuller|year=1968|title=[[Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development]]|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press}} New printing 1986.
* {{cite book|editor-last=Tucker|editor-first=Mark|editor-link=Mark Tucker (musicologist)|title=Ellington: The Early Years|location=Urbana and Chicago|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1995|orig-date=1991|edition=reprint|isbn=978-0-252-06509-5}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ward|first1=Geoffrey C.|author1-link=Geoffrey C. Ward|last2=Burns|first2=Ken|author2-link=Ken Burns|title=Jazz: A History of America's Music|year=2000|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-679-76539-4|edition=1st}} Also: [[Jazz (miniseries)|''Jazz'' (2001 miniseries)]].
==Further reading==
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Berendt|editor1-first=Joachim Ernst|editor1-link=Joachim-Ernst Berendt|editor2-last=Huesmann|editor2-first=Günther|editor2-link=:de:Günther Huesmann|title=Das Jazzbuch|edition=7th|publisher=S. Fischer|location=Frankfurt am Main|year=2005|isbn=3-10-003802-9|ref=none}}
* [[Ian Carr|Carr, Ian]]. ''Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in Britain.'' 2nd edition. London: Northway. {{ISBN|978-0-9550908-6-8}}
* {{cite AV media|last=Davis|first=Miles|author-link=Miles Davis|title=Boplicity|publisher=Delta Music plc.|date=2005|id=UPC 4-006408-264637|ref=none}}
* Downbeat (2009). ''The Great Jazz Interviews'': Frank Alkyer & Ed Enright (eds). Hal Leonard Books. {{ISBN|978-1-4234-6384-9}}
* Gridley, Mark C. 2004. ''Concise Guide to Jazz'', fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall. {{ISBN|0-13-182657-3}}
* Hendler, Maximilian (2023). ''Prehistory of Jazz''. Vienna: Hollitzer (=Studies in Jazz Research Vol. 16). {{ISBN|978-3-99012-980-7}}
* Nairn, Charlie. 1975. ''Earl 'Fatha' Hines'': 1 hour 'solo' documentary made in "Blues Alley" Jazz Club, Washington DC, for ATV, England, 1975: produced/directed by Charlie Nairn: original 16mm film plus out-takes of additional tunes from that film archived in British Film Institute Library at bfi.org.uk and itvstudios.com: DVD copies with Jean Gray Hargrove Music Library [who hold The [[Earl Hines]] Collection/Archive], University of California, Berkeley: also University of Chicago, Hogan Jazz Archive Tulane University New Orleans and Louis Armstrong House Museum Libraries.
* Schuller, Gunther. 1991. ''The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945''. Oxford University Press.
==External links==
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=jazz}}
{{Sister project links|c=Category:Jazz|n=Category:Jazz|d=Q8341|s=Category:Jazz|b=Music Theory/Jazz|voy=Jazz}}
* [https://linkedjazz.org/network/ LinkedJazz]
* [https://americanhistory.si.edu/smithsonian-jazz Jazz at the Smithsonian Museum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101229140310/http://www.jazzhall.com/ Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101113041113/http://www.redhotjazz.com/ RedHotJazz.com]
* [https://2021.jazz.org/ Jazz at Lincoln Center]
* [https://www.americanjazzmuseum.org/ American Jazz Museum] website
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{{Americanrootsmusic}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Jazz| ]]
[[Category:African-American cultural history]]
[[Category:African-American music]]
[[Category:American styles of music]]
[[Category:Jazz terminology]]
[[Category:Musical improvisation]]
[[Category:Popular music]]
[[Category:Radio formats]]
[[Category:Traditional music]]