View source for Jiva

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{{short description|Metaphysical entity believed to be imbued with a life force}}
{{use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
'''''Jiva''''' ({{langx|sa|जीव}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST|jīva}}'''), also referred as '''''Jivātman''','' is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in [[Hinduism]] and [[Jīva (Jainism)|Jainism]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Matthew Hall|title=Plants as Persons: A Philosophical Botany|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqzkqnETEVYC|year=2011|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-3430-8|page=76}}</ref> The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|211}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw0422-jihmita.jpg|title=Cologne Scan}}</ref> The ''jiva'', as a metaphysical entity, has been described in various scriptures such as the [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Upanishads]]. Each subschool of [[Vedanta]] describes the role of the ''jiva'' with the other metaphysical entities in varying capacities. The closest translation into English and abrahamic philosophies would be the ''[[soul]].''
== Described in the scriptures ==
A common metaphysical entity discussed in the scriptures (such as the Bhagavad Gita, Upanishad and Vachanamrut) in the seven schools of [[Vedanta]] is the ''jiva'' or [[Ātman (Hinduism)|''atman'']]: the soul or self.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A dictionary of Hinduism|last=Johnson, W. J., 1951-|isbn=9780198610250|edition= First|location=Oxford [England]|oclc=244416793|date = 12 February 2009}}</ref>
=== Bhagavad Gita ===
Chapter 2 of the Bhagavad Gita contains verses describing the ''jiva''. For example, the ''jiva'' is described as eternal and indestructible in chapter 2, verse 20:
{{Quote|text=न जायते म्रियते वा कदाचिन्
नायं भूत्वा भविता वा न भूयः ।
अजो नित्यः शाश्वतोऽयं पुराणो
न हन्यते हन्यमाने शरीरे
"The soul is unborn and eternal, everlasting and primeval. It is not slain by the slaying of the body."|sign=Bhagavad Gita 2.20|source="<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|225}}}}
=== Upanishads ===
बालाग्रशतभागस्य शतधा कल्पितस्य च । भागो जीवः स विज्ञेयः स चानन्त्याय कल्पते ॥ ९ ॥[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषत्/पञ्चमः_अध्यायः]
:"If the tip of the hair were to be divided in to one hundred parts and each part was divided into 100 more parts, that would be the dimension of the Jiva (soul)". Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad (5.9)
The [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]] compares the ''jiva'' and the ''[[Paramatma]]'' to two friendly birds sitting on the same tree:
समाने वृक्षे पुरुषो निमग्नोऽनीशया शोचति मुह्यमानः । जुष्टं यदा पश्यत्यन्यमीशमस्य महिमानमिति वीतशोकः ॥ ७ ॥[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषत्/चतुर्थः_अध्यायः]
:"Two birds sitting in the tree (the body). One bird, the jiva is enjoying the fruits of the tree and the other the Paramatma is watching the jiva." Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad (4.7)<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/2/22/#bb558|title=Bg. 2.22|website=vedabase.io|language=en|access-date=2019-09-05}}</ref>
=== Vachanamrut ===
[[Swaminarayan]] has described the nature of the ''jiva'' in his discourse in [[Vachanamrut]] Jetalpur 2:
{{Quote|text=The jiva is uncuttable, unpiercable, immortal, formed of consciousness, and the size of an atom. You may also ask, 'Where does the jiva reside?' Well, it resides within the space of the heart, and while staying there, it performs different functions. From there, when it wants to see, it does so through the eyes; when it wants to hear sounds, it does so through the ears; it smells all types of smells through the nose; it tastes through the tongue; and through the skin, it experiences the pleasures of all sensations. In addition, it thinks through the mind, contemplates through the citta [one of the inner faculties] and forms convictions through the intelligence [buddhi]. In this manner, through the ten senses and the four inner faculties, it perceives all of the sense-objects [i.e objects of sensorial perception'. It pervades the entire body from head to toe, yet is distinct from it. Such is the nature of the jiva.|sign=Vachanamrut Jetalpur 2|source=:<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|211}}}}
== Vedanta ==
Vedanta is one of the six schools ([[Darśana|''darshanam'']]) of Hindu philosophy, and it contains subschools that have derived their beliefs from [[Upanishads|the Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the [[Bhagavad Gita]]. The aforementioned three scriptures are commonly referred to as the [[Prasthanatrayi|Prasthantrayi]].{{See|Vedanta}}
=== Advaita Darshan ===
The [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita (non-dualist) Darshan]] posits the existence of only one entity, [[Brahman]]. It considers all distinctions ultimately false since differentiation requires more than one entity. Those distinctions empirically perceived, along with those expounded in the [[Prasthanatrayi]], are accounted for within this school by the recognition of a relative reality (''vyavaharik satta).''<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Self, Causation, and Agency in the Advaita of Sankara|last=Timalsina|first=Sthaneshwar|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-992274-1|editor-last=Dasti|editor-first=Matthew|location=New York|oclc=862077056|editor-last2=Bryant|editor-first2=Edwin}}</ref>{{Rp|188}} One such distinction is that between ''jivas'', or souls, and Brahman. Understood through the paradigm of relative reality, ''jivas'' are cloaked by ''[[Maya (religion)|maya—avidya]]'', or ignorance—a state in which they are not able to realize their oneness with Brahman.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|189}} Within Advaita philosophy, the nature of the Jiva is described using three theories or metaphors: ''Pratibimba''-''vāda'' (theory of reflection)'', Avaccheda-vāda'' (theory of limitation)'', and Ābhāsa-vāda'' (theory of appearance).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mishra |first=Godabarisha |title=Non-dualism: Vedāntic and Āgamic (Advaita as Expounded by Śaṅkara and Abhinavagupta) |publisher=Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research |year=2021 |pages=148 |language=English}}</ref> According to ''Pratibimba-vāda'', the ''jiva'' consists of a reflection of the ''atman'', and the mirror on which the reflection occurs is ignorance (''avidya''). This metaphor clarifies that the ''atman'' and ''jiva'' are not distinct, even though they appear to be so, just as one's reflection in the mirror appears to be distinct from oneself but is actually identical with one. ''Avaccheda-vāda'' denies that consciousness can be reflected, and instead understands the ''jiva'' as a limitation (''upadhi'') of the ''atman''. It is limited and appears to be separated from other selves because of ignorance.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=International Philosophical Quarterly: Volume 6, Issue 1, 1966 The Self in Advaita Vedānta - Philosophy Documentation Center |url=https://www.pdcnet.org/pdc/bvdb.nsf/purchase?openform&fp=ipq&id=ipq_1966_0006_0001_0005_0021 |access-date=2023-03-06 |journal=International Philosophical Quarterly | date=February 1966 | volume=6 | issue=1 |pages=10–11| doi=10.5840/ipq19666118 | last1=Deutsch | first1=Eliot }}</ref>
=== Bhedhabheda (Dvaitadvait) Darshan ===
The [[Bhedabheda|Bhedhabheda Darshan]], founded by Nimbark, maintains that ''jivas'' are at once distinct and part of Brahman, a middle ground of sorts between the extremes of Advaita, utter oneness, and Dvaita, utter distinctness.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/hindu-ph/#SSH3f.i|title=Hindu Philosophy|last=Ranganathan|first=Shyam|website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=December 1, 2019}}</ref> This notion of difference yet non-difference is commonly depicted through an analogy: just as rays originate from the sun but are spatio-temporally distinct from it, so too ''jivas'' are parts of the whole that is Brahman. Another analogy given is that of sparks emitted from a fire. The sparks, composed of same substance as fire, are non-different (''abheda'') from the fire. They are also different (''bheda''), located in different place from the fire from which they originated. Yet another analogy given is of ocean and its waves, which shows that even though the bhedabheda darshan entails that Brahman has parts and ''jivas'' are part of Brahman, this does not mean ''jivas'' lessen its perfection, just as the waves of the ocean do not lessen the amount of water present in the ocean.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhedabheda Vedanta {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/bhedabheda-vedanta/ |access-date=2023-02-23 |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Dvaita Darshan ===
Founded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]], the [[Dvaita Vedanta|Dvaita (dualist) Darshan]] rejects the Advaita (non-dualist) notion of one ultimate reality. It propounds a duality of five kinds, the most fundamental of which is that between ''jivas'' and ''[[Ishvara]]''. A soul or ''jiva'' is differentiated from God or ''Ishvara'' due to the ''jiva’s'' dependence on ''Ishvara''; this state is an indication of eternal, ontological distinction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/#H3|title=Madhva|last=Stoker|first=Valeria|website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=27 November 2019}}</ref> Unique to this school is the idea of a hierarchy of souls, evocative of [[predestination]]. Within the system, some souls are inherently and eternally destined for liberation, others for hell and still others for migration through the cycle of birth and death.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dependent Agency and Hierarchical Determinism in the Theology of Madhva|last=Buchta|first=David|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-992274-1|editor-last=Dasti|editor-first=Matthew|location=New York|oclc=862077056|editor-last2=Bryant|editor-first2=Edwin}}</ref>{{Rp|267}} It is in this cycle where jivas have the opportunity to perform positive or negative deeds ([[karma]]s), and make spiritual efforts to break free of it, known as liberation ([[moksha]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mishra |first=R.C |title=Moksha and the Hindu Worldview |publisher=New Delhi, India: SAGE Publications |year=2013 |pages=22–24 |language=English}}</ref>
=== Vishishtadvaita Darshan ===
The [[Vishishtadvaita|Vishishtadvaita Darshan]], proposed by [[Ramanuja]], maintains an ontological distinction between ''jivas'' and God. However, unlike in the Dvaita Darshan, the distinction is qualified. The ''jiva'' still remains dependent on God for its qualities and volition.<ref name="FreeWill">{{Cite book|title=Free will, Agency, and Selfhood in Ramanuja|last=Ganeri|first=Martin|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-992274-1|editor-last=Dasti|editor-first=Matthew|location=New York|oclc=862077056|editor-last2=Bryant|editor-first2=Edwin|date = 26 November 2013}}</ref>{{Rp|234}} Ramanuja uses the doctrine of the body and the soul (''sarira'' and ''sariri'') to explain the relationship between God and the ''jivas''. The ''jivas'' constitutes the body of God, and God is the soul of the ''jivas''. Using this doctrine, Ramanuja is able to maintain an ontological distinction between God and the ''jivas'', while still demonstrating their qualified non-duality.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ramanuja {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/ramanuja/ |access-date=2023-02-24 |language=en-US}}</ref>
Vishishtadvaita holds, like other ''darshanas'', that the self is ''chetan'', a conscious being that is made up of consciousness.<ref name="FreeWill" />{{Rp|235}} The school offers many rebuttals against the Advaita conception, one of which addresses the way in which Advaita's ''jiva'', Brahman, may be in a state of ignorance. The Vishishtadvaita Darshan argues that if ignorance is not a quality of Brahman, then the notion of non-duality is contradicted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/ramanuja/|title=Ramanuja|last=Ranganathan|first=Shyam|website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=29 November 2019}}</ref> Ramanuja compares the consciousness of the jiva, as an atman, to the relationship between a lamp and the light it emits:<ref name="dasti">{{Cite book |last=Dasti |first=Matthew R., Bryant, Edwin F. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/852227561 |title=Free will, agency, and selfhood in Indian philosophy |year=2014 |publisher=Oup USA |isbn=978-0-19-992275-8 |oclc=852227561}}</ref>{{rp|235}}
{{Quote|text=The one luminous substance exists as light and as the possessor of light....possesses luminosity, because it illuminates both its own form and that of others. But it behaves as a quality of that luminous substance....In this same way, the self has the form of consciousness but also has the quality of consciousness|author=Melkote vol. 1: 89, 90|source=<ref name="dasti"/>{{rp|235-236}}}}Unlike other schools, Vishishtadvaita philosophy proposes that moksha (liberation) is not just the end of transmigrations of the jiva (re-births), but also a sense of bliss and joy found in the contemplation of god and living a life of devotion. This involves singing his praise and dwelling on his characteristics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vishishtadvaita {{!}} Hindu philosophy {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vishishtadvaita |access-date=2023-03-03 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
=== Shuddhadvaita Darshan ===
The [[Shuddhadvaita|Shuddadvaita Darshan]], proposed by [[Vallabha|Vallabhacharya]], has a concept of "nitya-sambandha" which means eternal relationship between ''jiva'' and ''Brahman'' (Parabrahman). The ''jiva's'' inherent nature is divine, pure, and spiritual. The ''jiva's'' ultimate purpose is to engage in a loving devotion to Krishna (Supreme Brahman), and liberation is attained through divine grace and the acceptance of the ''jiva's'' loving surrender to Krishna. Vallabhacharya uses an analogy between fire and its sparks, where jivas are sparks emerging from God's fire, tiny yet sharing the same essence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barz |first=Richard Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rdXiAAAAMAAJ |title=The Bhakti Sect of Vallabhācārya |date=1976 |publisher=Thomson Press (India) |isbn=978-81-215-0576-5 |pages=66–69 |language=en}}</ref>
=== Acintya Bheda Abheda ===
The [[Achintya Bheda Abheda|Acintya Bheda Abheda]], proposed by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, maintains that ''jiva'' and ''Brahman'' are same (''abheda'') and different (''bheda'') and the relationship is inconceivable in thought (''acintya'').<ref name="dasti"/>{{rp|283}} [[Jiva Goswami]], one of the main scholars in the Caitanya Vaisnava school, offers a definition of the self that shares many characteristics of other schools but is distinctly aligned with the Bhedhabhedha position that the ''jiva'' is a part of ''Brahman:''
{{Quote|text=Furthermore, it has the intrinsic characteristics of being an apprehender, agent and qualitative experiencer, and by its own nature and at all times it is an inherent part of indwelling Lord.|title=Jiva Goswami|source=<ref name="dasti"/>{{rp|287}}|author=}}The philosophy proposed by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu accepts that the jiva is aware and possesses distinct qualities. It is neither god, human or animal, and is separate from the senses and mind. It is unchanging, possessing consciousness and bliss, and pervades the body. Whilst the body and mind require a jiva to function, the jiva's awareness and existence is not dependant on anything. Goswami also describes that "there is a different ''self'' in each body, each one an inherent part of the Lord".<ref name=":2" />
=== Akshar-Purushottam Darshan ===
The [[Akshar-Purushottam Darshan]], the teachings of [[Swaminarayan]] as interpreted by the [[BAPS]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Swaminarayan's Brahmajnana as Aksarabrahma-Parabrahma-Darsanam|last1=Aksharananddas|first1=Sadhu|last2=Bhadreshdas|first2=Sadhu|date=2016-04-01|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199086573|edition= 1st|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199463749.003.0011}}</ref> centers around the existence of five eternal realities, as stated in two of Swaminarayan’s sermons documented in the [[Vachanamrut]], Gadhada 1.7 and Gadhada 3.10:
{{quote|''Puruṣottama Bhagavān'', ''Akṣarabrahman'', ''māyā'', ''īśvara'' and ''jīva'' – these five entities are eternal.<ref name="Vachan">{{Cite book|title=The Vachanāmrut : spiritual discourses of Bhagwān Swāminārāyan|last=Sahajānanda, Swami, 1781-1830|others=Bochasanvasi Shri Aksharpurushottama Sanstha.|year=2014|isbn=9788175264311|edition= First|location=Ahmedabad|oclc=820357402}}</ref>}}
{{quote|From all the Vedas, Purāṇas, Itihāsa and Smṛti scriptures, I have gleaned the principle that ''jīva'', ''māyā'', ''īśvara'', ''Brahman'' and ''Parameśvara'' are all eternal.<ref name="Vachan" />}}
The ''jiva'' is defined as a distinct, individual soul, i.e., a finite sentient being. ''Jivas'' are bound by ''[[Maya (religion)|maya]]'', which hides their true self, which is characterized by eternal existence, [[consciousness]] and bliss. There are an infinite number of ''jivas''. They are extremely subtle, indivisible, unpierceable, ageless and immortal. While residing within the heart, a ''jiva'' pervades the entire body by its capacity to know (''gnānshakti''), making it animate. It is the form of knowledge (''gnānswarūp'') as well as the knower (''gnātā''). The ''jiva'' is the performer of virtuous and immoral actions ([[karma]]s) and experiences the fruits of these actions. It has been eternally bound by ''maya''; as a result, it roams within the [[Saṃsāra|cycle of birth and death]]. Birth is when a ''jiva'' acquires a new body, and death is when it departs from its body. Just as one abandons one's old clothes and wears new ones, the ''jiva'' renounces its old body and acquires a new one.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hindu Theology|last=Paramtattvadas, Sadhu|date=17 August 2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107158672|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom|oclc=964861190}}</ref>
== Similarities with other Schools ==
=== Samkhya-Yoga ===
There are important similarities between the jiva and the ''[[puruṣa]]'' of [[Samkhya]]-[[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]]. The most visible similarity is that both the ''jiva'' and ''puruṣa'' are part of a dualism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jain Philosophy {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/jain/ |access-date=2023-02-18 |language=en-US}}</ref> Just like Samkhya's dualism between ''puruṣa'' and ''prakriti'', there is a similar dualism between the ''jiva'' and ''ajiva'' in Jainism.<ref name="ref1">{{Cite journal |last=Gier |first=Nicholas F. |date=1995 |title=Ahimsa, the Self, and Postmodernism |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/ipq199535160 |journal=International Philosophical Quarterly |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=71–86 |doi=10.5840/ipq199535160 |issn=0019-0365}}</ref>{{rp|77}} Both the ''jiva'' and ''puruṣa'' are also said to be numerous.<ref name="ref1" />{{rp|73}} The [[Samkhyakarika]] states:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Colebrooke |first=Henry Thomas |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/61647186 |title=The Sānkhya kārika : or, Memorial verses on the Sānkhya philosophy |date=1887 |publisher=Chatterjea |pages=68 |oclc=61647186}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=Since birth, death, and the instruments of life are allotted severally; since occupations are not at once universal; and since qualities affect variously; multitude of souls (puruṣa) is demonstrated|author=(Samkhya karika Verse 18) ·|title=}}Relatedly, each ''jiva'' is, just like a ''puruṣa'' in Samkhya, qualitatively distinct from another ''jiva'' so that each can be termed their "own self".<ref name="ref1" />{{rp|77}}
=== Nyaya Darshan ===
The [[Nyaya]] school of philosophy also shares similarities to the Vedanta schools, in that there is the belief that the jiva is eternal, experiences the fruits of its good and bad deeds ([[karma]]), and undergoes [[reincarnation]]. However unlike other schools where the jiva is the source of consciousness, in the Nyaya school, consciousness is an attribute that only occurs when a jiva associates with a mind. Furthermore, Nyaya schools believe liberation to be a complete absence of suffering, rather than a state of bliss and happiness.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mokerjee |first=Satkari |title=The Buddhist Philosophy of Universal Flux |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishing |year=1997 |isbn=978-8120807372 |pages=Chapter 8 |language=English}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[:wikt:gyvas|Gyvas]]
* [[Indian religions]]
* [[Jīva (Jainism)]]
* [[Tirthankara]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Jain philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Souls]]