View source for Kabuki

{{Short description|Classical Japanese dance-drama}}
{{about|Japanese theater|American political pretense|Kabuki dance|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2021}}
[[File:Odori Keiyō Edo-e no sakae by Toyokuni III.jpg|thumb|The July 1858 production of {{transliteration|ja|[[Shibaraku]]}} at the [[Ichimura-za theater]] theatre in [[Edo (Tokyo)|Edo]]. [[Triptych]] [[woodblock print]] by [[Kunisada|Utagawa Toyokuni III]].|383x383px]]
[[File:Kikugorō Onoe VI as Umeō-maru.jpg|alt=|thumb|Onoe Kikugorō VI as Umeō-maru in {{transliteration|ja|Sugawara Denju Tenarai Kagami}}|279x279px]]
{{nihongo|'''Kabuki'''|歌舞伎, かぶき}} is a classical form of [[Theatre of Japan|Japanese theatre]], mixing dramatic performance with [[Japanese traditional dance|traditional dance]]. Kabuki theatre is known for its heavily stylised performances, its glamorous, highly decorated costumes, and for the elaborate {{transliteration|ja|[[kumadori]]}} [[make-up]] worn by some of its performers. The term kabuki originates from a verb that was used to describe young samurai patrons, meaning "being weird" or "offbeat."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=Taggart |title=Japan and the Shackles of the Past|date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York|isbn=978-0190619589 |pages=46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9byvBAAAQBAJ }}</ref>
Kabuki is thought to have originated in the early [[Edo period]], when the art's founder, [[Izumo no Okuni]], formed a female dance troupe that performed dances and light sketches in [[Kyoto]]. The art form later developed into its present all-male theatrical form after women were banned from performing in kabuki theatre in 1629. Kabuki developed throughout the late 17th century and reached its zenith in the mid-18th century.
In 2005, kabuki theatre was proclaimed by [[UNESCO]] as an intangible heritage possessing outstanding universal value. In 2008, it was inscribed in the [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/kabuki-theatre-00163|title = UNESCO – Kabuki theatre}}</ref>
== Etymology ==
The individual [[kanji]] that make up the word ''kabuki'' can be read as {{nihongo|'sing'|歌}}, {{nihongo|'dance'|舞}}, and {{nihongo|'skill'|伎}}. ''Kabuki'' is therefore sometimes translated as 'the art of singing and dancing'. These are, however, {{transliteration|ja|[[ateji]]}} characters which do not reflect actual [[etymology]], being used for pronunciation. The kanji of 'skill' generally refers to a performer in kabuki theatre.
Since the word ''kabuki'' is believed to derive from the verb {{transliteration|ja|kabuku}}, meaning 'to lean' or 'to be out of the ordinary', the word ''kabuki'' can also be interpreted as 'avant-garde' or 'bizarre' theatre.<ref name="Frederic">"Kabuki" in Frederic, Louis (2002). ''Japan Encyclopedia''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: [[Harvard University Press]].</ref> The expression {{nihongo||歌舞伎者|[[kabukimono]]}} referred originally to those who were bizarrely dressed. It is often translated into English as 'strange things' or 'the crazy ones', and referred to the style of dress worn by gangs of [[samurai]].
== History ==
===1603–1629: kabuki===
[[File:Okuni kabuki byobu-zu cropped and enhanced.jpg|thumb|The earliest portrait of [[Izumo no Okuni]], the founder of kabuki (1600s)]]
The history of kabuki began in 1603 during the [[Edo period]] when former [[shrine maiden]] [[Izumo no Okuni]], possibly a {{transliteration|ja|[[miko]]}} of [[Izumo-taisha]], began performing with a troupe of young female dancers a new, simple style of dance drama in [[pantomime]], on a makeshift stage in the dry bed of the [[Kamo River]] in [[Kyoto]]<ref name="Murphy">{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=Taggart |title=Japan and the Shackles of the Past|date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York|isbn=978-0190619589 |pages=45–46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9byvBAAAQBAJ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Okuni|title=Okuni {{!}} Kabuki dancer|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=5 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Haar|1971|p=83}}</ref><ref name="Masato 2007">{{harvnb|Masato|2007}}</ref>
In the earliest forms of kabuki, female performers played both men and women in comic playlets about ordinary life. It did not take long for the style to become popular, and Okuni was asked to perform before the Imperial Court. In the wake of such success, rival troupes quickly formed, and kabuki was born as ensemble dance and drama performed by women.
Much of the appeal of kabuki in this era was due to the ribald, suggestive themes featured by many troupes; this appeal was further augmented by the fact that many performers were also involved in [[prostitution]].<ref name="Frederic"/> For this reason, kabuki was also known as {{nihongo|'prostitute kabuki'|遊女歌舞妓}} during this period.
Kabuki became a common form of entertainment in the red-light districts of Japan, especially in [[Yoshiwara]],<ref name="Flynn Patricia - Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute ">{{cite web | url=http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1982/4/82.04.03.x.html | title=Visions of People: The Influences of Japanese Prints Ukiyo-e Upon Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century French Art | access-date=9 April 2015 | author=Flynn, Patricia | website=Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute}}</ref> the registered [[yūkaku|red-light district]] in Edo. The widespread appeal of kabuki often meant that a diverse crowd of different social classes gathered to watch performances, a unique occurrence that happened nowhere else in the city of Edo. Kabuki theatres became well known as a place to both see and be seen in terms of fashion and style, as the audience—commonly comprising a number of socially low but economically wealthy [[chōnin|merchants]]—typically used a performance as a way to feature the fashion trends.
As an art-form, kabuki also provided inventive new forms of entertainment, featuring new [[nagauta|musical styles]] played on the {{transliteration|ja|[[shamisen]]}}, clothes and fashion often dramatic in appearance, famous actors and stories often intended to mirror current events. Performances typically lasted from morning until sunset, with surrounding [[teahouses]] providing meals, refreshments and place to socialise. The area surrounding kabuki theatres also featured a number of shops selling kabuki souvenirs.
After performances, women performers would offer sexual services for those who could afford it.<ref name="Murphy"/>  Since fights would usually erupt among the young samurai patrons, shogunal authorities, who wanted to maintain order, banned women from performing on stage.<ref name="Murphy"/> Following this ban, Okuni replaced the women with boys in Kabuki performances.<ref name="Murphy"/> During the early seventeenth century, within a culture where [[pederasty]] was pervasive among samurai, her decision didn't significantly harm the theater's popularity.<ref name="Murphy"/> In fact, it may have even benefited Kabuki, as it caught the attention of the third [[shogun]], [[Iemitsu]], known for his interest in pederasty.<ref name="Murphy"/> He even arranged special performances. However, after Iemitsu's death in 1651 and with samurai now fighting for the attention of boys rather than girls, the shogunate imposed further restrictions, allowing only males over 15 to perform on stage.<ref name="Murphy"/>
Kabuki switched to adult male actors, called {{transliteration|ja|yaro-kabuki}}, in the mid-1600s.<ref name="Ernst 1956 10-12">{{harvnb|Ernst|1956|pp=10–12}}</ref> Adult male actors, however, continued to play both female and male characters, and kabuki retained its popularity, remaining a key element of the Edo period urban life-style.
Although kabuki was performed widely across Japan, the Nakamura-za, Ichimura-za and Kawarazaki-za theatres became the most widely known and popular kabuki theatres, where some of the most successful kabuki performances were and still are held.<ref name="Masato 2007"/>
===1629–1673: Transition to {{transliteration|ja|yarō-kabuki}}===
The focus of kabuki performances also increasingly began to emphasise drama alongside dance. However, the ribald nature of kabuki performances continued, with male actors also engaging in sex work for both female and male customers. Audiences frequently became rowdy, and brawls occasionally broke out, sometimes over the favors of a particularly popular or handsome actor, leading the shogunate to ban first {{transliteration|ja|onnagata}} and then {{transliteration|ja|wakashū}} roles for a short period of time; both bans were rescinded by 1652.<ref>{{harvnb|Leupp|1997|p=92}}</ref>
===1673–1841: Genroku period kabuki===
[[File:Toshusai Sharaku- Otani Oniji, 1794.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Oniji Ōtani III (Nakazō Nakamura II) as Edobee in the May 1794 production of {{transliteration|ja|Koi Nyōbo Somewake Tazuna}}]]
[[File:SharakuTwoActors.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Kabuki actors Bando Zenji and Sawamura Yodogoro; 1794, fifth month by [[Sharaku]]]]
During the [[Genroku]] period, kabuki thrived, with the structure of kabuki plays formalising into the structure they are performed in today, alongside many other elements which eventually came to be recognised as a key aspect of kabuki tradition, such as conventional character tropes. Kabuki theater and {{transliteration|ja|ningyō jōruri}}, an elaborate form of puppet theater later known as {{transliteration|ja|[[bunraku]]}}, became closely associated with each other, mutually influencing the other's further development.
The famous playwright [[Chikamatsu Monzaemon]], one of the first professional kabuki playwrights, produced several influential works during this time, though the piece usually acknowledged as his most significant, {{transliteration|ja|[[Sonezaki Shinjū]]}} (''The Love Suicides at'' {{transliteration|ja|Sonezaki}}), was originally written for {{transliteration|ja|bunraku}}. Like many {{transliteration|ja|bunraku}} plays, it was adapted for kabuki, eventually becoming popular enough to reportedly inspire a number of real-life "copycat" suicides, and leading to a government ban on {{transliteration|ja|shinju mono}} (plays about love suicides) in 1723.
Also during the Genroku period was the development of the {{transliteration|ja|[[mie (pose)|mie]]}} style of posing, credited to kabuki actor [[Ichikawa Danjūrō I]],<ref>"[http://www2.ntj.jac.go.jp/dglib/edc_dic/dictionary/dic_ma/dic_ma_04.jsp Mie] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206043545/http://www2.ntj.jac.go.jp/dglib/edc_dic/dictionary/dic_ma/dic_ma_04.jsp |date=6 February 2012 }}". Kabuki Jiten. Retrieved 9 February 2007.</ref> alongside the development of the mask-like {{transliteration|ja|kumadori}} makeup worn by kabuki actors in some plays.<ref name="Kincaid">[[Zoe Kincaid Penlington|Kincaid, Zoe]] (1925). ''Kabuki: The Popular Stage of Japan''. London: MacMillan and Co. pp21–22.</ref>
In the mid-18th century, kabuki fell out of favor for a time, with {{transliteration|ja|bunraku}} taking its place as the premier form of stage entertainment among the lower social classes. This occurred partly because of the emergence of several skilled {{transliteration|ja|bunraku}} playwrights in that time. Little of note would occur in the further development of kabuki until the end of the century, when it began to reemerge in popularity.
===1842–1868: {{transliteration|ja|Saruwaka-chō}} kabuki===
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Kabuki Scene (Diptych) -85.282.6a- Hokushu.jpg|thumb|Kabuki Scene (Diptych) by [[Utagawa Yoshitaki|Yoshitaki]]]]
In the 1840s, repeated periods of [[drought]] led to a series of fires affecting Edo, with kabuki theatres—traditionally made of wood—frequently burning down, forcing many to relocate. When the area that housed the Nakamura-za was completely destroyed in 1841, the {{transliteration|ja|shōgun}} refused to allow the theatre to be rebuilt, saying that it was against fire code.<ref name="Ernst 1956 10-12"/>
The shogunate, mostly disapproving of the socialisation and trade that occurred in kabuki theatres between merchants, actors and prostitutes, took advantage of the fire crisis in the following year, forcing the Nakamura-za, Ichimura-za and Kawarazaki-za out of the city limits and into [[Asakusa]], a northern suburb of Edo. This was part of the larger [[Tenpō Reforms]] that the shogunate instituted starting in 1842 to restrict the overindulgence of pleasures.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Successful Period {{!}} History of Kabuki {{!}} INVITATION TO KABUKI |url=https://www2.ntj.jac.go.jp/unesco/kabuki/en/history/history4.html |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=www2.ntj.jac.go.jp}}</ref> Actors, stagehands, and others associated with the performances were also forced to move as a result of the death of their livelihood; despite the move of everyone involved in kabuki performance, and many in the surrounding areas, to the new location of the theatres, the inconvenience of the distance led to a reduction in attendance.<ref name="Masato 2007"/> These factors, along with strict regulations, pushed much of kabuki "underground" in Edo, with performances changing locations to avoid the authorities.
The theatres' new location was called Saruwaka-chō, or Saruwaka-machi; the last thirty years of the Tokugawa shogunate's rule is often referred to as the "Saruwaka-machi period", and is well known for having produced some of the most exaggerated kabuki in Japanese history.<ref name="Masato 2007"/>
Saruwaka-machi became the new theatre district for the Nakamura-za, Ichimura-za and Kawarazaki-za theatres. The district was located on the main street of Asakusa, which ran through the middle of the small city. The street was renamed after Saruwaka Kanzaburo, who initiated Edo kabuki in the Nakamura-za in 1624.<ref name="Masato 2007"/>
European artists began noticing Japanese theatrical performances and artwork, and many artists, such as [[Claude Monet]], were inspired by Japanese woodblock prints. This Western interest prompted Japanese artists to increase their depictions of daily life, including the depiction of theatres, brothels, main streets and so on. One artist, [[Utagawa Hiroshige]], produced a series of prints based on Saruwaka from the Saruwaka-machi period in Asakusa.<ref name="Masato 2007"/>
Despite the revival of kabuki in another location, the relocation diminished the tradition's most abundant inspirations for costuming, make-up, and storylines. Ichikawa Kodanji{{nbsp}}IV was considered one of the most active and successful actors during the Saruwaka-machi period. Deemed unattractive, he mainly performed {{transliteration|ja|[[buyō]]}}, or dancing, in dramas written by [[Kawatake Mokuami]], who also wrote during the [[Meiji era]] to follow.<ref name="Masato 2007"/> [[Kawatake Mokuami]] commonly wrote plays that depicted the common lives of the people of Edo. He introduced {{transliteration|ja|shichigo-cho}} (seven-and-five syllable meter) dialogue and music such as {{transliteration|ja|[[kiyomoto (music)|kiyomoto]]}}.<ref name="Masato 2007"/> His kabuki performances became quite popular once the Saruwaka-machi period ended and theatre returned to Edo; many of his works are still performed.
In 1868, the Tokugawa ceased to exist, with the [[Meiji restoration|restoration of the Emperor]]. Emperor Meiji was restored to power and moved from Kyoto to the new capital of Edo, or Tokyo, beginning the Meiji period.<ref name="Ernst 1956 10-12"/> Kabuki once again returned to the pleasure quarters of Edo, and throughout the Meiji period became increasingly more radical, as modern styles of kabuki plays and performances emerged. Playwrights experimented with the introduction of new [[genre]]s to kabuki, and introduced twists on traditional stories.
==Post-Meiji period kabuki==
{{See also|Censorship in Japan#Occupation of Japan}}
[[File:Shibaraku, Kabukiza November 1895 production.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The November 1895 production of {{transliteration|ja|[[Shibaraku]]}} at the Tokyo [[Kabuki-za]] theatre]]
Beginning in 1868, enormous cultural changes, such as the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, the elimination of the [[samurai]] class, and the opening of Japan to the West, helped to spark kabuki's re-emergence. Both actors and playwrights strove to improve the reputation of kabuki in the face of new foreign influence and amongst the upper classes, partially through adapting traditional styles to modern tastes. This endeavour would prove successful, with the Emperor sponsoring a kabuki performance on 21 April 1887.<ref>Shōriya, Asagoro. [http://kabuki21.com/hist_19.php Kabuki Chronology of the 19th century at Kabuki21.com] (Retrieved 18 December 2006.)</ref>
After [[World War II]], the occupying forces briefly banned kabuki, which had formed a strong base of support for Japan's war efforts since 1931.<ref>{{harvnb|Brandon|2009}}</ref> This ban was in conjunction with broader restrictions on media and art forms that the American military occupation instituted after WWII.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abel |first=Jonathan E |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/897200923 |title=Redacted: the archives of censorship in transwar Japan |date=2012 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-27334-4 |location=Berkeley |language=English |oclc=897200923}}</ref> However, by 1947 the ban on kabuki was rescinded, but censorship rules lingered.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Takemae|first=Eiji|title=The Allied Occupation of Japan|others=Robert Ricketts and Sebastian Swann (translators and adapters)|orig-year=1983|year=2002|publisher=Continuum|location=New York & London|isbn=0-8264-6247-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/insideghqalliedo00/page/390 390–391]|url=https://archive.org/details/insideghqalliedo00/page/390}}</ref>
==Post-war to modern day kabuki==
The ensuing period of [[Occupation of Japan|occupation]] following [[Pacific War|World War II]] posited a difficult time for kabuki; besides the war's physical impact and devastation upon the country, some schools of thought chose to reject both the styles and artforms of pre-war Japan, kabuki amongst them.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kominz|first=Laurence|title=The Stars Who Created Kabuki; Their Lives, Loves and Legacy|year=1997|publisher=Kodansha International|location=Tokyo, New York, London|isbn=4-7700-1868-1|page=232}}</ref> Director [[Tetsuji Takechi]]'s popular and innovative productions of kabuki classics at this time are credited with sparking new interest in kabuki in the [[Kansai]] region.<ref name="Toita-231">{{Cite book|last=Toita|first=Yasuji|others=Don Kenny (trans.)|title=Kabuki: The Popular Theater|series=Performing Arts of Japan: II|year=1970|publisher=Walker/Weatherhill|location=New York & Tokyo|isbn=0-8027-2424-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/kabukipopularthe00toit/page/213 213]|chapter=Zenshin-za Innovations|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/kabukipopularthe00toit/page/213}}</ref> Of the many popular young stars who performed with the Takechi Kabuki, Nakamura Ganjiro III (b. 1931) was the leading figure, first known as Nakamura Senjaku before taking his current name. It was this period of kabuki in [[Osaka]] that became known as the "Age of Senjaku" in his honor.<ref name="Toita-231"/>
Today, kabuki is the most popular of the traditional styles of Japanese drama, with its star actors often appearing in television or film roles.<ref>Shōriya, Asagoro. [http://kabuki21.com/acteurs_a.php Contemporary Actors at Kabuki21.com]. (Retrieved 18 December 2006.)</ref> Well-known {{transliteration|ja|onnagata}} actor [[Bandō Tamasaburō V]] has appeared in several non-kabuki plays and movies, often in the role of a woman.
Kabuki also appears in works of [[Japanese popular culture]] such as [[anime]]. In addition to the handful of major theatres in Tokyo and Kyoto, there are many smaller theatres in Osaka and throughout the countryside.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kabuki21.com/theatres.php |title=Kabuki Theaters |publisher=Kabuki21.com |date=31 December 2013 |access-date=25 July 2014}}</ref> The {{nihongo|Ōshika Kabuki|大鹿歌舞伎}} troupe, based in [[Ōshika, Nagano|Ōshika]], [[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano]] Prefecture, is one example.<ref name="Oshika">{{cite web|url=http://www.ooshika.com/kabuki/src/index.html |title=Ōshika Kabuki |access-date=22 February 2007 }}</ref>
Some local kabuki troupes today use female actors in {{transliteration|ja|onnagata}} roles. The Ichikawa Shōjo Kabuki Gekidan, an all-female troupe, debuted in 1953 to significant acclaim, though the majority of kabuki troupes have remained entirely-male.<ref>Edelson, Loren. ''Playing for the Majors and the Minors: Ichikawa Girls' Kabuki on the Postwar Stage''. In: Leiter, Samuel (ed). ''Rising from the Flames: The Rebirth of Theater in Occupied Japan, 1945–1952''. Rowman & Littlefield, 2009. pp. 75–85.</ref>
The introduction of earphone guides in 1975,<ref name="Kabuki going strong, 400 years on">Martin, Alex, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20101228i1.html Kabuki going strong, 400 years on]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 28 December 2010, p. 3,</ref> including an English version in 1982,<ref name="Kabuki going strong, 400 years on"/> helped broaden the artform's appeal. As a result, in 1991 the Kabuki-za, one of Tokyo's best known kabuki theaters, began year-round performances<ref name="Kabuki going strong, 400 years on"/> and, in 2005, began marketing kabuki cinema films.<ref>Martin, Alex, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20101228i1.html Kabuki going strong, 400 years on]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 28 December 2010, p. 3, retrieved on 29 December 2010.</ref> Kabuki troupes regularly tour Asia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kabuki21.com/asie.php |title=Kabuki Tours in Asia |publisher=Kabuki21.com |access-date=25 July 2014}}</ref> Europe<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kabuki21.com/europe.php |title=Kabuki Tours in Europe |publisher=Kabuki21.com |access-date=25 July 2014}}</ref> and America,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kabuki21.com/ameriques.php |title=Kabuki Tours in North And South America |publisher=Kabuki21.com |access-date=25 July 2014}}</ref> and there have been several kabuki-themed productions of Western plays such as those of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. Western playwrights and novelists have also experimented with kabuki themes, an example of which is [[Gerald Vizenor]]'s {{transliteration|ja|Hiroshima Bugi}} (2004). Writer [[Yukio Mishima]] pioneered and popularised the use of kabuki in modern settings and revived other traditional arts, such as [[Noh]], adapting them to modern contexts. There have even been kabuki troupes established in countries outside Japan. For instance, in Australia, the [[Za Kabuki]] troupe at the [[Australian National University]] has performed a kabuki drama each year since 1976,<ref>Za Kabuki Troupe, "Za Kabuki 2012: Who We Are." Last modified 2012. Accessed 28 April 2013. https://sites.google.com/site/zakabuki2010/who-we-are</ref> the longest regular kabuki performance outside Japan.<ref>Negishi, K, and M Tomoeda. "ANU Za Kabuki." Monsoon, 2010, 26.</ref>
In November 2002, a statue was erected in honor of kabuki's founder, Izumo no Okuni and to commemorate 400 years of kabuki's existence.<ref name="sign">Sign (in English) for Izumo no Okuni's statue in Kyoto</ref> Diagonally across from the Minami-za,<ref name="Lonely Planet Kyoto 2012, page 169">Lonely Planet Kyoto, 2012, page 169</ref> the last remaining kabuki theater in Kyoto,<ref name="Lonely Planet Kyoto 2012, page 169"/> it stands at the east end of a bridge (Shijō Ōhashi)<ref name="Lonely Planet Kyoto 2012, page 169"/> crossing the Kamo River in Kyoto.
Kabuki was inscribed on the [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists]] in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kabuki21.com/hist_21.php |title=2001~2100 |publisher=Kabuki21.com |access-date=25 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00163 |title=UNESCO Culture Sector – Intangible Heritage – 2003 Convention |publisher=Unesco.org |access-date=25 July 2014}}</ref>
=== Super Kabuki ===
While still maintaining most of the historical practices of kabuki, {{nihongo|[[Ichikawa Ennosuke III|Ichikawa En-ō]]|市川猿翁}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=市川猿翁 2 {{!}} 歌舞伎俳優名鑑 現在の俳優篇|url=https://meikandb.kabuki.ne.jp/actor/30/|access-date=2020-10-19|language=ja}}</ref> aimed to broaden its appeal by creating a new genre of kabuki productions called {{nihongo|"Super Kabuki"|スーパー歌舞伎}}. With {{nihongo||ヤマトタケル|[[Yamato Takeru]]}} as the first Super Kabuki production to premiere in 1986, remakes of traditional plays and new contemporary creations have been brought to local theaters throughout the country, including anime-based productions such as ''Naruto'' or ''One Piece'' starting from 2014.
Super Kabuki has sparked controversy within the Japanese population regarding the extent of modification of the traditional art form.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ワンピース・NARUTO・初音ミク 現代の歌舞伎は「超歌舞伎」へ|url=https://wa-gokoro.jp/traditional-performing/kabuki/127/|access-date=2020-10-19|website=ワゴコロ|language=ja}}</ref> Some{{who|date=November 2022}} say that it has lost its 400-year history,{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} while others consider the adaptations necessary for contemporary relevance. Regardless, since incorporating more advanced technology in the new stage sets, costumes, and lighting, Super Kabuki has regained interest from the young demographic.<ref name="Performing Arts Network Japan 2008 u752">{{cite web | title=Artist Interview: Yuichiro Kanai | website=Performing Arts Network Japan | date=October 14, 2008 | url=https://performingarts.jpf.go.jp/E/art_interview/0809/1.html | access-date=February 28, 2024}}</ref><ref name="Ohsawa_2023">{{cite journal |last1=Ohsawa |first1=Yuki  |date=2024-01-30 |title=Charismatic Actors and Devout Audiences: Kabuki Meets Anime in Super Kabuki II |url=https://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/ejcjs/vol23/iss3/ohsawa.html#:~:text=Super%20Kabuki%2C%20through%20its%20combination,Super%20Kabuki%20in%20the%201980s. |journal=Electronic Journal of Contemporary Japanese Studies |volume=23 |issue=3 |access-date=2024-02-28}}</ref>
In addition, [[Square Enix]] announced a Super Kabuki adaptation of ''[[Final Fantasy X]]'' collaborating with [[Tokyo Broadcasting System]] in 2022. Entitled ''Kinoshita Group presents New Kabuki Final Fantasy X'' and part of celebrations of the ''Final Fantasy'' franchise's 35th anniversary, it is scheduled to be performed at the IHI Stage Around Tokyo from March 4 to April 12, 2023.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ff10-kabuki.com/ |title=木下グループ presents『新作歌舞伎 ファイナルファンタジーX』 |access-date=23 February 2023 |language=JA |trans-title=Kinoshita Group presents 'New Final Fantasy X Kabuki' |archive-date=18 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118165237/https://ff10-kabuki.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Komatsu |first1=Mikikazu |title=Final Fantasy X Kabuki Adaptation Gets New CM Narrated by Tidus VA Masakazu Morita |url=https://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2022/09/13/final-fantasy-x-kabuki-adaptation-gets-new-cm-narrated-by-tidus-va-masakazu-morita |website=Crunchyroll |access-date=23 February 2023 |date=13 September 2022 |language=en-us}}</ref>
==Elements==
===Stage design===
[[File:Shibai Ukie by Masanobu Okumura.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|{{transliteration|ja|Shibai Ukie}} ("A Scene from A Play") by Masanobu Okumura (1686–1764), depicting Edo Ichimura-za theatre in the early 1740s]]
The kabuki stage features a projection called a {{nihongo3|"flower path"|花道|[[hanamichi]]}}, a walkway which extends into the audience and via which dramatic entrances and exits are made. Okuni also performed on a {{transliteration|ja|hanamichi}} stage with her entourage. The stage is used not only as a walkway or path to get to and from the main stage, but important scenes are also played on the stage.
Kabuki stages and theaters have steadily become more technologically sophisticated, and innovations including revolving stages and trap doors were introduced during the 18th century. A driving force has been the desire to manifest one frequent theme of kabuki theater, that of the sudden, dramatic revelation or transformation.<ref name="Scott">{{harvnb|Scott|1955|pp=55–56}}</ref> A number of stage tricks, including actors' rapid appearance and disappearance, employ these innovations. The term {{nihongo||外連|[[keren (kabuki)|keren]]}}, often translated as "playing to the gallery", is sometimes used as a catch-all for these tricks. The {{transliteration|ja|hanamichi}}, and several innovations including revolving stage, {{transliteration|ja|seri}} and {{transliteration|ja|chunori}} have all contributed to kabuki. The {{transliteration|ja|hanamichi}} creates depth and both {{transliteration|ja|seri}} and {{transliteration|ja|chunori}} provide a vertical dimension.
{{transliteration|ja|Mawari-butai}} (revolving stage) developed in the Kyōhō era (1716–1735). The trick was originally accomplished by the on-stage pushing of a round, wheeled platform. Later a circular platform was embedded in the stage with wheels beneath it facilitating movement. The {{transliteration|ja|kuraten}} ("darkened revolve") technique involves lowering the stage lights during this transition. More commonly the lights are left on for {{transliteration|ja|akaten}} ("lighted revolve"), sometimes simultaneously performing the transitioning scenes for dramatic effect. This stage was first built in Japan in the early 18th century.
{{transliteration|ja|Seri}} refers to the stage "traps" that have been commonly employed in kabuki since the middle of the 18th century. These traps raise and lower actors or sets to the stage. {{transliteration|ja|Seridashi}} or {{transliteration|ja|seriage}} refers to trap(s) moving upward and {{transliteration|ja|serisage}} or {{transliteration|ja|serioroshi}} to traps descending. This technique is often used to lift an entire scene at once.
[[File:Kabuki-Play-Yoshitsune-Senbon-Zakura-1847.png|thumb|Chūnori: Kunitarō Sawamura II as Kitsune Tadanobu (left) flying over the stage, in the  autumn of 1847 production of {{transliteration|ja|[[Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura]]}}]]
[[File:Misono-za Nagoya March 2013 (2).JPG|thumb|Traditional striped black-red-green curtain, at the Misono-za in Nagoya]]
{{transliteration|ja|Chūnori}} (riding in mid-air) is a technique, which appeared toward the middle of the 19th century, by which an actor's costume is attached to wires and he is made to "fly" over the stage or certain parts of the auditorium. This is similar to the wire trick in the stage musical ''[[Peter Pan (1954 musical)|Peter Pan]]'', in which Peter launches himself into the air. It is still one of the most popular {{transliteration|ja|keren}} (visual tricks) in kabuki today; major kabuki theaters, such as the [[National Theatre of Japan|National Theatre]], [[Kabuki-za]] and [[Minami-za]], are all equipped with {{transliteration|ja|chūnori}} installations.<ref>[http://www2.ntj.jac.go.jp/unesco/kabuki/jp/4/4_04_02.html Ukon Ichikawa as Genkurō Kitsune flying over audience] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100110234139/http://www2.ntj.jac.go.jp/unesco/kabuki/jp/4/4_04_02.html |date=10 January 2010 }} in the July 2005 National Theatre production of ''Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura''.</ref>
Scenery changes are sometimes made mid-scene, while the actors remain on stage and the curtain stays open. This is sometimes accomplished by using a {{transliteration|ja|Hiki Dōgu}}, or "small wagon stage". This technique originated at the beginning of the 18th century, where scenery or actors move on or off stage on a wheeled platform. Also common are stagehands rushing onto the stage adding and removing props, backdrops and other scenery; these {{nihongo||黒子|[[kuroko]]}} are always dressed entirely in black and are traditionally considered invisible. Stagehands also assist in a variety of quick costume changes known as {{transliteration|ja|hayagawari}} ("quick change technique").
When a character's true nature is suddenly revealed, the devices of {{transliteration|ja|hikinuki}} and {{transliteration|ja|bukkaeri}} are often used. This involves layering one costume over another and having a stagehand pull the outer one off in front of the audience.
The curtain that shields the stage before the performance and during the breaks is in the traditional colours of black, red and green, in various order, or white instead of green, vertical stripes. The curtain consists of one piece and is pulled back to one side by a staff member by hand.
An additional outer curtain called {{transliteration|ja|doncho}} was not introduced until the Meiji era following the introduction of western influence. These are more ornate in their appearance and are woven. They depict the season in which the performance is taking place, often designed by renowned {{transliteration|ja|[[Nihonga]]}} artists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ajw.asahi.com/article/cool_japan/style/AJ201312190050 |title=Art made to be viewed with the curtains closed - AJW by the Asahi Shimbun |access-date=27 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208050514/http://ajw.asahi.com/article/cool_japan/style/AJ201312190050 |archive-date=8 December 2015 }}</ref>
=== Appearances ===
Since feudal laws in 17th century Japan prohibited replicating the looks of samurai or nobility and the use of luxurious fabrics, the kabuki costumes were groundbreaking new designs to the general public, even setting trends that still exist today.
Although the earliest kabuki costumes have not been preserved, separate {{transliteration|ja|otoko}} and {{transliteration|ja|[[onnagata]]}} kabuki costumes today are made based on written records called {{transliteration|ja|[[ukiyo-e]]}} and in collaboration with those whose families have been in the kabuki industry for generations.<ref name="Macintosh">{{Citation|last=Macintosh|first=Fiona|title=dance reception|date=2015-07-30|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.7006|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.7006|isbn=978-0-19-938113-5|access-date=2020-10-19}}</ref> The kimono the actors wear for their costumes are typically made with vibrant colours and multiple layers. Both {{transliteration|ja|otoko}} and {{transliteration|ja|[[onnagata]]}} wear {{transliteration|ja|[[hakama]]}} - pleated trousers – in some plays, and both use padding underneath their costumes to create the correct body shape for the outfit.
Kabuki [[Cosmetics#Purpose|makeup]] provides an element of style easily recognizable even by those unfamiliar with the art form. [[Rice powder]] is used to create the white {{transliteration|ja|[[oshiroi]]}} base for the characteristic stage makeup, and {{transliteration|ja|kumadori}} enhances or exaggerates facial lines to produce dramatic animal or supernatural [[mask]]s. The colour of the {{transliteration|ja|kumadori}} is an expression of the character's nature: red lines are used to indicate passion, heroism, righteousness, and other positive traits; blue or black, villainy, jealousy, and other negative traits; green, the supernatural; and purple, nobility.<ref name="Kincaid" />
Another special feature of kabuki costumes is the {{transliteration|ja|katsura}}, or the wig.<ref name="Macintosh"/> Each actor has a different wig made for every role, constructed from a thin base of hand-beaten copper custom-made to fit the actor perfectly, and each wig is usually styled in a [[nihongami|traditional manner]]. The hair used in the wigs is typically real human hair hand-sewn onto a [[habotai]] base, though some styles of wig require yak hair or horse hair.
==Performance==
{{more citations needed section|date=June 2014}}
The three main categories of kabuki play are {{nihongo3|historical or pre-Sengoku period stories|時代物|[[jidaimono]]}}, {{nihongo3|"domestic" or post-Sengoku period stories|世話物|[[sewamono]]}}, and {{nihongo3|"dance pieces"|所作事|[[shosagoto]]}}.<ref name="Kabuki MIT Global Shakespeares">{{cite web | url=http://globalshakespeares.mit.edu/glossary/kabuki/ | title=Kabuki « MIT Global Shakespeares | access-date=8 April 2015}}</ref>
{{transliteration|ja|Jidaimono}}, or history plays, are set within the context of major events in Japanese history. Strict censorship laws during the Edo period prohibited the representation of contemporary events and particularly prohibited criticising the shogunate or casting it in a bad light, although enforcement varied greatly over the years. Many shows were set in the context of the [[Genpei War]] of the 1180s, the [[Nanboku-chō]] Wars of the 1330s, or other historical events. Frustrating the censors, many shows used these historical settings as metaphors for contemporary events. {{transliteration|ja|[[Kanadehon Chūshingura]]}}, one of the most famous plays in the kabuki repertoire, serves as an excellent example; it is ostensibly set in the 1330s, though it actually depicts the contemporary (18th century) affair of the revenge of the [[Forty-seven rōnin|47 ''rōnin'']].
[[File:Kanadehon Chūshingura by Toyokuni Utagawa III.jpg|thumb|upright=1.85|left|The March 1849 production of {{transliteration|ja|[[Chūshingura]]}} at Edo Nakamura-za theater]]
Unlike {{transliteration|ja|jidaimono}}, which generally focused upon the samurai class, {{transliteration|ja|sewamono}} focused primarily upon commoners, namely [[chonin|townspeople]] and peasants. Often referred to as "domestic plays" in English, {{transliteration|ja|sewamono}} generally related to themes of family drama and romance. Some of the most famous {{transliteration|ja|sewamono}} are the [[shinjū|love suicide]] plays, adapted from works by the {{transliteration|ja|bunraku}} playwright Chikamatsu; these center on romantic couples who cannot be together in life due to various circumstances and who therefore decide to be together in death instead. Many if not most {{transliteration|ja|sewamono}} contain significant elements of this theme of societal pressures and limitations.
{{transliteration|ja|Shosagoto}} pieces place their emphasis on dance, which may be performed with or without dialogue, where dance can be used to convey emotion, character and plot.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CnKmBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT280|title=A Kabuki Reader: History and Performance: History and Performance |editor= Samuel L. Leiter |first=Leonard C. |last=Pronko |date=12 February 2015 |page=248 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781315706832 }}</ref> Quick costume change techniques may sometimes be employed in such pieces. Notable examples include {{transliteration|ja|[[Musume Dōjōji]]}} and {{transliteration|ja|[[Renjishi]]}}. {{transliteration|ja|[[Nagauta]]}} musicians may be seated in rows on stepped platforms behind the dancers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NLGxdXEkvIC&pg=PA115|title=Historical Dictionary of Japanese Traditional Theatre |first= Samuel L.|last= Leiter |date=16 January 2006 |page=115 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810865143 }}</ref>
Important elements of kabuki include the {{nihongo||見得|mie}}, in which the actor holds a picturesque pose to establish his character.<ref name="Scott"/> At this point his house name ({{nihongo||屋号|[[yagō]]}}) is sometimes heard in loud shout ({{nihongo||掛け声|[[kakegoe]]}}) from an expert audience member, serving both to express and enhance the audience's appreciation of the actor's achievement. An even greater compliment can be paid by shouting the name of the actor's father.
The main actor has to convey a wide variety of emotions between a fallen, drunkard person and someone who in reality is quite different since he is only faking his weakness, such as the character of Yuranosuke in {{transliteration|ja|[[Chūshingura]]}}. This is called {{transliteration|ja|hara-gei}} or "belly acting", which means he has to perform from within to change characters. It is technically difficult to perform and takes a long time to learn, but once mastered the audience takes up on the actor's emotion.
Emotions are also expressed through the colours of the costumes, a key element in kabuki. Gaudy and strong colours can convey foolish or joyful emotions, whereas severe or muted colours convey seriousness and focus.
==Play structure and performance style==
Kabuki, like other forms of drama traditionally performed in Japan, was—and sometimes still is—performed in full-day programmes, with one play comprising a number of acts spanning the entire day. However, these plays—particularly {{transliteration|ja|sewamono}}—were commonly sequenced with acts from other plays in order to produce a full-day programme, as the individual acts in a kabuki play commonly functioned as stand-alone performances in and of themselves. {{transliteration|ja|Sewamono}} plays, in contrast, were generally not sequenced with acts from other plays, and genuinely would take the entire day to perform.
The structure of a full-day performance was derived largely from the conventions of both {{transliteration|ja|bunraku}} and Noh theatre. Chief amongst these was the concept of {{nihongo||序破急|[[jo-ha-kyū]]}}, a pacing convention in theatre stating that the action of a play should start slow, speed up, and end quickly. The concept, elaborated on at length by master Noh playwright [[Zeami]], governs not only the actions of the actors, but also the structure of the play, as well as the structure of scenes and plays within a day-long programme.
Nearly every full-length play occupies five acts. The first corresponds to {{transliteration|ja|jo}}, an auspicious and slow opening which introduces the audience to the characters and the plot. The next three acts correspond to {{transliteration|ja|ha}}, where events speed up, culminating almost always in a great moment of drama or tragedy in the third act, and possibly a battle in the second or fourth acts. The final act, corresponding to {{transliteration|ja|kyū}}, is almost always short, providing a quick and satisfying conclusion.<ref name="Quinn">Quinn, Shelley Fenno. "How to write a Noh play—Zeami's ''[[Sandō]]''. ''[[Monumenta Nipponica]]'', vol 48, issue 1 (Spring 1993). pp53–88.</ref>
[[File:Heike Nyōgo-ga-shima by Shibakuni and Hokushū.jpg|thumb|The September 1824 production of {{transliteration|ja|Heike Nyogo-ga-shima}} at Kado-za theatre in Osaka|450px]]
While many plays were written solely for kabuki, many others were taken from {{transliteration|ja|jōruri}} plays, Noh plays, folklore, or other performing traditions such as the oral tradition of the ''[[Tale of the Heike]]''. While {{transliteration|ja|jōruri}} plays tend to have serious, emotionally dramatic, and organised plots, plays written specifically for kabuki generally have looser, more humorous plots.<ref name=Toita>Toita, Yasuji (1970). Kabuki: The Popular Theater. New York: Weatherhill. pp 6–8.</ref>
One crucial difference between {{transliteration|ja|jōruri}} and kabuki is a difference in storytelling focus; whereas {{transliteration|ja|jōruri}} focuses on the story and on the chanter who recites it, kabuki has a greater focus on the actors themselves. A {{transliteration|ja|jōruri}} play may sacrifice the details of sets, puppets, or action in favor of the chanter, while kabuki is known to sacrifice drama and even the plot to highlight an actor's talents. It was not uncommon in kabuki to insert or remove individual scenes from a day's schedule in order to cater to an individual actor—either scenes he was famed for, or that featured him, would be inserted into a program without regard to plot continuity.<ref name="Toita"/> Certain plays were also performed uncommonly as they required an actor to be proficient in a number of instruments, which would be played live onstage, a skill that few actors possessed.<ref>Photographic Kabuki Kaleidoscope, I. Somegoro and K. Rinko, 2017. Shogakukan.</ref>
Kabuki traditions in [[Edo (Tokyo)|Edo]] and the Kyoto-Osaka region (Kamigata) differed; throughout the Edo period, Edo kabuki was defined by its extravagance, both in the appearance of its actors, their costumes, stage tricks and bold {{transliteration|ja|mie}} poses. In contrast, Kamigata kabuki focused on natural and realistic styles of acting. Only towards the end of the Edo period did the two styles begin to merge to any significant degree.<ref name="Thornbury">Thornbury, Barbara E. "Sukeroku's Double Identity: The Dramatic Structure of Edo Kabuki". ''Japanese Studies'' 6 (1982). Ann Arbor: Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 13</ref> Before this time, actors from different regions often failed to adjust their acting styles when performing elsewhere, leading to unsuccessful performance tours outside of their usual region of performance.
==Famous plays==
While there are many famous plays known today, many of the most famous were written in the mid-Edo period, and were originally written for {{transliteration|ja|bunraku}} theatre.
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Kanadehon Chūshingura]]}} (''Treasury of Loyal Retainers'') is the famous story of the forty-seven {{transliteration|ja|rōnin}}, led by Oishi Kuranosuke, who exact revenge on their enemy before [[seppuku|committing suicide]] upon the death of their master, Lord Takuminokami of the Asano clan.<ref name="Miyake">Miyake, Shutarō (1971). "Kabuki Drama". Tokyo: Japan Travel Bureau.</ref> This story is one of the most popular traditional tales in Japan, and is based on a famous episode in 18th century Japanese history.
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura]]}} ({{transliteration|ja|Yoshitsune}} ''and the Thousand Cherry Trees'') follows [[Minamoto no Yoshitsune]] as he flees from agents of his brother [[Minamoto no Yoritomo|Yoritomo]]. Three [[Taira clan]] generals supposedly killed in the [[Genpei War]] figure prominently, as their deaths ensure a complete end to the war and the arrival of peace, as does a {{transliteration|ja|[[kitsune]]}} named [[Genkurō]].<ref name=Yoshitsune>Jones, Stanleigh H. Jr. (trans.)(1993). "Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees." New York: Columbia University Press.</ref>
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Sugawara Denju Tenarai Kagami]]}} ({{transliteration|ja|Sugawara}} ''and the Secrets of Calligraphy'') is based on the life of famed scholar [[Sugawara no Michizane]] (845–903), who is exiled from Kyoto, and upon his death causes a number of calamities in the capital. He is then deified, as {{transliteration|ja|[[Tenjin (kami)|Tenjin]], [[kami]]}} ("divine spirit") of scholarship, and worshipped in order to propitiate his angry spirit.<ref name="Miyake"/>
== Actors ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2023}}
[[File:Misono-za Nagoya March 2013 (5).JPG|thumb|upright=1.85|{{nihongo||襲名|Shūmei}} ceremony of Ichikawa En'ō II, Ichikawa Ennosuke IV and Ichikawa Chūsha IX at the [[Misono-za]] in Nagoya (March 2013)]]
Every kabuki actor has a stage name, which is different from the name they were born with. These stage names, most often those of the actor's father, grandfather, or teacher, are passed down between generations of actors' lineages, and hold great honor and importance. Many names are associated with certain roles or acting styles, and the new possessor of each name must live up to these expectations; there is the feeling almost of the actor not only taking a name, but embodying the spirit, style, or skill of each actor to previously hold that name. Many actors will go through at least three names over the course of their career.
{{nihongo3|"name succession"|襲名|[[Shūmei]]}} are grand naming ceremonies held in kabuki theatres in front of the audience. Most often, a number of actors will participate in a single ceremony, taking on new stage-names. Their participation in a {{transliteration|ja|shūmei}} represents their passage into a new chapter of their performing careers.
Kabuki actors are typically part of a school of acting, or are associated with a particular theatre.
== Major theatres ==
[[File:Kabuki-za Theatre 2013 1125.jpg|thumb|Exterior of [[Kabuki-za]] in Tokyo]]
[[File:Kyoto Minamiza 2010-7 hanamichi.JPG|thumb|Interior of [[Minami-za]] in Kyoto]]
* [[Akita (city)|Akita]]
** [[Kosaka, Akita|Kosaka]]
* [[Tokyo]]
** [[Kabuki-za]]
** [[Meiji-za]]
** [[Shinbashi Enbujō]]
** [[National Theater (Tokyo)|National Theater]]
* [[Kyoto]]
** [[Minami-za]]
* [[Osaka]]
** {{nihongo|Shin-Kabuki-za|新歌舞伎座 (大阪)}}
** {{nihongo|Osaka Shōchiku-za|大阪松竹座}}
* [[Nagoya]]
** [[Misono-za]]
** [[Suehiro-za (Nagoya)|Suehiro-za]]
* [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]]
** [[Hakata-za]]
* [[Kagawa Prefecture|Kagawa]]
** [[Kotohira]] [[Kanamaru-za]]
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== Influence of kabuki on other art forms ==
[[File:Woodblock print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, digitally enhanced by rawpixel-com 17.jpg|thumb|338x338px|Woodblock print of Famous Heroes of the Kabuki Stage Played by Frogs by Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798–1861)]]
Since its beginning, kabuki has remained a significant piece of Japanese culture. The stories and actors have been recreated in many different art forms, including woodblock prints, books, magazines, oral storytelling, photography in later years, and others. Additionally, kabuki was and continues to be influenced by the books and stories circulating in Japan. In one such instance, the widely popular book {{transliteration|ja|Nansō Satomi Hakkenden}},<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reichert |first=James R. |date=May 2017 |title=From Yomihon to Gôkan: Repetition and Difference in Late Edo Book Culture |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |language=en |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=311–332 |doi=10.1017/S0021911817000031 |s2cid=165078273 |issn=0021-9118|doi-access=free }}</ref> or Eight Dogs, was acted out in various episodes on the kabuki stage.
One important way the laboring class was able to enjoy kabuki performances outside of the stage was through home-brewed shows called {{nihongo3|"village kabuki"|農村歌舞伎|Noson kabuki}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hays |first=Jeffrey |title=KABUKI: HISTORY, THEMES, FAMOUS PLAYS AND COSTUMES {{!}} Facts and Details |url=https://factsanddetails.com/japan/cat20/sub131/item715.html |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=factsanddetails.com |language=en}}</ref> Also referred to as "amateur kabuki", these performances took place at the local level across Japan, but were most commonly held in the Gifu and Aichi prefectures. In [[Gifu Prefecture#History|Gifu Prefecture]] specifically, {{transliteration|ja|noson}} kabuki was a prominent feature of the annual autumn festival, with children's reenactments of kabuki performances taking place at Murakuni shrine for over 300 years.
Closer to the cultural epicenter of kabuki in Edo (later Tokyo), commoners had other methods to enjoy performances without attending the shows. {{nihongo3|puppet theatre|文楽|[[Bunraku]]}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bunraku |url=https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2092.html |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=www.japan-guide.com |language=en}}</ref> was a type of performance shorter in length and more affordable to the common class than kabuki. {{transliteration|ja|Bunraku}} performances were often based on plots used in kabuki, and the two styles shared common themes. {{nihongo3|"Kabuki news"|歌舞伎新報|[[Kabuki shinpō]]}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=8P |title=G06 The First Theatrical Magazine |url=https://www.arc.ritsumei.ac.jp/lib/vm/kabuki2015_e/2015/12/g06.html |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=The Most Curiosity Kabuki World |date=21 December 2015 |language=ja}}</ref> was another popular medium for kabuki consumption among commoners and elites alike. During the course of its publication, this magazine allowed those unable to attend performances to enjoy the liveliness of kabuki culture.
==See also==
{{Portal|Japan}}
* [[Theatre of Japan]]
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Edomoji#Kanteiryū|Kanteiryū]]}}, a lettering style invented to advertise kabuki and other theatrical performances
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Kyōgen]]}}, a traditional form of Japanese comic theatre that influenced the development of kabuki
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Oshiguma]]}}, an imprint of the face make-up of kabuki actors, as artwork and souvenir
* [[Noh]], a traditional form of Japanese theatre
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Bunraku]]}}, a traditional Japanese puppet theatre from whose scripts many kabuki plays were adapted
* Famous kabuki actor lineages, such as:
** [[Ichikawa Danjūrō]]
** [[Ichikawa Ebizō]]
** [[Matsumoto Kōshirō]]
** [[Nakamura Kanzaburō]]
** [[Kataoka Nizaemon]]
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Kabuki shinpō]]}}, a Japanese magazine on kabuki that ran 1879–1897.
*''[[Sgt. Kabukiman NYPD]]'', a 1991 comedic [[superhero film]] directed by [[Lloyd Kaufman]] and [[Michael Herz (producer)|Michael Herz]] and distributed by [[Troma Entertainment]].
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Kabukibu!]]}}, a light novel, manga, and anime series about a boy who loves kabuki
* {{transliteration|ml|[[Kathakali]]}}
* {{transliteration|zh|[[Jingju]]}}
* {{transliteration|sa|[[Yakshagana]]}}
* [[Balinese dance]]
==Notes==
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{{Reflist|30em}}
==References==
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{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |first=James R. |last=Brandon |year=2009 |title=Kabuki's Forgotten War: 1931–1945 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-3200-1 }}
* [[Ronald Cavaye]] (1993). ''Kabuki: A Pocket Guide''. USA and Japan: Charles E. Tuttle,
* [[Ronald Cavaye]], Paul Griffith and Akihiko Senda (2004). ''A Guide to the Japanese Stage''. Japan: Kodansha International.
* {{cite book |last=Ernst |first=E. |year=1956 |title=The Kabuki Theatre |url=https://archive.org/details/kabukitheatre0000erns |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press }}
* {{cite book|last=Scott |first=A. C. |year=1955 |title=The Kabuki Theatre of Japan |url=https://archive.org/details/kabukitheatreofj0000scot |url-access=registration |location=London |publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd. }}
* Senelick, L. (2000). ''The Changing Room: Sex, Drag, and Theatre''. London: Routledge.
* Facts JPN-kabuki. 25 November 2007 <[https://web.archive.org/web/20070606160340/http://inic.utexas.edu/asnic/countries/japan/kabuki.html facts JPN-kabuki]>.
* Japanese Culture. 25 November 2007 <[http://japan-zone.com/culture/kabuki.shtml Japanese Culture - Entertainment - Kabuki Theater]>.
* Kabuki. 25 November 2007 <[http://japan-guide.com/e/e2090.html Kabuki]>
* Kabuki. Ed. Shoriya Aragoro. 9 September 1999. 25 November 2007 <[http://www.kabuki21.com/ KABUKI]>
* {{Cite book
|last=Haar
|first=Francils
|title=Japanese Theatre in Highlight: A Pictorial Commentary
|year= 1971
|publisher=Greenwood P
|location=Westport
|page=83
}}
* {{cite web
|first        = Takaba
|last         = Masato
|title        = History of Kabuki: Birth of Saruwaka-machi
|url          = http://www2.ntj.jac.go.jp/unesco/kabuki/en/2/2_10.html
|publisher    = Watanabe Norihiko.
|year         = 2007
|access-date   = 30 April 2009
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20130120160058/http://www2.ntj.jac.go.jp/unesco/kabuki/en/2/2_10.html
|archive-date = 20 January 2013
|url-status   = dead
}}
{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
*{{cite book | author= Kawatake, Toshio | title= ''Kabuki: Baroque Fusion of the Arts'' | location=Tokyo | publisher=I-House Press | year=2006 | url=https://www.i-house.or.jp/programs/ihousepress2006-03/}}
*{{cite book | author= Matsui, Kesako | title= ''Kabuki, a Mirror of Japan: Ten Plays that Offer a Glimpse into Evolving Sensibilities'' | location=Tokyo | publisher=Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture | year=2016 | url=https://www.jpicinternational.com/books/culture/001723.html}}
==External links==
{{commons category multi|Kabuki|Kabuki actors|Kabuki theaters}}
{{Wiktionary|kabuki}}
* [http://www.kabuki-bito.jp/eng/ Kabuki Web]—Shochiku Official Kabuki Website in English
* [http://www.eg-gm.jp/e_guide/eng_service.html Earphone Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121102311/https://www.eg-gm.jp/e_guide/eng_service.html |date=21 November 2021 }}—The English language Earphone Guide
* [http://www.kabuki21.com/ Kabuki 21]—All about Japan's traditional Theatre Art of Kabuki: The art, the plays, the great stars of today, the legends of the past, the theaters, the history, the glossary, the traditions, the heroes and the derivatives.
* [[National Diet Library]]: [http://www.ndl.go.jp/scenery/e/data/141/index.html?type=category&p=culture_entertainment photograph of Kabuki-za in Kyobashi-ku, Kobiki-cho, Tokyo (1900)]; [http://www.ndl.go.jp/scenery/e/data/144/index.html?type=category&p=culture_entertainment Kakuki-za (1901)]; [http://www.ndl.go.jp/scenery/e/data/145/index.html?type=category&p=culture_entertainment Kakuki-za (1909)]; [http://www.ndl.go.jp/scenery/e/data/142/index.html?type=category&p=culture_entertainment Kabuki-za (1911)]; [http://www.ndl.go.jp/scenery/e/data/147/index.html?type=category&p=culture_entertainment Kabuki-za (1912)]; [http://www.ndl.go.jp/scenery/e/data/149/index.html?type=category&p=culture_entertainment Kakuki-za (1915)]
* [http://www.kuniyoshiproject.com/Main%20-%20Actor%20triptychs.htm Kabuki prints by Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798–1861)]
* [[Japan Mint]]: [https://web.archive.org/web/20071207090906/http://www.mint.go.jp/eng/coin/international/coinset/page17.html Kabuki Coin Set]
* [http://www.lostplays.com/play/narukami Audio recording of the kabuki play Narukami] by [[Ichikawa Danjūrō I]] at LostPlays.com
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EgzLYlKSBrE 1969 'Camera Three' program on Kabuki], (audio only; with Faubion Bowers et al.)
*[https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23768 Collection: "Kabuki Images"] from the [[University of Michigan Museum of Art]]
*[https://maa.missouri.edu/exhibit/kabuki-performance-and-expression-japanese-prints "Kabuki Performance and Expression in Japanese Prints" exhibition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415045140/https://maa.missouri.edu/exhibit/kabuki-performance-and-expression-japanese-prints |date=15 April 2021 }} at the [[Museum of Art and Archaeology|Museum of Art and Archaeology at the University of Missouri]]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Kabuki| ]]
[[Category:History of theatre]]
[[Category:Japanese art terminology]]
[[Category:Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]]
[[Category:Theatre of Japan]]