View source for Kalinago

{{Short description|Group of people who live in Venezuela and the Lesser Antilles}}
{{Redirect|Island Caribs|the people of mixed Kalinago descent from Saint Vincent|Garifuna}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Kalinago
| native_name      =
| native_name_lang = crb
| image            = [[File:Carib indian family by John Gabriel Stedman.jpg|185px|]]
| caption          = Carib family (by [[John Gabriel Stedman]] 1818)
| population       = {{ubl|[[Dominica]]: 3,000<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 July 2018 |title=Dominica's Kalinago fight to preserve their identity |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-44723391 |url-status=live |access-date=23 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915092108/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-44723391 |archive-date=15 September 2021}}</ref>|[[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]: 3,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – St Vincent and the Grenadines |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce54c.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204074955/https://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce54c.html |archive-date=4 February 2020 |access-date=23 September 2022 |website=refworld}}</ref>|[[Saint Lucia]]: Small number<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – St Lucia |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce1023.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627213747/http://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce1023.html |archive-date=27 June 2017 |access-date=23 September 2022 |website=refworld}}</ref>|[[Trinidad and Tobago]]: Small number<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Trinidad and Tobago |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce55c.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527204735/https://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce55c.html |archive-date=27 May 2021 |access-date=23 September 2022 |website=refworld}}</ref>}}
| popplace  = Dominica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago; formerly throughout the [[Lesser Antilles]]
| languages = [[English language|English]], [[Dominican Creole French]], formerly [[Kalinago language|Island Carib]]
| rels      =
| related   = [[Garifuna|Garifuna (Black Carib)]], [[Taíno]]
}}
[[File:Dibujo de mujer caribe.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of a Carib woman (1888)]]
The '''Kalinago''', also called '''Island Caribs'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/general/change-from-carib-to-kalinago-now-official |title=Change from Carib to Kalinago now official |access-date=2016-03-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308065123/http://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/general/change-from-carib-to-kalinago-now-official/ |archive-date=2016-03-08 |date=2015-02-22 |work=Dominica News Online}}</ref> or simply '''Caribs''', are an [[Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean|Indigenous people]] of the [[Lesser Antilles]] in the [[Caribbean]]. They may have been related to the [[Kalina people|Mainland Caribs]] (Kalina) of South America, but they spoke an unrelated language known as [[Kalinago language|Kalinago]] or Island Carib. They also spoke a [[pidgin]] language associated with the Mainland Caribs.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Haurholm-Larsen |first=Steffen |title=A Grammar of Garifuna |publisher=University of Bern |year=2016 |pages=7, 8, 9}}</ref>
At the time of [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish contact]], the Kalinago were one of the dominant groups in the Caribbean (the name of which is derived from "Carib", as the Kalinago were once called). They lived throughout north-eastern South America, [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Barbados]], the [[Windward Islands]], [[Dominica]], and possibly the southern [[Leeward Islands]]. Historically, it was thought their ancestors were mainland peoples who had conquered the islands from their previous inhabitants, the [[Igneri]]. However, linguistic and archaeological evidence contradicts the notion of a mass emigration and conquest; the Kalinago language appears not to have been [[Cariban languages|Cariban]], but like that of their neighbors, the [[Taíno]]. [[Irving Rouse]] and others suggest that a smaller group of mainland peoples migrated to the islands without displacing their inhabitants, eventually adopting the local language but retaining their traditions of a South American origin.<ref>{{cite book |last= Rouse |first= Irving |date= 1992 |title= The Tainos |url= https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous |url-access= registration |quote= Island Carib. |publisher= Yale University Press |page= [https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous/page/21 21] |isbn= 0300051816 |access-date= May 22, 2014}}</ref>
In the early colonial period, the Kalinago had a reputation as warriors who raided neighboring islands. According to the tales of [[Conquistador|Spanish conquistadors]], the Kalinago were [[Human cannibalism|cannibals]] who regularly ate roasted human flesh,<ref>{{cite book |last= Rouse |first= Irving |date= 1992 |title= The Tainos |url= https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous |url-access= registration |publisher= Yale University Press |pages= [https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous/page/22 22]–23 |isbn= 0300051816 |access-date= May 22, 2014}}</ref> although this is considered by the community to be an offensive myth. There is no hard evidence of Caribs eating human flesh, though one historian points out it might be useful to frighten enemy [[Arawak]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Study puts the 'Carib' in 'Caribbean,' boosting credibility of Columbus' cannibal claims |date=10 January 2020 |url=https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/carib-skulls-boost-credibility-of-columbus-cannibal-claims/}} </ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Jennifer |first=Ouellette |date=December 29, 2020 |title=Did Columbus find early Caribs in 15th century Caribbean? Jury is still out |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/12/facial-profiling-ancient-dna-tell-two-tales-of-early-caribbean-islanders/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203014921/https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/12/facial-profiling-ancient-dna-tell-two-tales-of-early-caribbean-islanders/ |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |website=Ars Technica}}</ref> The Kalinago and their descendants continue to live in the Antilles, notably on the island of [[Dominica]]. The [[Garifuna people|Garifuna]], who share common ancestry with the Kalinago, also live principally in Central America.
==Name==
{{See also|Kalina people#Name|Garifuna#Name}}
The [[exonym]] ''Caribe'' was first recorded by [[Christopher Columbus]].<ref name="Taylor">{{cite book |title=The Black Carib Wars: Freedom, Survival and the Making of the Garifuna |first=Christopher |last=Taylor |series=Caribbean Studies Series |publisher=[[University Press of Mississippi]] |year=2012 |jstor=j.ctt24hxr2|isbn=9781617033100 }}</ref>{{rp|vi}} One hypothesis for the origin of ''Carib'' is that it means "brave warrior".<ref name="Taylor"/>{{rp|vi}} Its variants, including the English word ''Carib'', were then adopted by other European languages.<ref name="Taylor"/>{{rp|vi}} Early Spanish explorers and administrators used the terms ''[[Arawak]]'' and ''Caribs'' to distinguish the peoples of the Caribbean, with ''Carib'' reserved for Indigenous groups that they considered hostile and ''Arawak'' for groups that they considered friendly.<ref name="Kim">{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Julie Chun |year=2013 |title=The Caribs of St. Vincent and Indigenous Resistance during the Age of Revolutions |journal=[[Early American Studies]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=117–132 |doi=10.1353/eam.2013.0007 |jstor=23546705 |s2cid=144195511}}</ref>{{rp|121}}
The [[Kalinago language]] endonyms are ''Karifuna'' (singular) and ''Kalinago'' (plural).<ref name="Green">{{Cite journal |last=Greene |first=Oliver N. |year=2002 |title=Ethnicity, Modernity, and Retention in the Garifuna Punta |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1519956 |journal=Black Music Research Journal |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=189–216 |doi=10.2307/1519956 |jstor=1519956}}</ref><ref name="Byron">{{Cite journal |last=Foster |first=Byron |year=1987 |title=Celebrating autonomy: the development of Garifuna ritual on St Vincent |journal=[[Caribbean Quarterly]] |volume=33 |issue=3/4 |pages=75–83 |doi=10.1080/00086495.1987.11671718 |jstor=40654135}}</ref> The name was officially changed from 'Carib' to 'Kalinago' in Dominica in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Admin |date=2015-02-22 |title=Change from Carib to Kalinago now official |url=https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/general/change-from-carib-to-kalinago-now-official/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=Dominica News Online |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-11-22 |title=Kalinago please |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/webarchive/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fcaribbean%2Fnews%2Fstory%2F2010%2F11%2F101117_kalinago.shtml |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=BBC}}</ref>
==History==
[[William Keegan|William F. Keegan]] and [[Corinne Hofman|Corinne L. Hofman]] have outlined two major models for the origin of the Kalinago.<ref name=":4">Keegan & Hofman 2017:232–233</ref> The traditional account, which is almost as old as Columbus, says that the Caribs were a warlike people who were moving up the Lesser Antilles and displacing the original inhabitants.<ref name=":4" /><ref>Rouse, Irving (1992). ''The Tainos''. Yale University Press. p. 131. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/0300051816|<bdi>0300051816</bdi>]]. Retrieved June 17, 2014. <q>Island Carib.</q></ref> Early missionary texts suggested the original inhabitants of the islands were the [[Igneri]], while the Kalinago were invaders originating in South America (home to the [[mainland Caribs]] or Kalina) who conquered and displaced the Igneri.<ref>Taylor, Douglas. “Kinship and Social Structure on the Island Carib”. ''Southwestern Journal of Anthropology'' 2, no. 2 (1946): 180–212</ref> As this tradition was widespread in oral testimonies, and internally consistent, it was accepted as historical by Europeans.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rouse |first=Irving |url=https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous |title=The Tainos |date=1992 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0300051816 |page=[https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous/page/131 131] |quote=Island Carib. |access-date=June 17, 2014 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite book |last1=Figueredo |first1=D. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsNPdvRtT7oC&pg=PA9 |title=A Brief History of the Caribbean |date=2008 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1438108315 |page=9}}</ref>
The second model proposes that the Kalinago developed out of the indigenous peoples of the Antilles.<ref name=":4" /> While the Caribs were commonly believed to have migrated from the [[Orinoco]] River area in South America to settle in the Caribbean islands about 1200 CE, an analysis of [[ancient DNA]] suggests that the Caribs had a common origin with contemporary groups in the Greater and Lesser Antilles.<ref name="philos">{{Cite journal |last1=Mendisco |first1=F. |last2=Pemonge |first2=M. H.  |last3=Leblay |first3=E. |last4=Romon |first4=T.  |last5=Richard |first5=G.  |last6=Courtaud |first6=P.  |last7=Deguilloux |first7=M. F.  |year=2015 |title=Where are the Caribs? Ancient DNA from ceramic period human remains in the Lesser Antilles |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |publisher=[[NCBI]] |volume=370 |issue=1660 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0388 |pmc=4275895 |pmid=25487339}}</ref> The transition from Igneri to Island Carib culture may have occurred around 1450.<ref>Rouse, Irving (1992). ''The Tainos''. Yale University Press. pp.&nbsp;130–131. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/0300051816|<bdi>0300051816</bdi>]]. Retrieved June 17, 2014. <q>Island Carib.</q></ref>
Archaeological evidence in support of either model is sparse, with "no confirmed Carib sites [known] prior to the 1990s."<ref name=":4" /> However, Cayo-style pottery found in the Lesser Antilles, and dated between 1000 and 1500, is similar to the Koriabo complex from which the mainland Carib or [[Karina people|Kari'na]] pottery tradition is descended. Cayo pottery was once thought to have preceded Suazoid pottery (associated with the Igneri) in the Lesser Antilles, but more recent scholarship suggests that Cayo pottery gradually replaced Suazoid pottery in the islands.<ref name=":4" /> Cayo-style pottery has been found in the Lesser Antilles from [[Grenada]] to [[Basse-Terre]], and, possibly, [[Saint Kitts]]. Cayo pottery also shows similarities to the Meillacoid and Chicoid styles of the Greater Antilles, as well as to the South American Koriabo style.<ref>Keegan & Hofman 2017:234</ref>
===Arrival of Columbus===
{{See |Carib Expulsion}}
Upon his arrival in the Caribbean archipelago in 1492, the [[Maipurean language|Maipurean]]-speaking [[Taínos]] reportedly told [[Christopher Columbus]] that Caribs were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on the Taínos, often capturing women.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{cite book |last1=Deagan |first1=Kathleen A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iWGZP0V8WroC&pg=PA32 |title=Columbus's Outpost Among the Taínos: Spain and America at La Isabela, 1493-1498 |date=2008 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300133899 |page=32}}</ref> According to Columbus, the Taínos said the Caribs had spent the last two centuries displacing the Taínos by warfare, extermination, and assimilation.<ref name=":7">[http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0307/news0307-7.pdf Sweeney, James L. (2007). "Caribs, Maroons, Jacobins, Brigands, and Sugar Barons: The Last Stand of the Black Caribs on St. Vincent"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227183833/http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0307/news0307-7.pdf |date=2012-02-27 }}, ''African Diaspora Archaeology Network'', University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, March 2007, retrieved 26 April 2007</ref>
[[File:Tobago jade ceremonial ax.jpg|thumb|left|[[Greenstone (archaeology)|Greenstone]] ceremonial axe. From [[shell midden]], Mt Irvine Bay, [[Tobago]], 1957.]]
The French missionary [[Raymond Breton]] arrived in the Lesser Antilles in 1635, and lived in [[Guadeloupe]] and [[Dominica]] until 1653. He took ethnographic and linguistic notes on the native peoples of these islands, including [[Saint Vincent (Antilles)|St. Vincent]], which he visited briefly. Breton was responsible for many of the early stereotypes about Kalinago.<ref name="Sweeney">[http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0307/news0307-7.pdf Sweeney, James L. (2007). "Caribs, Maroons, Jacobins, Brigands, and Sugar Barons: The Last Stand of the Black Caribs on St. Vincent"], ''African Diaspora Archaeology Network'', March 2007, retrieved 26 April 2007</ref>
Later, the Kalinago occasionally allied with the Taínos to repel European invaders.  When the Spanish attempted to colonize Puerto Rico, Kalinago from St. Croix arrived to aid the local Taíno.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Beckles |first=Hilary McD. |date=1992 |title=Kalinago (carib) Resistance to European Colonisation of the Caribbean |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40654175 |journal=Caribbean Quarterly |volume=38 |issue=2/3 |pages=1–124 |doi=10.1080/00086495.1992.11671757 |jstor=40654175 |issn=0008-6495}}</ref> Daguao village, initially slated to be the Europeans' new capital, was destroyed by Taínos from the eastern area of Puerto Rico, with the support of Kalinago from neighboring [[Vieques]].<ref name="PBS">{{cite web |title=La historia de Puerto Rico a través de sus barrios: Daguao de Naguabo (The history of Puerto Rico through its barrios: Daguao in Naguabo) |url=https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/fdb5cb48-75f8-4ccf-9477-4b1553ed3bd6/barrios-de-puerto-rico-barrio-daguao-de-naguabo/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717220520/https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/fdb5cb48-75f8-4ccf-9477-4b1553ed3bd6/barrios-de-puerto-rico-barrio-daguao-de-naguabo/ |archive-date=2015-07-17 |access-date=29 August 2020 |website=PBS Learning Media |publisher=Fundación Puertorriqueña de las Humanidades |language=es |format=video}}</ref> By the middle of the 16th century, the resistance of Taínos and Kalinago alike was largely quashed across the Greater Antilles. The survivors were enslaved to work in agriculture or mining.<ref name="Kim" />
The Kalinagos were more successful in repelling the Spanish—and later the French and English—in the Lesser Antilles, retaining their independence.  The lack of gold in the area and the large numbers of casualties inflicted upon the Spanish contributed to their survival.<ref name="Kim" />
===Resistance to the English and the French===
[[File:Agostino Brunias Carib Painting.jpg|thumb|''A Family of Carib natives drawn from life'', by [[Agostino Brunias]], c. 1765 – 1770s]]
In the seventeenth century, the Kalinago regularly attacked the plantations of the English and the French in the Leeward Islands. In the 1630s, planters from the Leewards conducted campaigns against the Kalinago, but with limited success. The Kalinago took advantage of divisions between the Europeans, to provide support to the French and the Dutch during wars in the 1650s, consolidating their independence as a result.<ref name=":1">Hilary Beckles, "The 'Hub of Empire': The Caribbean and Britain in the Seventeenth Century", ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume 1 The Origins of Empire'', ed. by Nicholas Canny (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 234.</ref> Such wars led to a geopolitical boundary separating the [[Lesser Antilles]], inhabited by the Kalinago, from the [[Greater Antilles]], inhabited by the [[Taíno]]. This boundary became known as the "[[poison arrow]] curtain".<ref name="Kim" /><ref>{{cite book|page=135|title=The Columbus Dynasty in the Caribbean, 1492-1526|first=Troy S.|last=Floyd|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=1973}}</ref>
In 1660, France and England signed the ''Treaty of Saint Charles'' with Island Caribs. It stipulated that the Kalinago would [[Carib Expulsion|evacuate]] all the Lesser Antilles except for [[Dominica]] and [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|Saint Vincent]], which were recognised as reserves. However, the English later ignored the treaty, and pursue a campaign against the Kalinago in succeeding decades.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Guadeloupe amérindienne|last=Delpuech|first=André|date=2001|publisher=Monum, éditions du patrimoine|isbn=9782858223671|location=Paris|pages=46–51|oclc=48617879}}</ref> Between the 1660s and 1700, the English waged an intermittent campaign against the Kalinago.<ref name=":0" />
By 1763, the British had annexed St Lucia, Tobago, Dominica and St Vincent.<ref name=":1" /> On Saint Vincent the Kalinago intermarried with runaway slaves, forming the ‘Black Caribs’ or Garifuna who were expelled to Honduras in 1797. The British colonial use of the term ''Black Carib'', particularly in [[Sir William Young, 2nd Baronet|William Young]]'s ''Account of the Black Charaibs'' (1795), has been described in modern historiography as framing the majority of the indigenous St. Vincent population as "mere interlopers from Africa" who lacked claims to land possession in St. Vincent.<ref name="Kim" />{{rp|121–123}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Hulme |first=Peter |title=The Global Eighteenth Century |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=9780801868658 |editor-last=Nussbaum |editor-first=Felicity A. |location=Baltimore |pages=182–194 |chapter=Black, Yellow, and White on St. Vincent: Moreau de Jonnès's Carib Ethnography}}</ref>{{rp|182}} On Dominica the runaways formed distinct Maroon communities while the Caribs remained distinct. A remnant of these Caribs lives on in the Kalinago Territory.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}
==Kalinago people today==
[[File:CaribanLang02.png|thumb|Distribution of Cariban languages in South America<ref>{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Ostler|title=Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World|url=https://archive.org/details/empiresofwordl00ostl|url-access=registration|year=2005|page=[https://archive.org/details/empiresofwordl00ostl/page/362 362]|publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=9780066210865|author-link=Nicholas Ostler}}</ref>]]
[[File:CaribWarriorbyGeorgeSStuart.jpg|thumb|upright|Carib Warrior (mixed media [[wax sculpture]] by artist [[George S. Stuart]])]]
{{As of|2008}}, a small population of around 3,400 Kalinago survived in the [[Kalinago Territory]] in northeast Dominica, of whom some 70 "defined themselves as 'pure'".<ref>{{cite web |title=Refworld &#124; World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Dominica : Caribs |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d2f2.html}}</ref> The Kalinago of Dominica maintained their independence for many years by taking advantage of the island's rugged terrain. The island's east coast includes a {{convert|3700|acre|km2|adj=on}} territory formerly known as the [[Carib Territory]] that was granted to the people by the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] in 1903. The Dominican Kalinago elect their own chief. In July 2003, the Kalinago observed 100 Years of Territory, and in July 2014, Charles Williams was elected Kalinago Chief, succeeding Chief Garnette Joseph.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.avirtualdominica.com/project/kalinago-people/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101026103236/http://avirtualdominica.com/caribs.htm|url-status=dead|title=Kalinago People &#124; &#124; a virtual Dominica|archive-date=October 26, 2010}}</ref>
Several hundred Carib descendants live in the [[United States Virgin Islands|U. S. Virgin Islands]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis|St. Kitts & Nevis]], [[Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua & Barbuda]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[Martinique]], [[Dominica]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Grenada]], [[Trinidad]] and [[Saint Vincent (Antilles)|St. Vincent]]. "[[Black Caribs]]," the descendants of the mixture of Africans live in [[Saint Vincent (Antilles)|St. Vincent]] whose total population is unknown. Some ethnic Carib communities remain on the American mainland, in countries such as [[Guyana]] and [[Suriname]] in South America, and [[Belize]] in Central America. The size of these communities varies widely.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}
During the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Island Carib population in [[Saint Vincent (Antilles)|St. Vincent]] was greater than that in Dominica. Both the Island Caribs (Yellow Caribs) and the Black Caribs ([[Garifuna]]) fought against the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] during the [[Second Carib War]]. After the end of the war, the British deported the [[Garifuna]] (a population of 4,338) to [[Roatan Island]], while the Island Caribs (whose population consisted of 80 people) were allowed to stay on St. Vincent.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_1c9KuQ32EC&pg=PA66|title=Garífuna, Garínagu, Caribe: historia de una nación libertaria|first=Francesca|last=Gargallo|date=August 4, 2002|publisher=Siglo XXI|isbn=9682323657|via=Google Books}}</ref> The 1812 eruption of [[La Soufrière (volcano)|La Soufrière]] destroyed the Carib territory, killing a majority of the Yellow Caribs. After the eruption, 130 Yellow Caribs and 59 Black Caribs survived on [[Saint Vincent (Antilles)|St. Vincent]]. Unable to recover from the damage caused by the eruption, 120 of the Yellow Caribs, under Captain Baptiste, emigrated to Trinidad. In 1830, the Carib population numbered less than 100.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTgIOFMw5GsC&pg=PA152|title=The Black Carib Wars: Freedom, Survival, and the Making of the Garifuna|first=Chris|last=Taylor|date=May 3, 2012|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn=9781617033100|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOHwmM7ASwIC&pg=PA208|title=The Rapid Growth of Human Populations, 1750-2000: Histories, Consequences, Issues, Nation by Nation|first=William|last=Stanton|date=August 4, 2003|publisher=multi-science publishing|isbn=9780906522219|via=Google Books}}</ref> The population made a remarkable recovery after that, although almost the entire tribe died out during the 1902 eruption of [[La Soufrière (volcano)|La Soufrière]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}
==Culture and society==
===Canoes===
[[Canoes]] are a significant aspect of the Kalinago's material culture and economy. They are used for transport from the southern continent and islands of the Caribbean, as well as providing them with the ability to fish more efficiently and to grow their fishing industry. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Canoe Building |url=http://www.kalinagoarchive.org/canoe-building/ |website=Indigenous Kalinago People of Dominica}}</ref> Canoes, constructed from the [[Burseraceae]], ''[[Cedrela odorata]]'', ''[[Ceiba pentandra]]'', and ''[[Hymenaea courbaril]]'' trees, serve different purposes depending on their height and thickness of the bark. The ''Ceiba pentandra'' tree is not only functional but spiritual and believed to house spirits that would become angered if disturbed. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shearn |first=Issac |date=2020 |title=Canoe Societies in the Caribbean: Ethnography, Archaeology, and Ecology of Precolonial Canoe Manufacturing and Voyaging |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology |volume=57 |page=101140 |doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2019.101140 |s2cid=213414242 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Canoes have been used throughout the history of the Kalinago and have become a renewed interest within the manufacturing of traditional dugout canoes used for inter-island transportation and fishing. <ref>{{Cite book |last=Honychurch |first=Lennox |title=Carib to Creole: contact and culture exchange in Dominica |publisher=University of Oxford |year=1997}}</ref>
In 1997 [[Dominica]] Carib artist Jacob Frederick and [[Tortola]] artist Aragorn Dick Read set out to build a traditional canoe based on the fishing canoes still used in Dominica, [[Guadeloupe]] and [[Martinique]]. They launched a voyage by canoe to the [[Orinoco delta]] to meet up with the local Kalinago tribes, re-establishing cultural connections with the remaining Kalinago communities along the island chain, documented by the [[BBC]] in ''The Quest of the Carib Canoe''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quest of the Carib Canoe |url=http://www.nativenetworks.si.edu/eng/orange/quest_of_the_carib_canoe.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911042932/http://nativenetworks.si.edu/eng/orange/quest_of_the_carib_canoe.htm |archive-date=2013-09-11 |access-date=2013-09-05}}</ref>
===Language===
{{See |Kalinago language}}
Historically, scholars assumed that Island Carib men and women spoke different languages. To explain this phenomenon, scholars proposed that the Island Caribs may have killed the men and kept the women, allowing the Igneri language to survive among women.<ref>Rouse, Irving (1992). ''The Tainos''. Yale University Press. pp. 21–22. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/0300051816|<bdi>0300051816</bdi>]]. Retrieved June 17, 2014. <q>Island Carib.</q></ref> This assumption arose from the fact that by at least the early 17th century, Carib men spoke a Cariban-based [[pidgin]] language in addition to the usual Arawakan language used by both sexes. This was similar to pidgins used by mainland Caribs when communicating with their Arawak neighbors. Berend J. Hoff and Douglas Taylor hypothesized that it dated to the time of the Carib expansion through the islands, and that males maintained it to emphasize their origins on the mainland.<ref name="Rouse21222">{{cite book |last=Rouse |first=Irving |url=https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous |title=The Tainos |date=1992 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0300051816 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous/page/21 21]–22 |quote=Island Carib. |access-date=June 17, 2014 |url-access=registration}}</ref>
Linguistic analysis in the 20th century determined that the main [[Island Carib language]] was spoken by both sexes, and was [[Arawakan]], not [[Cariban]].  Scholars adopted more nuanced theories to explain the transition from the earlier Igneri to the later Island Carib societies in the Antilles. [[Irving Rouse]] proposed that a relatively small scale Carib force conquered but did not displace the Igneri, and the invaders eventually took on the Igneri language while still maintaining their identity as Caribs.<ref name="Rouse2122">{{cite book |last=Rouse |first=Irving |url=https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous |title=The Tainos |date=1992 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0300051816 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous/page/21 21]–22 |quote=Island Carib. |access-date=June 17, 2014 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Other scholars such as Sued Badillo doubt there was an invasion at all, proposing that the Igneri adopted the "Carib" identity over time due to their close economic and political relations with the rising mainland Carib polity.<ref name="Hill54">{{cite book |last1=Hill |first1=Jonathan David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qb4LoGZnf-8C&q=Lokono&pg=PA41 |title=Comparative Arawakan Histories: Rethinking Language Family and Culture Area in Amazonia |last2=Santos-Granero |first2=Fernando |date=2002 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=0252073843 |page=54 |access-date=June 17, 2014}}</ref> Both theories accept that the historical Island Carib language developed from the existing tongue of the islands, and thus it is also known as Igneri.<ref name="Rouse21">{{cite book |last=Rouse |first=Irving |url=https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous |title=The Tainos |date=1992 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0300051816 |page=[https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous/page/21 21] |quote=Island Carib. |access-date=June 17, 2014 |url-access=registration}}</ref>
===Medicine===
By the early twenty-first century, a combination of bush medicine and modern medicine was used by the Kalinago of Dominica. For example, various fruits and leaves are used to heal common ailments. For a sprain, oils from coconuts, snakes, and bay leaves are used to heal the injury.{{dubious|date=June 2024}} Formerly the Caribs used an extensive range of medicinal plant and animal products.<ref>{{Cite thesis| degree=MSc |last1=Regan |first1=Seann |title=Healthcare Use Patterns in Dominica: Ethnomedical Integration in an Era of Biomedicine |url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=miami1281448409&disposition=inline |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422220156/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file%3Faccession%3Dmiami1281448409%26disposition%3Dinline |archive-date=April 22, 2019 |access-date=April 22, 2019}}</ref>
===Religion===
The Caribs are believed to have practiced [[polytheism]]. As the Spanish began to colonise the Caribbean area, they wanted to convert the natives to [[Catholicism]].<ref>Menhinick, Kevin, [http://www.avirtualdominica.com/caribs3.htm "The Caribs in Dominica"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303082342/http://www.avirtualdominica.com/caribs3.htm |date=2012-03-03 }}, Copyright © Delphis Ltd. 1997–2011.</ref> The Caribs destroyed a church of [[Franciscans]] in [[Aguada, Puerto Rico]] and killed five of its members, in 1579.<ref>{{cite book | author=Puerto Rico. Office of Historian | title=Tesauro de datos historicos: indice compendioso de la literatura histórica de Puerto Rico, incluyendo algunos datos inéditos, periodísticos y cartográficos | publisher=Impr. del Gobierno de Puerto Rico|issue=v. 2 | year=1949 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IVRnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA238| language=es | access-date=4 January 2020 | page=238}}</ref>
Currently, the remaining Kalinago in Dominica practice parts of Catholicism through baptism of children.  However, not all practice [[Christianity]]. Some Caribs worship their ancestors and believe them to have magical power over their crops.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}
==Representation==
In 1492, when  [[Christopher Columbus]] arrived in the Caribbean, the [[Maipurean language|Maipurean]]-speaking [[Taínos]] reportedly relayed stories of the Caribs' war-like nature and cannibalism to him.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /> When he arrived in the Lesser Antilles in 1635, the French missionary [[Raymond Breton]] made ethnographic and linguistic notes on the "Caribs", which also informed many of the early stereotypes about the Kalinago.<ref name="Sweeney" /> Other missionaries, such as Cesar de Rochefort, would refute the common conception of the Caribs as cannibals.<ref name="Puerto Rico Office of Historian 1949">{{cite book |author=Puerto Rico. Office of Historian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IVRnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22 |title=Tesauro de datos historicos: indice compendioso de la literatura histórica de Puerto Rico, incluyendo algunos datos inéditos, periodísticos y cartográficos |publisher=Impr. del Gobierno de Puerto Rico |year=1949 |page=22 |language=es |access-date=4 January 2020 |issue=v. 2}}</ref>
===Cannibalism===
Early European accounts describe the taking of human trophies and the ritual cannibalism of war captives among both Arawak and other Amerindian groups such as the Carib and [[Tupinambá people|Tupinambá]], though the exact accuracy of cannibalistic reports still remains debated without skeletal evidence to support it.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Whitehead |first=Neil L. |date=20 March 1984 |title=Carib cannibalism. The historical evidence |journal=Journal de la Société des Américanistes |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=69–87 |doi=10.3406/jsa.1984.2239}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Johnson |first=Stephen |date=July 6, 2023 |orig-date=August 30, 2021 |title=Controversy: Was the Caribbean really invaded by cannibals? |url=https://www.livescience.com/are-columbus-carib-cannibal-claims-true.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203022912/https://bigthink.com/the-present/columbus-cannibalism/ |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |website=BIg Think}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Scholars such as Hilary McD. Beckles have instead suggested that the stories of "vicious cannibals" may have comprised an "ideological campaign" against the Kalinago to justify "genocidal military expeditions" by European colonizers.<ref name=":8" />
The [[Island Carib language|Island Carib]] word ''karibna'' meant "person", although it became the origin of the English word "cannibal" after Columbus shared stories of flesh-eating Kalinago, apparently heard from their historic [[Taínos|Taíno]] enemies.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |title=Cannibal |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cannibal |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212222145/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cannibal |archive-date=12 February 2015 |access-date=12 February 2015 |website=Online Etymological Dictionary}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> Among the Caribs, ''karibna'' was apparently associated with ritual eating of war enemies.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" />
The Caribs reportedly had a tradition of keeping bones of their ancestors in their houses. [[Missionaries]], such as Père [[Jean Baptiste Labat]] and Cesar de Rochefort, described the practice as part of a belief that the [[ancestral spirits]] would always look after the bones and protect their descendants. The Caribs have been described by their various enemies as vicious and violent raiders. Rochefort stated they did not practice cannibalism.<ref name="Puerto Rico Office of Historian 1949" />
During his third voyage to North America in 1528, after exploring [[Florida]], [[the Bahamas]] and the [[Lesser Antilles]], Italian explorer [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]] was killed and allegedly eaten by Carib natives on what is now [[Guadeloupe]], near a place called ''Karukera'' (“island of beautiful waters”).<ref>{{cite book |last=Wroth |first=Lawrence C. |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagesofgiovann0000wrot/page/237 |title=The Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano, 1524–1528 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-300-01207-1 |location=New Haven |page=[https://archive.org/details/voyagesofgiovann0000wrot/page/237 237] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Historian William Riviere has described most of the cannibalism as related to war rituals.<ref>[http://www.da-academy.org/caribhist.html Historical Notes on Carib Territory] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006234424/http://da-academy.org/caribhist.html|date=2011-10-06}}, William (Para) Riviere, PhD, Historian.</ref>
===Carib resistance===
[[Chief Kairouane]] and his men from [[Grenada]] jumped off the "Leapers Hill" rather than face slavery under the French invaders, serving as an iconic representation of the Kalinago spirit of resistance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Newton |first=Melanie J. |year=2014 |title=Genocide, Narrative, And Indigenous Exile From the Caribbean Archipelago |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/296122225 |journal=Caribbean Quarterly |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=5 |doi=10.1080/00086495.2014.11671886 |s2cid=163455608}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Crouse |first=Nellis Maynard |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/296121904/ |title=French pioneers in the West Indies, 1624–1664 |publisher=New York: Columbia university press |year=1940 |pages=196}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Margry |first=Pierre |year=1878 |title=Origines Francaises des Pays D'outre-mer, Les seigneurs de la Martinique |trans-title=French origins of overseas countries, the lords Martinique |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4x_YUWVcKgC&q=Kairouane+Parquet&pg=PA288 |journal=La Revue maritime |language=fr |pages=287–8}}</ref>
==Notable people of Kalinago descent==
* [[Irvince Auguiste]] – Former [[Chief of the Kalinago Territory]] in Dominica, and founder of Touna Auté living village.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Crask |first=Paul |date=2009-05-01 |title=Time stands still in Touna Auté, Dominica |url=https://www.caribbean-beat.com/issue-97/time-stands-still-touna-aute |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=Caribbean Beat Magazine |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-11-18 |title=Irvince Auguiste honoured with the "Community Service Award" |url=https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/nexus1492/news/irvince-auguiste-wins-community-service-award |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=www.universiteitleiden.nl |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Sylvanie Burton]] — The first woman and first Kalinago [[president of Dominica]], inaugurated in 2023.<ref>{{cite news |title=[Press Release] Contending for Dominica on nomination of Sylvanie Burton for office of President |url=https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/press-release-contending-for-dominica-on-nomination-of-sylvanie-burton-for-office-of-president/ |access-date=3 September 2023 |work=Dominica News Online |date=1 September 2023}}</ref>
* [[Nona Aquan]]<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=30 May 2019 |title=New First Peoples Queen revealed {{!}} 103FM: First, Finest, Forever |url=http://103fm.tt/news/new-first-peoples-queen-revealed/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701020758/http://103fm.tt/news/new-first-peoples-queen-revealed/ |archive-date=2019-07-01 |access-date= |language=en-US}}</ref> – Artist and [[Carib Queen]] of the [[Santa Rosa First Peoples Community]] in [[Arima]], Trinidad and Tobago.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsday.co.tt/2019/05/31/nona-aquan-is-new-carib-queen/|title=Nona Aquan is new Carib Queen|date=2019-05-31|website=Trinidad and Tobago Newsday|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsday.co.tt/2018/07/26/carib-queen-passes/|title=Carib Queen passes|date=2018-07-27|website=Trinidad and Tobago Newsday|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wired868.com/2018/07/24/a-national-icon-remembering-carib-queen-jennifer-cassar-and-what-her-role-means-for-first-peoples/|title=A national icon! Remembering Carib Queen, Jennifer Cassar; and what her role means for First Peoples|last=Guyadeen|first=Julie|date=2018-07-24|website=Wired868|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-01}}</ref>
* [[Jennifer Cassar]] – Trinidadian cultural activist, [[civil servant]] and former Carib Queen of the Santa Rosa First Peoples Community in Trinidad and Tobago.<ref name=tguardian>{{cite news|title=Tributes for queen of First Peoples |url=http://www.guardian.co.tt/news/2018-07-20/tributes-queen-first-peoples |work=[[Trinidad and Tobago Guardian]] |date=2018-07-20 |access-date=2018-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721105704/http://www.guardian.co.tt/news/2018-07-20/tributes-queen-first-peoples |archive-date=2018-07-21 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=ttn>{{cite news|first=Carol |last=Matroo |title=The Carib Queen is dead |url=https://newsday.co.tt/2018/07/20/carib-queen-jennifer-cassar-has-died/ |work=[[Trinidad and Tobago Newsday]] |date=2018-07-21 |access-date=2018-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721113845/https://newsday.co.tt/2018/07/20/carib-queen-jennifer-cassar-has-died/ |archive-date=2018-07-21 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Anette Sanford]] – Dominican nurse,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-07-27 |title=Female candidate for Kalinago Chief promises to improve economic, cultural and political life of her people |url=https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/female-candidate-for-kalinago-chief-promises-to-improve-economic-cultural-and-political-life-of-her-people/ |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=Dominican News Online}}</ref> first female Kalinago Chief in Dominica in 400 years,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-12 |title=Anette Sanford takes oath of office as first female Kalinago Chief |url=https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/anette-sanford-takes-oath-of-office-as-first-female-kalinago-chief/ |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=Dominica News Online}}</ref> and Senator in the Dominican House of Assembly.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 March 2020|title=Speaker Joseph Isaac makes grand entrance|url=http://sundominica.com/articles/5553/|access-date=29 August 2021|website=The Sun Dominica}}</ref>
* [[Claudius Sanford]] – Former Dominican Senator, resident of the [[Carib Territory]], and husband of the Kalinago Chief Annette Sandford.<ref name="UWP profile">{{citation |url=http://www.uwpdm.cbi.dm/cs.html |title=Claudius Sanford candidate profile |publisher=[[United Workers' Party (Dominica)|United Workers' Party]] |accessdate=22 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719133143/http://www.uwpdm.cbi.dm/cs.html |archive-date=19 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}.</ref>
* [[Nasio Fontaine]] — Reggae artist from the Dominican Republic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Katz |first=David |date=2006-09-01 |title=Nasio Fontaine: hear his cry |url=https://www.caribbean-beat.com/issue-81/nasio-fontaine-hear-his-cry |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=Caribbean Beat Magazine |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nasio Songs, Albums, Reviews, Bio & More {{!}} All... |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/nasio-mn0000678176 |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=AllMusic |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Whitney Mélinard]] — Dominican activist and founder of the Kalinago Ripple Effect Initiative based in the Kalinago Territory.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-03-23|title=Call for NYCD 1st VP to resign amidst accusations of public display of partisan politics|url=https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/call-for-nycd-1st-vp-to-resign-amidst-accusations-of-public-display-of-partisan-politics/|access-date=2021-08-29|website=Dominica News Online|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829121004/https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/call-for-nycd-1st-vp-to-resign-amidst-accusations-of-public-display-of-partisan-politics/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=carlislejb|date=2021-06-03|title=National Youth Council wants to end the “Strong Bodies Strong Minds Pilot Project”|url=https://natureisle.news/health/national-youth-council-wants-to-end-the-strong-bodies-strong-minds-pilot-project/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-08-29|website=Nature Isle News|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829121005/https://natureisle.news/health/national-youth-council-wants-to-end-the-strong-bodies-strong-minds-pilot-project/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-11 |title=Whitney Melinard responds to reaction to her video statement |url=https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/whitney-melinard-responds-to-reaction-to-her-video-statement/ |website=Dominica News Online}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Carib Expulsion]]
* [[Carib language]]
* [[Cariban languages]]
* [[Kalinago Genocide of 1626]]
* [[Santa Rosa Carib Community]]
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==Sources==
* {{Cite book |last1=Keegan |first1=William F. |title=The Caribbean before Columbus |last2=Hofman |first2=Corinne L. |author-link2=Corinne Hofman |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=9780190647353 |edition=ebook |location=New York}}
==Further reading==
* Fermor, Patrick Leigh. ''The Traveller's Tree'', 1950, pp.&nbsp;214–5
* {{cite book | author=Puerto Rico. Office of Historian | title=Tesauro de datos historicos: indice compendioso de la literatura histórica de Puerto Rico, incluyendo algunos datos inéditos, periodísticos y cartográficos | publisher=Impr. del Gobierno de Puerto Rico|issue=v. 2 | year=1949 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IVRnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA22| language=es | access-date=4 January 2020 | page=22}}
* Allaire, Louis (1997). "The Caribs of the Lesser Antilles", in Samuel M. Wilson, ''The Indigenous People of the Caribbean'', pp.&nbsp;180–185. Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida. {{ISBN|0-8130-1531-6}}.
* Steele, Beverley A. (2003).  ''Grenada, A history of its people'', New York: Macmillan Education, pp.&nbsp;11–47
* Honeychurch, Lennox, ''The Dominica Story'', MacMillan Education, 1995.
* Davis, D and Goodwin R.C. "Island Carib Origins: Evidence and non-evidence", ''American Antiquity'', vol.55 no.1(1990).
* Eaden, John, ''The Memoirs of Père Labat, 1693–1705'', Frank Cass, 1970.
* {{in lang|fr}}  Brard, R., ''Le dernier Caraïbe'', Bordeaux : chez les principaux libraires, 1849, [http://www.manioc.org/patrimon/HASHfa4c49d9eaaf673ea850e7 Manioc : Livres anciens | L E dernier caraïbe. Bordeaux.]
==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Caribs}}
* Quest of the Carib Canoe - documentary [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQzuZb5O0vA&ab_channel=CharlotteStreetFilms]
* [http://www.nativenetworks.si.edu/eng/orange/quest_of_the_carib_canoe.htm The Quest of the Carib Canoe] - dead link.
* [http://www.nmai.si.edu/searchcollections/results.aspx?regid=301 Mainland Carib artwork], National Museum of the American Indians
* [http://indigenousreview.blogspot.com.au/#stash.9WFLBXgH.dpuf Yurumein (Homeland): A Documentary on Caribs in St. Vincent]
* [http://guanaguanaresingsat.blogspot.com.au/2011_07_01_archive.html Guanaguanare - the Laughing Gull. Carib Indians in Trinidad - includes 2 videos]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=car "Carib"], ''Ethnologue''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110310073901/http://dominicanewsonline.com/dno/name-change-its-now-unofficially-kalinago/ "Kalinago"], Name change announcement of November 15, 2010, by the Office of the Kalinago Council posted at Dominica News Online
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Kalinago| ]]
[[Category:Circum-Caribbean tribes]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Caribbean]]
[[Category:History of British Grenada]]
[[Category:History of Îles des Saintes]]
[[Category:Indigenous culture of the Americas]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples in Dominica]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples in Trinidad and Tobago]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of the Guianas]]