View source for Kea

{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Distinguish|Kia}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=July 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates| date=May 2021}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Kea
| image = Nestor notabilis -Fiordland, New Zealand-8b.jpg
| image_caption= An adult kea in [[Fiordland]]
| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref =  <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2017 |title=''Nestor notabilis'' |volume=2017 |page=e.T22684831A119243358 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22684831A119243358.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| status2 = CITES_A2
| status2_system = CITES
| status2_ref = <ref name="Appendices {{!}} CITES">{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org}}</ref>
| genus = Nestor
| species = notabilis
| authority = [[John Gould|Gould]], 1856
| range_map = Nestor notabilis -range map -New Zealand.png
| range_map_caption = Range in green
}}
The '''kea''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|iː|ə}} {{respell|KEE|ə}}; {{IPA-mi|kɛ.a|lang}}; '''''Nestor notabilis''''') is a species of large [[parrot]] in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Strigopidae]]<ref name="revision">{{cite journal|url=http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2012/f/z03205p040f.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2012/f/z03205p040f.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|author=Joseph, Leo|year=2012|title= A revised nomenclature and classification for family-group taxa of parrots (Psittaciformes) |journal= Zootaxa|volume= 3205|pages= 26–40|doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3205.1.2|display-authors=etal}}</ref> that is endemic to the forested and alpine regions of the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kea |url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/kea/ |access-date=2024-06-09 |website=www.doc.govt.nz |language=en-nz}}</ref> About {{convert|48|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, it is mostly olive-green, with brilliant orange under its wings and has a large, narrow, curved, grey-brown upper beak. Its [[Omnivore|omnivorous]] diet consists mainly of roots, leaves, berries, nectar, and insects, but also includes [[carrion]].<ref name="Benham"/> It was once killed for bounty due to concern by sheep-farmers that it attacked livestock, especially sheep.<ref>[http://www.keaconservation.co.nz/keaendangeredspecies/keawildpopulation.html keaconservation.co.nz] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009140849/http://www.keaconservation.co.nz/keaendangeredspecies/keawildpopulation.html |date=9 October 2011}}: Kea Conservation Status.</ref> The kea is now uncommon, and received absolute protection under the [[Wildlife Act 1953|Wildlife Act]] in 1986.<ref>Lindsey, T., Morris, R. (2000) ''Field Guide To New Zealand Wildlife''. Auckland: Harper Collins. ({{ISBN|1-86950-300-7}})</ref>
The kea nests in burrows or crevices among the roots of trees. Kea are known for their [[bird intelligence|intelligence]] and [[curiosity]], both vital to their survival in a harsh mountain environment. Kea can solve logical puzzles, such as [[Cooperative pulling paradigm|pushing and pulling things in a certain order]] to get to food, and will work together to achieve a certain objective.<ref name="nhnz">[https://www.nzonscreen.com/title/kea-mountain-parrot-1993 nhnz.tv], Kea – Mountain Parrot, [[NHNZ]], one hour documentary (1993).</ref> They have been filmed preparing and using tools.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/10417383/Sticky-beak-is-New-Zealands-tooled-up-kea/ |title=Sticky beak is New Zealand's tooled-up kea |last=O'Connor |first=Sarah-Jane |date=2014-08-24 |website=Stuff |access-date=2023-12-18}}</ref>
==Taxonomy and naming==
The kea was [[species description|described]] by [[John Gould|ornithologist John Gould]] in 1856, from two specimens shown to him by [[Walter Mantell]], who obtained the birds in [[Murihiku]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=John |date=1856 |title=On two new species of birds (''Nestor notabilis'' and ''Spatula variegata'') from the collection of Walter Mantell, Esq. |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12860620 |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London |pages=94–95}}</ref> Eight years earlier, some elderly Māori had told Mantell about the bird, and how it used to visit the coast in winter but had not been seen in recent times. Mantell subsequently investigated and obtained the birds.
The kea's Latin binomial specific [[epithet]], ''notabilis'', means "noteworthy".<ref>{{cite book|author = Simpson DP| title = Cassell's Latin Dictionary  | publisher = Cassell Ltd.| year = 1979|edition = 5th|location = London|pages = 883| isbn=0-304-52257-0}}</ref> The common name kea is from [[Māori language|Māori]], probably an [[List of onomatopoeias#Animal and bird names|onomatopoeic]] representation of their in-flight call – 'keee aaa'.<ref>[http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/nga-manu-birds/shortstory Ngā manu – birds], ''Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand''. Updated 1 March 2009. Retrieved 21 January 2010.</ref> The word "kea" is both singular and plural.
The [[genus]] ''Nestor'' contains four species: the [[Kākā|New Zealand kākā]] (''Nestor meridionalis''), the kea (''N. notabilis''), the extinct [[Norfolk kākā]] (''N. productus''), and the extinct [[Chatham kākā]] (''N. chathamensis''). All four are thought to stem from a "proto-kākā", dwelling in the forests of New Zealand five million years ago.<ref name="Wright">{{cite journal|title=A Multilocus Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes): Support for a Gondwanan Origin during the Cretaceous|journal=Mol Biol Evol|year=2008|first=T.F. |last=Wright |author2=Schirtzinger E. E. |author3=Matsumoto T. |author4=Eberhard J. R. |author5=Graves G. R. |author6=Sanchez J. J. |author7=Capelli S. |author8=Muller H. |author9=Scharpegge J. |author10=Chambers G. K.  |author11=Fleischer R. C.|volume=25|issue=10|pages=2141–2156|doi= 10.1093/molbev/msn160|pmid=18653733|pmc=2727385}}</ref><ref name=Grant-Mackie>{{cite journal|last=Grant-Mackie|first=E.J. |author2=J.A. Grant-Mackie |author3=W.M. Boon |author4=G.K. Chambers|year=2003|title=Evolution of New Zealand Parrots|journal=NZ Science Teacher|volume=103}}</ref> Their closest relative is the flightless [[kākāpō]] (''Strigops habroptilus'').<ref name="Wright"/><ref name=Grant-Mackie/><ref name ="Jun98">Juniper, T., Parr, M. (1998) Parrots: A guide to parrots of the world. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press ({{ISBN|0-300-07453-0}})</ref><ref name=deKloet>{{cite journal  |title=The evolution of the spindlin gene in birds: sequence analysis of an intron of the spindlin W and Z gene reveals four major divisions of the Psittaciformes |journal=Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=706–21 |date=September 2005 |pmid=16099384 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.013 |last1=De Kloet  |first1=Rolf S.  |last2=De Kloet  |first2=Siwo R.|bibcode=2005MolPE..36..706D }}</ref> Together, they form the parrot [[Taxonomic rank|superfamily]] [[Strigopoidea]], an ancient group that split off from all other [[Psittacidae]] before their radiation.<ref name="Wright"/><ref name=Grant-Mackie/><ref name=deKloet/><ref name="Schweizer">{{cite journal|title=The evolutionary diversification of parrots supports a taxon pulse model with multiple trans-oceanic dispersal events and local radiations|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|year=2009|first=M. |last=Schweizer |author2=Seehausen O |author3=Güntert M |author4=Hertwig ST|volume=54|doi= 10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.021|pmid=19699808|issue=3|pages=984–94|s2cid=1831016 }}</ref>
==Description==
{{multiple image
|direction=vertical
|image1=Kea.jpg
|caption1=Juveniles have yellow eyerings and [[cere]], an orange-yellow lower beak, and grey-yellow legs
|image2=Adult Kea Close-Up.jpg
|caption2=Adult kea close-up at [[Milford Sound]]
|image3=Kea about to land, displaying orange underside of wing.jpg
|caption3=Orange feathers can be seen under the wing during flight
}}
The kea is a large parrot measuring {{convert|46|to|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} in total length, with some specimens possibly reaching {{convert|55|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>Brehm, A. E. (1900). ''Brehm's Tierleben: Die Vögel''. 1900 (Vol. 5). Bibliographisches Institut.</ref><ref>Robertson, H., & Heather, B. (2001). ''Hand Guide to the Birds of New Zealand''. Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>Hutton, F. W. (1871). ''Catalogue of the Birds of New Zealand with Diagnoses of the Species (Vol. 4)''. J. Hughes, printer.</ref> Adult kea weigh between {{Convert|750|and|1000|g|lb|abbr=on}}, with males averaging {{convert|956|g|lb|abbr=on}} and females averaging {{convert|779|g|lb|abbr=on}}. One source listed the mean adult weight as {{convert|922|g|lb|abbr=on}}<ref name = "CRC">''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), {{ISBN|978-0-8493-4258-5}}.</ref><ref>Elliot, G., & Kemp, J. (2004). ''Effect of hunting and predation on kea, and a method of monitoring kea populations''. Results of kea research on the St. Arnaud Range. DOC Science Internal Series, 181, 1–17.</ref><ref>Collar, N., E. de Juana, P. F. D. Boesman, and C. J. Sharpe (2020). ''Kea (Nestor notabilis)'', version 1.0. In Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D. A. Christie, and E. de Juana, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA.</ref> It has mostly olive-green plumage with a grey beak having a long, narrow, curved upper beak. The adult has dark-brown [[Iris (anatomy)|irises]], and the [[cere]], [[Eye-ring|eyerings]], and legs are grey. It has orange feathers on the undersides of its wings. The feathers on the sides of its face are dark olive-brown, the ones on its back and rump are orange-red, and some of the outer wing feathers are dull blue. It has a short, broad, bluish-green tail with a black tip. Feather shafts project at the tip of the tail and the undersides of the inner tail feathers have yellow-orange transverse stripes.<ref name="Forshaw (2006). plate 23.">{{Cite book |first=Joseph M. |last=Forshaw |author-link=Joseph Forshaw |title=Parrots of the World; an Identification Guide |others=Illustrated by [[Frank Knight (artist)|Frank Knight]] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=0-691-09251-6 |year=2006 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/parrotsofworldid0000fors}}</ref><!--this sources this section before this point--> The male is about 5% longer than the female, and the male's upper beak is 12–14% longer than the female's.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bond | first1 = A. B. | last2 = Wilson | first2 = K. J. | last3 = Diamond | first3 = J. | year = 1991 | title = Sexual Dimorphism in the Kea Nestor notabilis | url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/MU9910012.htm | journal = Emu | volume = 91 | issue = 1| pages = 12–19 | doi = 10.1071/MU9910012| bibcode = 1991EmuAO..91...12B }}</ref> Juveniles generally resemble adults, but have yellow eyerings and cere, an orange-yellow lower beak, and grey-yellow legs.<ref name="Forshaw (2006). plate 23."/>
{{Birdsong|species = the Kea|url = https://xeno-canto.org/species/Nestor-notabilis|song1 = Kea (Nestor notabilis) song.ogg|caption song1 = Kea call}}
==Distribution and habitat==
The kea is one of nine living [[Endemism|endemic]] [[Parrots of New Zealand|parrot species in New Zealand]].<ref name="Field Guide NZ">{{cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Barrie |last2=Robertson |first2=Hugh |title=The Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand |date=2015}}</ref>
[[File:KeaArthursPass.jpg|thumb|Kea sign at Arthur's Pass]]
The kea ranges from lowland river valleys and coastal forests of the South Island's west coast up to [[Alpine climate|alpine]] regions of the [[South Island]] such as [[Arthur's Pass]] and [[Aoraki / Mount Cook National Park]]. It is closely associated throughout its range with the southern beech (''[[Nothofagus]]'') forests in the alpine ridge.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Robertson |first1=CJR |last2=Hyvonen |first2=P |last3=Fraser |first3=M |last4=Pickard |first4=CR |year=2007|title=Atlas of bird distribution in New Zealand |location=Wellington |publisher=The Ornithological Society of New Zealand}}</ref>
Apart from occasional vagrants, kea today are not found in the North Island. Subfossil kea bones have been found in sand dunes at [[Mataikona River|Mataikona]] in the eastern [[Wairarapa]], [[Poukawa]] near [[Hastings, New Zealand|Hastings]], and [[Waitomo]], indicating that they ranged through lowland forest over much of the North Island until the arrival of Polynesian settlers about 750 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Holdaway | first1 = R.N. | last2 = Worthy | first2 = T.H. | year = 1993 | title = First North Island fossil record of kea, and morphological and morphometric comparison of kea and kaka | url = http://notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notornis_40_2_95.pdf | journal = Notornis | volume = 40 | issue = 2 | pages = 95–108 | access-date = 29 September 2011 | archive-date = 24 November 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201124154111/http://notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notornis_40_2_95.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> Kea subfossils are not restricted to alpine areas, being commonly found in lowland or coastal sites in the South Island.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Nicholls|first=Jenny|date=15 September 2018|title=A bold idea to save the kea|url=https://www.noted.co.nz/planet/a-bold-idea-to-save-the-kea/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126200715/https://www.noted.co.nz/planet/a-bold-idea-to-save-the-kea/|archive-date=26 January 2019|access-date=2019-05-08|website=Noted|language=en}}</ref> The current distribution of kea reflects the effects of mammalian predators, including humans, which have driven them out of lowland forests into the mountains.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.noted.co.nz/planet/a-bold-idea-to-save-the-kea/|title=A bold idea to save the kea|last=Noted|website=Noted|language=en|access-date=2019-05-08|archive-date=26 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126200715/https://www.noted.co.nz/planet/a-bold-idea-to-save-the-kea/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
==Behaviour==
===Breeding===
At least one observer has reported that the kea is [[polygynous]], with one male attached to multiple females. The same source also noted that there was a surplus of females.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jackson | first1 = J. R. | year = 1962 | title = The life of the Kea | journal = Canterbury Mountaineer | volume = 31 | pages = 120–123}}</ref>
Kea are social and live in groups of up to 13 birds.<ref name="Clark70">{{cite journal | last1 = Clark | first1 = C.M.H. | year = 1970 | title = ''Observations on population, movements and food of the kea, ''Nestor notabilis | url = http://notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notornis_17_2.pdf | journal = Notornis | volume = 17 | pages = 105–114 | access-date = 29 September 2011 | archive-date = 24 November 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201124125659/http://notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notornis_17_2.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> Isolated individuals do badly in captivity, but respond well to seeing themselves in a mirror.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.biosci.unl.edu/avcog/research/articles/Mirror.pdf |title= Note on the lasting responsiveness of a kea ''Nestor notabilis'' toward its mirror image |first1= J. |last1= Diamond |first2= A. |last2= Bond |year= 1989 |work= Avicultural Magazine 95(2) |pages= 92–94 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111002104838/http://www.biosci.unl.edu/avcog/research/articles/Mirror.pdf |archive-date= 2 October 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Kea (Nestor notabilis) 7 Wochen (1).JPG|thumb|right|Kea chick, [[Weltvogelpark Walsrode]], [[Germany]]]]
In one study, nest sites occur at a density of one per {{convert|4.4|sqkm|sqmi}}.<ref name = "Elliott99">{{citation |first1= G. |last1=Elliott |first2= J. |last2= Kemp |year= 1999 |title= Conservation ecology of kea (''Nestor notabilis'') |publisher=WWF New Zealand}}</ref> The breeding areas are most commonly in [[southern beech]] (''Nothofagus'') forests, located on steep mountainsides. Breeding at heights of {{convert|1600|m|ft}} above sea level and higher, it is one of the few parrot species in the world to regularly spend time above the [[tree line]]. Nest sites are usually positioned on the ground underneath large beech trees, in rock crevices, or dug burrows between roots. They are accessed by tunnels leading back {{convert|1|to|6|m|ft}} into a larger chamber, which is furnished with lichens, moss, ferns, and rotting wood. The laying period starts in July and reaches into January.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jackson |first1=J. R. |year=1960 |title=Keas at Arthur's Pass |url=http://notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notornis_09-1960/Notornis_9_2.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notornis_09-1960/Notornis_9_2.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Notornis |volume=9 |pages=39–58}} {{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Two to five white eggs are laid, with an incubation time of around 21 days, and a brooding period of 94 days.<ref name="FST66">{{citation |first1= RA |last1= Falla |first2= RB |last2= Sibson |first3= EG |last3= Turbot |year= 1966 |title= A Field guide to the birds of New Zealand |publisher=Collins, London |isbn= 0-00-212022-4}}</ref>
Mortality is high among young kea, with less than 40% surviving their first year.<ref name="KCT">{{cite web|author=Akers, Kate|author2=Orr-Walker, Tamsin|name-list-style=amp|url=http://www.keaconservation.co.nz/pdfs/kct_factsheet_april09.pdf|title=Kea Factsheet|publisher=Kea Conservation Trust|date=April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602100348/http://www.keaconservation.co.nz/pdfs/kct_factsheet_april09.pdf|archive-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> The [[median]] lifespan of a wild subadult kea has been estimated at five years, based on the proportion of kea seen again in successive seasons in Arthur's Pass, and allowing for some emigration to surrounding areas. Around 10% of the local kea population were expected to be over 20 years of age.<ref name="BondDiamond1992"/> The oldest known captive kea was 50 years old in 2008.<ref name="KCT"/>
===Cognitive Abilities===
Kea parrots have strong cognitive abilities. According to recent studies, Kea share the ability to have sense of impulsive control and planning forward. Kea can wait up to 160 seconds for a more preferred reward. In addition, Kea also use trial and error tactics and use observational leaning to solve difficult problems and when tasked with puzzles and locks. These abilities of decision-making are similar to primates and other intelligent bird species like the African grey parrot.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1037/com0000086 | doi=10.1037/com0000086 | title=Kea (Nestor notabilis) decide early when to wait in food exchange task | date=2017 | last1=Schwing | first1=Raoul | last2=Weber | first2=Stefan | last3=Bugnyar | first3=Thomas | journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume=131 | issue=4 | pages=269–276 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-010-0342-9 | doi=10.1007/s10071-010-0342-9 | title=How do keas (Nestor notabilis) solve artificial-fruit problems with multiple locks? | date=2011 | last1=Miyata | first1=Hiromitsu | last2=Gajdon | first2=Gyula K. | last3=Huber | first3=Ludwig | last4=Fujita | first4=Kazuo | journal=Animal Cognition | volume=14 | pages=45–58 }}</ref>
===Diet and feeding===
An omnivore, the kea feeds on more than 40 plant species, beetle larvae, grasshoppers, land snails, other birds (including [[Shearwater|shearwater chicks]]), and mammals (including sheep, rabbits and mice).<ref name="nhnz"/><ref name="Clark70"/><ref name=adw>[https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Nestor_notabilis/ Nestor notabilis kea] Animal Diversity</ref> It has been observed breaking open shearwater nests to feed on the chicks after hearing the chicks in their nests.<ref>Christina Troup. [http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/birds-of-open-country/3/2 Birds of open country – kea digging out a shearwater chick] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017225136/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/birds-of-open-country/3/2 |date=17 October 2012}}, ''Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand'', Ministry of Culture and Heritage. Updated 20 November 2009. Accessed 22 January 2010.</ref> It enjoys the flesh and bone marrow from carcasses.<ref name=adw/> The kea has also taken advantage of human garbage and "gifts" of food.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gajdon | first1 = G.K. | last2 = Fijn | first2 = N. | last3 = Huber | first3 = L. | year = 2006 | title = Limited spread of innovation in a wild parrot, the kea (''Nestor notabilis'') | journal = Animal Cognition | volume = 9 | issue = 3| pages = 173–181 | doi = 10.1007/s10071-006-0018-7| pmid = 16568276 | s2cid = 994622 }}</ref>
[[Tool use by animals|Tool use behavior]] has been observed in this species, wherein a bird named Bruce, who has a broken upper beak, wedged pebbles between his tongue and lower mandible and then utilized this arrangement to aid with his [[preening]] habits.<ref name="kindy">{{cite web |last1=Kindy |first1=David |title=Bruce the Parrot Uses Tools to Survive Despite a Broken Beak |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/bruce-the-parrot-uses-tools-to-survive-180978645/ |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=19 September 2021}}</ref>
====Sheep====
[[File:Sheep killed by kea (cropped).jpg|thumb|Sheep, suspected to have been killed by kea in July 1907]]
The controversy about whether the kea preys on sheep is long-running. Sheep suffering from unusual wounds on their sides or loins were noticed by the mid-1860s, within a decade of sheep farmers moving into the high country. Although some supposed the cause was a new disease, suspicion soon fell on the kea. James MacDonald, head shepherd at Wanaka Station, witnessed a kea attacking a sheep in 1868, and similar accounts were widespread.<ref name="Benham">{{cite journal | last1 = Benham | first1 = W. B. | year = 1906 | title = Notes on the Flesh-eating Propensity of the Kea (''Nestor notabilis'') | url = http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_39/rsnz_39_00_001080.html | journal = Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand | volume = 39 | pages = 71–89}}</ref> Prominent members of the scientific community accepted that kea attacked sheep, with [[Alfred Russel Wallace|Alfred Wallace]] citing this as an example of behavioural change in his 1889 book ''[[Darwinism (book)|Darwinism]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wallace |first=Alfred |date=1889 |title=Darwinism |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page%3ADarwinism_by_Alfred_Wallace_1889.djvu/97 |location=London |publisher=Macmillan and Co |page=75 |author-link=Alfred Russel Wallace}}</ref> [[Thomas Potts (naturalist)|Thomas Potts]] noted that attacks were most frequent during winter and snow-bound sheep with two years growth in their fleece were the most vulnerable, while newly-shorn sheep in warm weather were rarely molested.<ref>{{cite book |last=Potts |first=Thomas |date=1882 |orig-year=from "Out in the Open," 1882 |publication-date=1895 |title=The New Zealand Reader |url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-ReeNewZ-t1-front-d2-d1.html |chapter=The Kea, or Mountain Parrot |chapter-url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-ReeNewZ-t1-body-d13.html |editor-last=Reeves |editor-first=William Pember (Minister of Education) |editor-link=William Pember Reeves |location=Wellington |publisher=Samuel Costall, Government Printer |pages=81–90 |author-link=Thomas Potts (naturalist) |via=New Zealand Electronic Text Collection (NZETC)}}</ref>
Despite substantial anecdotal evidence of sheep attacks,<ref name="Benham" /><ref name="Marriner06" /> others remained unconvinced, especially in later years. For instance, in 1962, animal specialist J.R. Jackson concluded, while the bird may attack sick or injured sheep, especially if it mistook them for dead, it was not a significant predator.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jackson | first1 = J.R. | year = 1962 | title = Do kea attack sheep? | url = http://notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notornis_10_1.pdf | journal = Notornis | volume = 10 | pages = 33–38 | access-date = 29 September 2011 | archive-date = 18 February 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210218204509/https://www.notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notornis_10_1.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> In August 1992, however, its nocturnal assaults were captured on video,<ref name="nhnz" /><ref name="Temple1994">{{cite magazine |last=Temple |first=Philip |date=1994 |issue=24 |title=Kea: the feisty parrot |url=https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/kea-the-feisty-parrot/ |magazine=New Zealand Geographic |location=Auckland  |publication-date=Oct–Dec 1994|access-date=2019-01-13}}</ref> proving that at least some kea will attack and feed on healthy sheep. The video confirmed what many scientists had long suspected: that the kea uses its powerful, curved beak and claws to rip through the layer of wool and eat the fat from the back of the animal. Though the bird does not directly kill the sheep, death can result from infections or accidents suffered by animals when trying to escape.
Since kea are now a protected species, their depredations are generally tolerated by sheep farmers, though why some kea attack sheep, and others do not, remains unclear. Various theories, including similarities with existing food sources, curiosity, entertainment, hunger, maggots as well as a progression from scavenging dead sheep and hides have all been put forward as to how the behaviour was first acquired.<ref name="Marriner06"/><ref name="Temple1994"/> [[Anecdotal]] evidence also suggests only particular birds have learned the behaviour, with identification and removal of those individuals being sufficient to control the problem.<ref name="Temple1994"/><ref name=":0" />
There are also anecdotal reports of kea attacking rabbits, dogs, and even horses.<ref name="Marriner06"/> There are also suggestions that kea used to feed on [[moa]] in a similar way.<ref name="Temple1994"/>
==Relationship with humans==
[[File:Nestor notabilis - damaging car.jpg|thumb|right|Kea damaging a parked car]]
[[File:Bold kea close-up.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Kea investigating tourists]]
Kea, which are social, have been found to have a level of high cognitive ability, with the capacity to solve complex tasks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huber |first1=Ludwig |last2=Gajdon |first2=Gyula K. |date=2006-10-01 |title=Technical intelligence in animals: the kea model |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-006-0033-8 |journal=Animal Cognition |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=295–305 |doi=10.1007/s10071-006-0033-8 |issn=1435-9456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bastos |first1=Amalia PM |last2=Nelson |first2=Ximena J |last3=Taylor |first3=Alex H |date=2022 |title=From the lab to the wild: how can captive studies aid the conservation of kea (Nestor notabilis)? |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101131 |journal=Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences |volume=45 |pages=101131 |doi=10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101131 |issn=2352-1546}}</ref> This curiosity and urge to explore and investigate makes this bird both a pest for residents and an attraction for tourists. In 2017 the kea was voted [[New Zealand bird of the year|New Zealand Bird of the Year]] in a campaign to raise awareness about the country's endangered wildlife.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Coleman |first=Alistair |date=2017-10-24 |title=Kea named New Zealand's Bird of the Year |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-41734399 |access-date=2024-06-09 |work=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>
Called "the clown of the mountains",<ref name=":2" /><ref name="kealab">{{cite web|url=http://cogbio.univie.ac.at/labs/kea-lab/ |title=Clever clown of the mountains |access-date=2011-10-28 |publisher=University of Vienna – Faculty of Life Sciences, Department of Cognitive Biology |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102142526/http://cogbio.univie.ac.at/labs/kea-lab/ |archive-date= 2 November 2011}}</ref> it will investigate backpacks, boots, skis, snowboards, and even cars, often causing damage or flying off with smaller items.<ref name="Stuff 20220204">[https://i.stuff.co.nz/travel/127688437/kea-steals-gopro-from-hut-on-kepler-track-ends-up-making-stunning-short-film Kea steals GoPro from hut on Kepler Track, ends up making stunning short film], Stuff, 4 February 2022. Retrieved 4 February 2022.</ref> Kea have been kept as pets before being protected, but rarely, since they were difficult to capture and destructive when in captivity.
People commonly encounter wild kea at South Island ski areas, where they are attracted by the prospect of food scraps. Their curiosity leads them to peck and carry away unguarded items of clothing, or to pry apart rubber parts of cars – to the entertainment and annoyance of human observers. They are often described as "cheeky". A kea has even been reported to have made off with the passport of a tourist who was visiting [[Fiordland National Park]].<ref name="News Story">[http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/05/30/2585161.htm Cheeky parrot steals tourist's passport], ABC News, 30 May 2009. Retrieved 22 January 2010.</ref>
The [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] also suggested that the time savings resulting from a more calorie-rich diet will give kea more free time to investigate and hence damage things at campsites and car parks.<ref>{{cite web |title=DOC's work with kea |publisher=Department of Conservation.|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/kea/}}</ref>
The birds' naturally trusting behaviour around humans has also been indicated as a contributing factor in a number of recent incidents at popular tourist spots where kea have been purposely killed.<ref name="Stuff.co.nz_248668">{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/news/national/248668/Arthurs-Pass-neighbours-at-odds |title=Arthurs Pass neighbours at odds |date=2 February 2008 |work=[[The Press]] |access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Dead kea dumped at Arthur's Pass were shot |publisher=Department of Conservation media release | url =http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/SC1108/S00053/dead-kea-dumped-at-arthurs-pass-were-shot.htm}}</ref><ref name="Human-kea conflict">{{cite web|title=Human-kea conflict |publisher=Kea Conservation Trust website |url=http://www.keaconservation.co.nz/keaendangeredspecies/keawildpopulation/humankeaconflict.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919022010/http://www.keaconservation.co.nz/keaendangeredspecies/keawildpopulation/humankeaconflict.html |archive-date=19 September 2011}}</ref>
Kea were eaten by Māori. They were believed by the [[Waitaha (South Island iwi)|Waitaha]] tribe to be kaitiaki (guardians).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Keane-Tuala |first1=Kelly |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/nga-manu-birds/page-6 |title=Ngā manu – birds – Bird's names |website=The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref>
===Cultural references===
The kea featured on the reverse side of the [[Banknotes of the New Zealand dollar|New Zealand $10 note]] between 1967 and 1992, when it was replaced with the [[blue duck]] (whio).<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Banknotes (check series 4 and 5) |url=https://www.rbnz.govt.nz/money-and-cash/banknotes/the-history-of-banknotes-in-new-zealand |website=Reserve Bank of New Zealand}}</ref>
Kea are the protagonists in New Zealand author [[Philip Temple]]'s novels ''Beak of the Moon'' (1981) and ''Dark of the Moon'' (1993), recounting respectively the first encounters of a group of kea with humans at the time of the colonisation of the South Island by [[Māori people|Māori]], and their life in present-day, human-dominated New Zealand. Sentient Kea also features as prominent characters in the [[Orson Scott Card]] novel ''[[The Last Shadow]]''.
The youngest section of [[Scouts New Zealand#Sections|Scouts New Zealand]] (known as [[Beaver Scouts (The Scout Association)|Beavers]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Joey Scouts|Joeys]] in [[Australia]]) is named after the bird.<ref>{{cite web |title=Keas |url=https://scouts.nz/keas/ |website=Scouts New Zealand}}</ref>
In the video game ''[[Dwarf Fortress]]'', kea are one of many species of animals that will steal the player's items.<ref>{{cite web |title=DF2014:Kea |url= http://dwarffortresswiki.org/index.php/DF2014:Kea |website=The Dwarf Fortress Wiki |access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref>
===Threats===
Together with local councils and runholders, the New Zealand government paid a bounty for kea bills because the bird preyed upon livestock, mainly sheep.<ref name="Marriner06">{{cite journal | last1 = Marriner | first1 = G. R. | year = 1906 | title = Notes on the Natural History of the Kea, with Special Reference to its Reputed Sheep-killing Propensities | url = http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_39/rsnz_39_00_000050.html | journal = Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand | volume = 39 | pages = 271–305}}</ref><ref name="Marriner07">Marriner, G. R. (1907) [http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_40/rsnz_40_00_006900.html Additional Notes on the Kea]. ''Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand'', 40, 534–537 and Plates XXXII-XXXIV.</ref><ref name=":0" /> It was intended that hunters would kill kea only on the farms and council areas that paid the bounty, but some hunted them in national parks and in [[Westland District|Westland]], where they were officially protected. More than 150,000 were killed in the hundred years before 1970, when the bounty was lifted.<ref name="Temple96">Temple, P. (1996) ''The Book of the Kea''. Auckland: Hodder Moa Beckett. ({{ISBN|0-340-600039}})</ref>
A study of kea numbers in [[Nelson Lakes National Park]] showed a substantial decline in the population between 1999 and 2009, caused primarily by predation of kea eggs and chicks.<ref name="Stuff.co.nz_1753188">{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/nelson-mail/news/1753188 |title=Possums take toll on kea at Nelson Lakes |author=Bloomberg, Simon |date=21 February 2009 |work=[[The Nelson Mail]] |access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref> Video cameras set up to monitor kea nests in South Westland showed that [[Common brushtail possum in New Zealand|possums]] killed kea fledglings.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/4360809/Nest-cameras-catch-attacks-on-keas|title=Nest cameras catch attacks on keas|date=18 November 2010|work=[[Fairfax New Zealand]]|publisher=NZPA|access-date=18 November 2010}}</ref>
[[Lead poisoning]], mostly from the roofs of buildings/building materials, is also a significant cause of premature deaths among kea.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lead Poisoning |publisher=Kea Conservation Trust |url=http://www.keaconservation.co.nz/keaendangeredspecies/keawildpopulation/lead-poisoning.html |access-date=8 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901085451/http://www.keaconservation.co.nz/keaendangeredspecies/keawildpopulation/lead-poisoning.html |archive-date= 1 September 2010}}</ref><ref name="DOC_TSOP9">{{cite web |title=Kea (Nestor notabilis) Captive Management Plan and Husbandry Manual |author=McLelland, J.M.| url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/TSOP09.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/TSOP09.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] |work=Threatened Species Occasional Publication No. 9 |date = April 1996|access-date=8 October 2011|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Research on lead toxicity in kea living at [[Aoraki / Mount Cook]] found that of 38&nbsp;live kea tested all were found to have detectable blood lead levels, 26 considered dangerously high.<ref name="DOC_TSOP9"/> Additional analysis of 15&nbsp;dead kea sent to [[Massey University]] for diagnostic pathology between 1991 and 1997 found 9&nbsp;bodies to have lead blood levels consistent with causing death.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lead exposure in free-ranging Kea (Nestor Notabilis), Takahe (Porphyrio Hochstetteri) and Australasian Harriers (Circus Approximans) in New Zealand |author=Youl, Jennifer |publisher=[[Massey University]] | url= http://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10179/1031/01front.pdf?sequence=2 | year=2009 |access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref> Research conducted by Victoria University in 2008 confirmed that the natural curiosity of kea which has enabled the species to adapt to its extreme environment, may increase its propensity to poisoning through ingestion of lead – i.e. the more investigative behaviours identified in a bird, the higher its blood lead levels were likely to be.<ref name="Stuff.co.nz_2354964">{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/education/2354964/Curiosity-kills-the-kea-study-shows |title=Curiosity kills the kea, study shows |date=22 April 2009 |work=[[The Dominion Post (Wellington)|The Dominion Post]] |access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref>
The [[1080 usage in New Zealand|1080 pesticide]] is used to control invasive [[Pest (organism)|pest]] mammals such as [[stoat]]s and [[common brushtail possum|possums]] and has also been implicated in kea deaths. For example, seven kea were found dead following an aerial possum control operation using 1080, at [[Fox Glacier]] in July 2008<ref name="Stuff.co.nz_555051">{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/555051/DOC-reviews-1080-use-after-endangered-kea-die |title=DOC reviews 1080 use after endangered kea die |date=30 July 2008 |work=[[The Dominion Post (Wellington)|The Dominion Post]] |access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref> and a further seven had been found dead in August 2011, following a 1080 aerial possum control operation in [[Ōkārito Lagoon|Ōkārito Forest]].<ref name="ODT_177187">{{cite news |url=http://www.odt.co.nz/regions/west-coast/177187/seven-keas-dead-wake-1080-work |title=Seven keas dead in wake of 1080 work |date=12 September 2011 |work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref> Traps are also considered a risk to kea. In September 2011, hidden cameras caught kea breaking into baited stoat traps in the [[Matukituki River|Matukituki Valley]]. More than 75% of the traps had been sprung.<ref name="ODT_178504">{{cite news |url=http://www.odt.co.nz/your-town/wanaka/178504/kea-gangs-breaking-doc-predator-control-traps |title=Kea 'gangs' breaking into Doc predator control traps |author=Ibbotson, Lucy |date=20 September 2011 |work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref>
===Conservation===
In the 1970s, the kea received partial protection after a census counted only 5,000&nbsp;birds. The government agreed to investigate any reports of problem birds and have them removed from the land.<ref name="Diabond99">Diamond, J., Bond, A. (1999) Kea. Bird of paradox. The evolution and behavior of a New Zealand Parrot. Berkeley; Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. ({{ISBN|0-520-21339-4}})</ref> In 1986 it was given absolute protection under the [[Wildlife Act 1953]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Wildlife Act 1953 |url=https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1953/0031/latest/whole.html |website=New Zealand Legislation |publisher=Parliamentary Counsel Office |access-date=18 January 2022}}</ref> Kea are also listed under Appendix II of the [[CITES|Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)]] meaning international export/import (including parts and derivatives) is regulated.<ref name="Appendices {{!}} CITES">{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org}}</ref>
Despite being classified as Nationally Endangered in the [[New Zealand Threat Classification System]]<ref>{{cite book | last1=Hitchmough| first1=Rod | last2=Bull | first2=Leigh| last3=Cromarty|first3=Pam | title=New Zealand Threat Classification System lists 2005 | url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/sap236.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/sap236.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|year=2007 | publisher=Department of Conservation | location=Wellington | isbn=978-0-478-14128-3}}</ref> and endangered in the [[IUCN Red List]] and protected by law, kea are still deliberately shot. For example, in the late 1990s, a [[Fox Glacier]] resident killed 33&nbsp;kea in the glacier car park<ref name="Human-kea conflict"/> and in 2008, two kea were shot in Arthur's Pass and stapled to a sign.<ref name="Stuff.co.nz_248668"/>
Kea deaths due to traffic have prompted the [[NZ Transport Agency]] to install signs to help raise awareness, and to encourage people to slow down if necessary.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/news/media-releases/2017/drivers-urged-to-slow-down-for-kea/|title=Drivers urged to slow down for kea|website=DOC.govt.nz|publisher=[[New Zealand Department of Conservation]]|date=25 August 2017|access-date=2017-09-21|language=en}}</ref> In Fiordland National Park, there have been concerns that kea are particularly at risk from road traffic at the entrance to the [[Homer Tunnel]]. Kea have been regularly observed on the roadway, moving amongst vehicles waiting to pass through the one-way tunnel.  People feeding the birds was one cause of the problem.  In 2017, a gym for kea was built near the Homer tunnel entrance, in an attempt to lure the birds away from the road.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nicoll |first=Dave |date=2018-01-09 |title=Roadcone-moving kea get gym to distract them away from traffic |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/motoring/100321972/roadconemoving-kea-get-gym-to-distract-them-away-from-traffic |access-date=2022-05-29 |website=Stuff |language=en}}</ref>
A [[citizen science]] project called the "Kea Database" was launched in 2017 that allows for the recording of kea observations to an online database. If the recorded kea are banded, it is possible to match observations with individual named birds, enabling the monitoring of the habits and behaviour of individual kea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://keadatabase.nz|title=Kea Database|website=keadatabase.nz|language=en|access-date=2017-09-21}}</ref>
Some are calling for kea to be reintroduced into predator-free zones on the North Island. A former curator of Natural History at [[Whanganui Regional Museum]], [[Mike Dickison|Dr Mike Dickison]], told ''[[North & South (New Zealand magazine)|North & South]]'' magazine in the October 2018 issue that the birds would do well on [[Mount Ruapehu]].<ref name=":0" />
Kea conservation is supported by the [[non-governmental organization|NGO]] [[Kea Conservation Trust]], founded in 2006 to protect kea.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kea{{!}}Nestor Notabilis{{!}}Kea Conservation Trust NZ|url=https://www.keaconservation.co.nz/|access-date=2020-09-03|website=Kea Conservation Trust|language=en-US}}</ref>
The total kea population was estimated at between 1,000 and 5,000 individuals in 1986,<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Anderson|first1 = R|year = 1986|title = Keas for keeps|journal = Forest and Bird|volume = 17|pages = 2–5}}</ref> contrasting with another estimate of 15,000 birds in 1992.<ref name="BondDiamond1992">{{cite journal|last1 = Bond|first1 = A.|last2 = Diamond|first2 = J.|year = 1992|title = Population Estimates of kea in Arthur's Pass National Park|url = http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=bioscibehavior|journal = Notornis|volume = 39|pages = 151–160}}</ref> The kea's widespread distribution at low density across inaccessible areas prevents accurate estimates.<ref name="Diabond99" /><ref name="Elliott">Elliott, G., Kemp, J. (1999). [http://keaconservation.co.nz/pdfs/conservation_ecology.pdf Conservation ecology of Kea (''Nestor notabilis'')] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100513044523/http://keaconservation.co.nz/pdfs/conservation_ecology.pdf |date=13 May 2010}}. Report. WWF New Zealand.</ref> Estimates published in 2017 suggest a population of between 3000 and 7000 individuals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/kea|title=Kea|publisher=[[New Zealand Department of Conservation]]|website=DOC.govt.nz|language=en|access-date=2017-09-21}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Nestor notabilis}}
{{Commons|Nestor notabilis}}
* [http://www.parrots.org/index.php/encyclopedia/profile/kea/ World Parrot Trust] Parrot Encyclopedia – Species Profiles
* [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=1410&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130519235222/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=1410&m=0 |date=19 May 2013 }}
* [http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/kea/ Kea] at the Department of Conservation
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100511082040/http://www.arkive.org/kea/nestor-notabilis/ Images and movies of the Kea], ARKive
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070711112216/http://www.nc.univie.ac.at/index.php?id=7246 Kea research] at the University of Vienna
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100611161901/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/birds-of-open-country/3 Kea and people], Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
* [http://www.keaconservation.co.nz/ Kea Conservation Trust]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ad17cqGO0G4 Kea and their "play" call] at the Smithsonian channel
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4FT0xnFJC0 Video clip of kea moving road cones at the Homer Tunnel]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-EYSL93A6Ik Educational video about Kea (''Nestor Notabilis'')]
{{Strigopidae}}
{{Birds of New Zealand}}
{{Portal bar|Birds|Animals|Biology|New Zealand}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q193337}}
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[[Category:Nestor (genus)]]
[[Category:Parrots of Oceania]]
[[Category:Birds of the South Island]]
[[Category:Endemic birds of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1856]]
[[Category:Taxa named by John Gould]]