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{{Short description|Archeological site that predates the Indus Civilization}}{{Cleanup|date=August 2024|reason=General improvements are needed, some wonky grammar, etc.}}{{Infobox ancient site
|name           = Kot Diji
|native_name    = ڪوٽ ڏيجي <br />{{nq|کوٹ ڈیجی}}
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|map_type       = Sindh#Pakistan
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|coordinates    = {{Coord|27|20|44|N|68|42|24|E|type:landmark_region:PK|display=inline,title}}
|location       = [[Khairpur District, Sindh]], Pakistan
|region         =
|type           = Settlement
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|epochs         = [[Periodization of the Indus Valley Civilization|Harappan 1]] to [[Periodization of the Indus Valley Civilization|Harappan 2]]
|cultures       = [[Indus Valley civilization]]
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|excavations    = 1955, 1957
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'''Kot Diji''' ({{langx|sd|ڪوٽ ڏیجي}}; {{langx|ur|کوٹ ڈیجی}}) is an [[Ancient history|ancient]] site which was part of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley Civilization]], estimated to have been occupied around 3300 BCE. Located about {{cvt|45|km}} south of [[Khairpur]] in the modern-day province of [[Sindh]], [[Pakistan]], it is on the east bank of the [[Indus River]] opposite [[Mohenjo-daro]]. The remains consist of two parts: the [[citadel]] area on the high ground (about {{cvt|12|m|disp=sqbr}}{{Clarification needed|reason=What is this "12 m" referring to?|date=August 2024}}), and the area around it. The Pakistan Department of Archaeology excavated at Kot Diji in 1955 and 1957.<ref>Possehl, Gregory L. (2004). ''The Indus Civilization: A contemporary perspective'', New Delhi: Vistaar Publications, {{ISBN|81-7829-291-2}}, pp.72-4.</ref> The excavation at Kot Diji during 1954-55 by [[F. A. Khan]] revealed convincing evidence of the early or formative stage of the Indus civilization in the cultural assemblag called Kot Dijian.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mughal |first=M. Rafique |author-link=Mohammad Rafique Mughal |year=1990 |orig-date= |title=Archaeological Field Research in Pakistan since Independence: An Overview |url=https://ocd.lcwu.edu.pk/cfiles/History/Hist/502/Archaeological-field-Research-PakistanSince1947.pdf |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute |volume=49 |page=264}}</ref>
The site is situated at the foot of the [[Rohri Hills]], where [[Kot Diji Fort]] was built around 1790 by the [[Talpur dynasty]] ruler of the Upper Sindh, Mir Suhrab, who reigned from 1783 to 1830&nbsp;AD. This fort built on the ridge of a steep narrow hill is well-preserved.
==Cultural context ==
{{see also | Archaeological culture | Chronological dating | l2= Archaeological cultural dating | Phase (archaeology) |  l3= Phases in archaeology | Pottery_in_the_Indian_subcontinent#Signifiance | l4= Tools and technology of archaeology | Pottery in the Indian subcontinent | l5= Pottery culture in Indian subcontinent }}
The earliest site of this culture is [[Kunal, Haryana|Kunal]] (4000 BCE)<ref name=asi1/> in Haryana which is older than [[Rehman Dheri]] (3300 BCE).<ref name=un1/> The ''type site'', the first excavated site of this type of culture is Kot Diji.<ref name=dd1/> Rehman Dheri, which was considered oldest example of this culture, is now the second oldest example of this culture after Kunal was excavated and found to be older than Rehman Dher with similar older cultural artifacts then the Rehman Dheri.<ref name=asi1/>
Kot Diji and [[Amri, Sindh|Amri]] are close to each other in Sindh, they earlier developed indigenous culture which had common elements, later they came in contact with Harappan culture and fully developed into Harappan culture. Earliest examples of artifacts belonging to this culture were found at Rehman Dheri, however, later excavations found the oldest example of this culture at Kunal. These are cultural ancestor to site at [[Harappa]]. These sites have pre-Harappan indigenous cultural levels, distinct from the culture of Harappa, these are at Banawali (level I), Kot Diji (level 3A), Amri (level II). Rehman Dheri also has a pre Kot Diji phase (RHD1 3300-28 BCE) which are not part of IVC culture. Kot Diji has two later phases that continue into and alongside Mature Harappan Phase (RHDII and RHDII 2500-2100 BCE). Fortified towns found here are dated as follows.<ref name=dd1>Charles Keith Maisels, [https://books.google.com/books?id=I2dgI2ijww8C&pg=PA216 ''Early Civilizations of the Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, The Levant, Mesopotamia, India and China.''] Routledge, 2003 {{ISBN|1134837305}}</ref><ref name=asi1/><ref name="Higham2009">{{cite book|first=Charles |last=Higham|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=H1c1UIEVH9gC|page=9}}|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0996-1|pages=9–}}</ref><ref name=dd2>Sigfried J. de Laet, Ahmad Hasan Dani, eds. [https://books.google.com/books?id=BnY0KYbJC6wC&pg=PA674 ''History of Humanity: From the third millennium to the seventh century B.C.''] UNESCO, 1996 {{ISBN|9231028111}} p.674</ref><ref name=tej1>Tejas Garge (2010), [http://www.ancient-asia-journal.com/articles/10.5334/aa.10203/ Sothi-Siswal Ceramic Assemblage: A Reappraisal.] Ancient Asia. 2, pp.15–40. {{doi|10.5334/aa.10203}}</ref>
* [[Kunal, Haryana|Kunal]] (5000/4000 BCE- ),<ref name=asi1/> in [[Hisar district]] of [[Haryana]] in India is the earliest site found with layers in phase I dating back to 5000 BCE<ref name=hargazc1>[http://revenueharyana.gov.in/Portals/0/hr-gaz-ch-5.pdf Haryana Gazateer], Revennue Dept of Haryana, Capter-V.</ref> and 4000 BCE,<ref name=asi1/> site's culture is an older ancestry of the Pre-Harappan site of Rehman Dheri which was dated to  3300 BC. A button seal was discovered at Kunal during 1998-99 excavations by [[Archaeological Survey of India]]. The seal is similar to the Rehman Dheri examples. It contained a picture of two deer on one side, and geometrical pattern on other side. The similar specimen from Rehman-Dheri is datable to {{circa|4000 BCE}}, which makes Kunal site an older ancestor of Rehman Dheri.<ref name=asi1>{{cite journal|last=Archaeological Survey of|first=India|title=Excavations at Kunal,Haryana|journal=Indian Archaeology 1998-99 a Review|year=2004|pages=11–12|url=http://asi.nic.in/nmma_reviews/Indian%20Archaeology%201998-99%20A%20Review.pdf|access-date=13 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508064754/http://asi.nic.in/nmma_reviews/Indian%20Archaeology%201998-99%20A%20Review.pdf|archive-date=8 May 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The second phase of Kunal corresponds to  ''post-[[neolithic]] phase of Hakra culture' (also called [[Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation#Early, Mature and Late Harappan|Early Harappan Phase, c.3300-2800 BCE or c.5000-2800 BCE]]) was also found.<ref name=ku1>[https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/haryana/museum-at-pre-harappan-site-soon-188106 Museum at pre-Harappan site soon], The Tribune, 23 Dec 2020.</ref>
* Kot Diji (3300 BCE),<ref name=un1/> is the [[type site]], located in [[Sindh]] in Pakistan.
* [[Amri (Pre-Harappa)|Amri]] (3600–3300 BCE), also has non-Harappan phases daring 6000 BC to 4000 BC, and later Harappan Phses till 1300 BCE.
* [[Kalibangan]] (3500 BC – 2500 BC),<ref name=tej1/> in northwest Rajasthan in India on [[Hakra|Ghaggar]] River.
* [[Rehman Dheri]], 3300 BCE,<ref name="un1">[[UNESCO]] [https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1877/ Karez System Cultural Landscape]</ref> near [[Dera Ismail Khan]] and close to [[Zhob River|River Zhob]] Valleyin [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in Pakistan.[[File:KotDiji Fort Top, Khaipur Mirs, Sindh, Pakistan.jpg|thumb|Kot Diji fort top]]
==Kot Diji culture (3300–2600&nbsp;BCE)==
{{anchor | Culture | Kot Diji | Kot Diji culture  | Kot Diji Culture }}
{{see also | Pottery#Archaeology | l1= Archaeological analysis of pottery | Pottery#Fabric | l2= Fabric analysis of pottery }}
''Kot Diji culture''': Based on the [[pottery]] found here, it is classified as a separate archaeological culture / subculture.<ref name=dis1>[https://www.dailypioneer.com/2018/state-editions/the-harappan-civilisation-its-sub-cultures.html The Harappan Civilisation: Its Sub-cultures], Daily Pioneer, 10 May 2018.</ref>
The site covers {{convert|2.6|ha}}. The earliest occupation of this site is termed 'Kot Dijian', which is pre-Harappan, or early formative Harappan.<ref name="dd2"/>
At the earliest layer, Kot Diji I (2605 BC), copper and bronze were not used.<ref name="Indus Civilization">R.K. Pruthi, [https://books.google.com/books?id=XgFu-9UF0TYC&pg=PA22 ''Indus Civilization''.] Discovery Publishing House, 2004 {{ISBN|8171418651}} p22</ref>  The houses and fortifications were made from unbaked mud-bricks. Lithic material, such as leaf-shaped chert arrowheads, shows parallels with [[Mundigak]] layers II-IV. The pottery seems to anticipate Harappan Ware.<ref name="Indus Civilization"/> Later, bronze was used, but only for personal ornaments. Also, use of the potters wheel was already in evidence.
The Early Harappan phase construction consists of two clearly defined areas.  There is a citadel on high ground for the elites separated by a defensive wall with bastions at regular intervals. This area measures about {{convert|500 x 350|ft}}.  The outer area, or the city proper, consisted of houses of mud bricks on stone foundations.
Pottery found from this site has designs with horizontal and wavy lines, or loops and simple triangular patterns.  Other objects found are pots, pans, storage jars, toy carts, balls, bangles, beads, terracotta figurines of mother goddess and animals, bronze arrowheads, and well-fashioned stone implements.  A particularly interesting find at Kot Diji is a toy cart, which shows that the potter's wheel permitted the use of wheels for bullock carts.
===Progress towards Harappa Phase===
Glazed steatite beads were produced. There was a clear transition from the earlier Ravi pottery to what is commonly referred to as Kot Diji pottery. Red slip and black painted designs replaced polychrome decorations of the Ravi Phase. Then, there was a gradual transformation into what is commonly referred to as Harappa Phase pottery.<ref name="harappa.com">[http://www.harappa.com/indus4/e2.html Ravi and Kot Diji Phase Developments] harappa.com</ref>
Early Indus script may have appeared at Kot Diji on pottery and on a sealing. The use of inscribed seals and the standardization of weights may have occurred during the Kot Diji period.<ref name="harappa.com"/>
Late Kot-Diji type pots were found as far as [[Burzahom]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]].
===Massive burning===
There are obvious signs of extensive burns over the entire site, including both the lower habitation area and the high mound (the fortified town), which were also observed at other Early Harappan sites: Period III at Gumla, Period II at Amri, Period I at Naushero. Signs of cleavage were observed at Early Harappan phase Period I at Kalibangan. The cause of the disruptions and/or abandonment of these sites toward the end of the Early Harappan phase remains unexplained.<ref>Possehl, Gregory L. (2004). ''The Indus Civilization: A contemporary perspective'', New Delhi: Vistaar Publications, {{ISBN|81-7829-291-2}}, pp.47-50.</ref>
==Rani Kot (600-1843&nbsp;AD)==
[[File:Kot diji.jpg|thumb|Fort of Rani Kot]]
According to legends, the wall existed during [[Umayyad]] rule and later under the [[Abbasid]] rule. The Soomro tribe inhabited the fort and later the [[Samma tribe]] positioned large infantry formations inside the fort.
The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Emir]]s armed the walls of the fort with cannons and muskets. They were the first to renovate the entire structure. The [[Kalhora]] tribe later gained control of the fort, and finally the [[Talpur dynasty|Talpur]]s saw the fort as a strategic asset especially during the reign of [[Mir Fatih Ali Khan Talpur]], until they were defeated and overthrown by the British Empire, in 1843&nbsp;AD.
The first radiocarbon date from charcoal included in the mortar of a collapsed pillar lying overturned in the riverbed at Sann (Eastern) Gate, Ranikot, confirms that at least this sector of
the fort was built, or repaired, between the beginning of the 18th century and the beginning of 19th century, that is between the beginning of the Kalhoras and the beginning of the Talpurs rule.
The present note, without positively solving the much debated issue of the age of the fort, points to a new line of research on the topic, which deserves future work, in order to collect more
organic material for absolute dating. An Acacia charcoal sample collected from the above exposed surface was sent to Groningen Radiocarbon Laboratory (NL) for AMS dating. It yielded the following result 160±30 uncal BP (GrA-44671). Although its calibration is rather problematic, given that the curve at this point is highly fluctuating with several interceptions, most probabilities indicate that the pillar was erected between cal AD 1720 and 1828 (47.6% at 2 sigmas, according to OxCal 4.10: BRONK RAMSEY, 2009),although another interception suggests a much more recent date (fig.6).<ref>Biagi P. and Nisbet R. 2009 - Ranikot Fort (Jamshoro, Sindh): An AMS Radiocarbon Date from Sann (Eastern) Gate. Journal of Asian Civilizations, 32 (2): 1–8. Islamabad.</ref>
==See also==
* [[Sothi (archaeology)|Sothi]]
* [[Indus Valley civilization]]
* [[List of Indus Valley Civilization sites]]
* [[List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization]]
* [[Hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Civilization]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* P. Biagi and E. Starnini 2021 - Indus Civilization. In Smith, C. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer Nature, Switzerland: 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51726-1_3491-1
* [[F. A. Khan|Khan, F. A.]] 2002. The Glory that was Kot Diji Culture of Pakistan. An Archaeological Outline. Khairpur, Shah Abdul Latif University, Department of Archaeology.
* Occomano C. 1995 - Kot Dihi: stratigraphic and micromorphological features of the west section of the citadel area. Ancient Sindh, 2: 85–92.
* Madella M. 1995 - A preliminary study of phytolith analysis, agriculture and use of plants at Kot Diji (Sindh-Pakistan). Ancient Sindh, 2: 93–108.
==External links==
*[http://www.harappa.com/indus4/e2.html Ravi and Kot Diji Phase Developments] harappa.com
{{Indus Valley Civilization}}
{{Khairpur District}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Sindh]]
[[Category:Pre-Indus Valley civilisation sites]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Indus Valley Civilisation sites]]
[[Category:Tehsils of Khairpur District]]
[[Category:Khairpur District]]
[[Category:Amri-Nal culture]]
[[Category:Kot Diji culture]]