View source for Lagamal

{{Short description|Mesopotamian and Elamite deity}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Mesopotamian
| name = Lagamal
| deity_of = Underworld deity
| cult_center = [[Dilbat]], [[Susa]], [[Terqa]]
| parents = [[Urash (god)|Urash]] and [[Ninegal]]
| gender = {{plainlist|
*male (in Dilbat)
*female (in Terqa)}}
}}
'''Lagamal''' or '''Lagamar''' ([[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]: "no mercy") was a [[Mesopotamian deity]] associated chiefly with [[Dilbat]] (modern Tell  al-Deylam).{{sfn|van der Toorn|1995|p=368}}{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=5}} A female form of Lagamal was worshiped in [[Terqa]] on the [[Euphrates]] in [[Upper Mesopotamia]]. The male Lagamal was also at some point introduced to the pantheon of [[Susa]] in [[Elam]].{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=5}}
Lagamal was regarded as an [[Ancient Mesopotamian underworld|underworld]] deity, and in that capacity could be associated with Mesopotamian [[Nergal]] or Elamite [[Inshushinak]]. In Mesopotamian sources, his father was [[Urash (god)|Urash]], the tutelary god of Dilbat. In Susa, Lagamal formed a pair with [[Ishmekarab]], a deity associated with law and justice, while documents from [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] indicate that in Terqa she was connected with the local god [[Ikšudum]].
== Character ==
Lagamal's name means "no mercy" in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]].{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=418}} According to [[Wilfred G. Lambert]], grammatical analysis indicates it is a negated [[infinitive]].{{sfn|Lambert|1987a|p=163}} Attested spellings include ''<sup>[[dingir|d]]</sup>La-ga-ma-al'', ''<sup>d</sup>La-ga-mal'', ''<sup>d</sup>La-qa-ma-al'', ''<sup>d</sup>La-qa-mar'', ''<sup>d</sup>La-ga-mar'' and ''<sup>d</sup>La-ga-ma-ru''.{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=418}} The spellings ending with an ''r'' are exclusive to [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] sources.{{sfn|Becking|1999|p=498}} A further variant, ''<sup>d</sup>La-ga-mil'',{{sfn|George|Taniguchi|Geller|2010|p=128}} Lagamil, "merciless," is known from a single incantation{{sfn|George|Taniguchi|Geller|2010|p=134}} from [[Der (Sumer)|Der]], a city whose scribal tradition is poorly documented.{{sfn|George|Taniguchi|Geller|2010|p=123}} It has also been proposed that the name ''<sup>d</sup>Šu-nu-gi'' known from two seal inscriptions is a [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] translation of Lagamal.{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=419}} Lugal-šunugia (Akkadian: Bel-lagamal), "the merciless lord", who occurs in the god list ''[[An = Anum]]'' (tablet VI, line 70) without an explanatory note, might represent an etymologically related epithet.{{sfn|Lambert|1987|p=152}}
Lagamal was associated with the [[Ancient Mesopotamian underworld|underworld]].{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=418}}{{sfn|Henkelman|2008|p=330}} Wouter Henkelman describes him as fulfilling the role of ''[[advocatus diaboli]]'' in the beliefs pertaining to judgment of souls in the afterlife documented in texts from Susa.{{sfn|Henkelman|2008|p=61}} The possibility that Lagamal served as an accuser in the judgment of the dead is also accepted by {{ill|Manfred Krebernik|de}}.{{sfn|Krebernik|2016|p=351}}
Attempts were made to place Lagamal in the category of deities representing deified heroes or ancestors, to which [[Itūr-Mēr]] and [[Yakrub-El]] are often presumed to belong, but according to Jack M. Sasson similar as in the case of [[Latarak]] and [[Ilaba]] this assumption is incorrect.{{sfn|Sasson|2001|p=413}}
=== Gender ===
In the majority of available sources Lagamal is treated a male deity.{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=5}} The only location where this name undisputably designated a goddess rather than a god was the [[upper Mesopotamia]]n city of [[Terqa]] in modern [[Syria]], as indicated by a text name is prefaced by a double determinative exclusive to feminine theonyms, resulting in the spelling ''<sup>d.[[NIN (cuneiform)|NIN]]</sup>la-ga-ma-al''.{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=5}} While {{ill|Walther Hinz|de}}, an early researcher of [[Elamite language|Elamite]] sources, assumed Lagamal to be a female figure in texts from Susa,{{sfn|Jahangirfar|2018|p=109}} this conclusion is regarded as incorrect by [[Wilfred G. Lambert]] and other researchers.{{sfn|Jahangirfar|2018|p=109}}
== Associations with other deities ==
Lagamal was regarded as the son of [[Urash (god)|Urash]], the tutelary god of [[Dilbat]] (not to be confused with the similarly named [[Urash|earth goddess]]).{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=419}} The relationship between them is confirmed by a passage from the god list ''[[An = Anum]]'' (tablet V, line 45).{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=5}} His mother was Ninegal.{{sfn|Lambert|Winters|2023|p=338}} In a [[Neo-Babylonian]] god list from the [[É (temple)|temple]] of [[Nabu]] in [[Babylon]] Lagamal appears after Urash and Ninegal.{{sfn|Behrens|Klein|1998|p=346}} In an incantation against [[Pest (organism)|field pests]], Lagamal appears alongside Urash's ''[[sukkal]]'' (attendant deity) Ipte-bit.{{sfn|George|Taniguchi|Geller|2010|p=134}}
The text AfK 2 and the god list ''An = Anum'' (tablet VI, line 8) equate Lagamal with [[Nergal]].{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=419}}
In Susa Lagamal was associated with [[Ishmekarab]]{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=419}} and the underworld judge [[Inshushinak]].{{sfn|Wiggermann|1997|p=45}}{{sfn|Henkelman|2008|p=330}} Nathan Wasserman refers to Lagamal and Ishmekarab as a couple.{{sfn|Wasserman|2019|p=876}}
A late [[Assyria]]n copy of a Babylonian text refers to Lagamar as the "king of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]]" ([[Lugal|LUGAL]] ''ša Mā-ri<sup>ki</sup>''{{sfn|Nakata|1975|p=23}}), despite the deity being only rarely attested in documents from that city.{{sfn|Lambert|2016|pp=71-72}} Sources pertaining to travels of a statue of Lagamal from Terqa associate her with the god [[Ikšudum]], whose name is possibly derived from the phrase "he seized".{{sfn|Lambert|1980|p=45}} In ''An = Anum'' the same name refers to one of the dogs of [[Marduk]], but it is regarded as implausible that the other Ikšudum should also be understood as a subordinate of the tutelary god of [[Babylon]].{{sfn|Lambert|1980|p=45}}
== Worship ==
The oldest attestation of worship of Lagamal is a seal inscription from the [[Akkadian Empire|Sargonic period]].{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=418}} Statues of this deity are attested in documents from [[Ur]] from the [[Ur III period]].{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=418}} A [[É (temple)|temple]] dedicated to Lagamal was located in [[Dilbat]],{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|pp=5-6}} and displays of personal devotion, such as using the formula "servant of Lagamal," are common in documents from this location.{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=6}}
[[Terqa]], located in modern [[Syria]], was another city where the worship of this deity was widespread.{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=5}} A letter sent by Kibri-Dagan,the local governor, to the king of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]]{{sfn|Matthews|1978|p=155}} records a cultic journey of a statues of Lagamal and another local god, [[Ikšudum]], to Terqa,{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=419}}{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=123}} as well as sacrifices to both of these deities.{{sfn|Matthews|1978|p=155}} Similar celebrations in honor of other deities, such as [[Dagan (god)|Dagan]]{{sfn|Matthews|1978|p=155}} or [[Belet Nagar]], are also known.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=123}} Since the same letter mentions that it started to rain after the journey of the deities was completed, it has been proposed that its purpose was to influence the weather.{{sfn|Cohen|1993|p=294}} A different letter from an unknown official requests the arrival of Lagamal and Ikšudum,{{sfn|Sasson|2015|p=255}} while yet another states that these deities can only travel at a time of peace, and need to be accompanied by a hundred soldiers.{{sfn|Sasson|2015|p=268}} A further document states that a verdict was pronounced by Kibri-Dagan and a "judge of the  king" (''dayyān šarrim'') in front of Lagamal and [[Yakrub-El]].{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=116}} An [[oracular]] inquiry from the Mari archives pertaining to the correct number of horns on Lagamal's crown is also known, with two, four and eight mentioned as possible answers.{{sfn|Sasson|2015|pp=254-255}} Two sealings from [[Tell al-Rimah]] indicate that a local ruler, Aškur-Addu, used a seal inscribed with Lagamal's name.{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=5}}
[[Theophoric name]]s invoking Lagamal name are well attested in sources from Dilbat as early as in the [[Old Babylonian period]],{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=6}} but were uncommon elsewhere in Mesopotamia, with the only known examples coming from [[Sippar]] (seven attestations, one of them likely referring to a man from Dilbat), [[Larsa]] (two attestations), Mari (three attestations, two of them likely referring to the same person) and [[Kisurra]] (a single attestation).{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=6}} One example of a name from Dilbat is Lagamal-gamil, "Lagamal is the one who spares".{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=5}} Objects which originally belonged to one man bearing it, a servant of the king [[Sumu-la-El]],{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=9}} were also found during excavations in [[Tilmen Höyük]] in [[Turkey]].{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=4}} It has been argued that names invoking Lagamal from cities other than Dilbat can be assumed to indicate emigration of its inhabitants to other parts to Mesopotamia, similar to [[Zababa]] names pointing at origin of the families of persons bearing them in [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]].{{sfn|Harris|1976|p=152}}
A late [[Topography|topographical]] text, composed no earlier than in the seventh century BCE,{{sfn|George|1992|p=187}} indicates that Lagamal was one of the many deities worshiped in the E-šarra temple complex in [[Assur]].{{sfn|George|1993|p=105}} While it was dedicated to the god [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]], as opposed to [[Enlil]] like its earlier namesake which was a part of the [[Ekur]] in [[Nippur]],{{sfn|George|1993|p=145}} according to [[Andrew R. George]] it is possible that at least some of the shrines located in it were patterned on these which existed in the latter city, as evidenced by the presence of one dedicated to [[Ninimma]] among them.{{sfn|George|1992|p=185}} The reading of the name of the shrine dedicated to Lagamal, IM.ŠID-''kurra'', and by extension its meaning, are not fully certain.{{sfn|George|1992|p=187}}
===Elamite reception===
References to Lagamal have been identified in [[Elam]]ite sources as well.{{sfn|Marchesi|Marchetti|2019|p=5}} He was introduced to Elam in the second millennium BCE.{{sfn|Henkelman|2008|p=330}} Like [[Adad]], [[Shala]],{{sfn|Henkelman|2008|p=313}} [[Pinikir]], [[Manzat (goddess)|Manzat]] and [[Nahundi|Nahhunte]], he was worshiped mostly in the western part of this area, in the proximity of [[Susa]].{{sfn|Álvarez-Mon|2015|p=19}} One site associated particularly closely with him was Chogha Pahn West.{{sfn|Álvarez-Mon|2015|p=19}} Some of his temples were examples of so-called ''siyan husame'', "temples in the grove",{{sfn|Henkelman|2008|p=443}} which possibly had funerary functions,{{sfn|Henkelman|2008|p=442}} though it has been pointed out that some of them belonged to deities with no such associations, such as Manzat or [[Simut (god)|Simut]].{{sfn|Potts|2010|p=58}} One of these structures, dedicated jointly to Lagamal and Inshushinak, was located in Bit Hulmi.{{sfn|Henkelman|2008|p=444}}
Multiple Elamite rulers mention structures dedicated to Lagamal in their inscriptions: [[Shilhak-Inshushinak]] according to his inscriptions restored a temple of Lagamal in Susa,{{sfn|Potts|1999|p=238}} as well as a ''siyan husame'' dedicated to him and Inshusinak at Chogha Pan West.{{sfn|Potts|2010|p=58}} He also mentions that he repaired one of such houses of worship and dedicated it anew to Lagamal and Inshushinak, addressed as his gods.{{sfn|Potts|2010|p=503}}  {{ill|Kutir-Nahhunte|de|Kutir-Nahhunte III.}} restored a ''hiel'' ("great gate") of Lagamal in Susa.{{sfn|Potts|2010|p=501}}
Theophoric names invoking Lagamal are known from Elamite sources.{{sfn|Becking|1999|p=499}} One has been identified in texts from Haft Tappeh, presumed to correspond to ancient [[Kabnak]].{{sfn|Mofidi-Nasrabadi|2021|p=5}} Furthermore, an inscription of {{ill|Shutruk-Nahhunte II|de|Šutruk-Naḫḫunte II.}}, who reigned between 716 and 699 BCE, mentions an individual bearing the name Shilhana-hamru-Lagamal,{{sfn|Malbran-Labat|2018|pp=470–471}} likely the son of [[Shilhak-Inshushinak]], the younger brother of [[Hutelutush-Inshushinak]], and possibly an Elamite ruler in his own right, whose reign according to Daniel T. Potts should be dated to the early eleventh century BCE.{{sfn|Potts|1999|p=255}}
[[Ashurbanipal]] mentioned a statue of Lagamal among these he carried off from Susa as booty.{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=419}} It is presently unknown if he continued to be worshiped in Elam after that event.{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=419}}
== Later relevance ==
A well established theory connects the Elamite group of Inshushinak, Lagamal and Ishmekarab with the later [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] belief that after death souls are judged by [[Mithra]], [[Sraosha]] and [[Rashnu]].{{sfn|Wasserman|2019|pp=875-876}} However, this view is not universally accepted, and it has been pointed out that while the names of both Sraosha and Ishmekarab are both etymologically connected to terms related to [[hearing]], the functions of Rashnu and Lagamal in the respective traditions they belong to do not appear to be similar.{{sfn|Wasserman|2019|p=876}} Nathan Wasserman additionally questions if the three deities from Susa really did function as a triad in the same way as the Zoroastrian [[Yazata]]s, though he does accept that a close connection existed between Lagamal and Ishmekarab alone.{{sfn|Wasserman|2019|p=876}}
It has been proposed that the name of the [[biblical]] Elamite king [[Chedorlaomer]], mentioned in [[Genesis 14]]:1–17,{{sfn|Potts|2018|p=12}} is a corrupted form of a hypothetical name in which Lagamal serves as a [[Theophoric name|theophoric]] element.{{sfn|Lambert|1983|p=419}} The possible original form of the name has been speculatively restored as Kudur-Lagamal or Kutir-Lagamal, with the first element meaning "protection" respectively in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] or [[Elamite language|Elamite]],{{sfn|Becking|1999|p=498}} but as early as in 1869 [[Theodor Nöldeke]] called the historicity of Chedorlaomer into question.{{sfn|Potts|2018|p=12}} No Elamite ruler bearing such a name has been identified in historical sources.{{sfn|Becking|1999|p=499}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}
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{{refend}}
[[Category:Mesopotamian gods]]
[[Category:Mesopotamian goddesses]]
[[Category:Elamite gods]]
[[Category:Underworld gods]]
[[Category:Mesopotamian underworld]]