View source for Laptop

{{Short description|Personal computer for mobile use}}
{{Other uses|Laptop (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2021}}
[[File:Laptop collage.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Clockwise from top left: A 2021 [[MacBook Pro (Apple silicon)|MacBook Pro]] by [[Apple Inc.]]; a 2019 [[Microsoft]] [[Surface Pro 7]] with detachable hinge ''(left)'' and a 2018 [[Dell XPS#XPS 15 (9570, May 2018)|Dell XPS 15 9570]] with 360 degree hinge ''(right)''; a 2014 [[ThinkPad Helix]] by [[Lenovo]] with detachable screen; and a 2014 [[Acer Inc.|Acer]] [[Chromebook]] 11]]
A '''laptop computer''' or '''notebook computer''', also known as a '''laptop''' or '''notebook''', is a small, portable [[personal computer]] (PC). Laptops typically have a [[Clamshell design|clamshell]] [[form factor (design)|form factor]] with a [[flat-panel]] [[computer screen|screen]] on the inside of the upper lid and an [[alphanumeric keyboard]] and [[pointing device]] on the inside of the lower lid.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introducing Pixel Slate – Pixel Slate Help |url=https://support.google.com/pixelslate/answer/9131383?hl=en |access-date=21 September 2022 |website=support.google.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Microsoft Surface Pro 8 review: the best of both worlds |url=https://www.theverge.com/22709876/microsoft-surface-pro-8-review |access-date=21 September 2022 |website=The Verge |date=5 October 2021 }}</ref> Most of the computer's internal hardware is fitted inside the lower lid enclosure under the keyboard, although many modern laptops have a built-in [[webcam]] at the top of the screen, and some even feature a [[touchscreen]] display. In most cases, unlike [[tablet computer]]s which run on [[mobile operating system]]s, laptops tend to run on desktop operating systems, which were originally developed for [[desktop computer]]s.
The word ''laptop'', modeled after the term ''desktop'' (as in ''desktop computer''), refers to the fact that the computer can be practically placed on the user's [[lap]]; while the word ''notebook'' refers to most laptops sharing a form factor with paper [[notebook]]s. {{As of|2024}}, in [[American English]], the terms ''laptop'' and ''notebook'' are used interchangeably;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Laptop vs desktop: which should you buy? |url=https://www.techradar.com/news/laptop-vs-desktop-which-should-you-buy |access-date=1 August 2021 |website=TechRadar |language=en}}</ref> in other [[dialects of English]], one or the other may be preferred.<ref name="Buzzle" /> The term ''notebook'' originally referred to [[Notebook (laptop)|a type of portable computer]] that was smaller and lighter than mainstream laptops of the time, but has since come to mean the same thing and no longer refers to any specific size.
Laptops are used in a variety of settings, such as at work (especially on [[business trip]]s), in [[education]], for [[PC game|playing games]], [[web browser|web browsing]], for personal [[multimedia]], and for general [[Personal computer|home computer]] use. They can run on both [[AC power supply|AC power]] and [[rechargable]] [[battery pack]]s and can be folded shut for convenient storage and transportation, making them suitable for [[mobile computing|mobile use]].<ref name="Wikipedia">{{cite web |last=Beal |first=Vangie |date=September 1996 |title=What is Laptop Computer? Webopedia Definition |url=https://www.webopedia.com/TERM/L/laptop_computer.html |access-date=1 December 2022 |website=Webopedia}}</ref> Laptops combine many of the [[input/output]] components and capabilities of a desktop computer into a single unit, including a display screen (usually {{cvt|11|-|17|in|disp=or}} in diagonal size), small speakers, a keyboard, and a pointing device (namely compact ones such as [[touchpad]]s or [[pointing stick]]s). Hardware specifications may vary significantly between different types, models, and [[price point]]s.
Design elements, form factors, and construction can also vary significantly between models depending on the intended use. Examples of specialized models of laptops include [[2-in-1 laptop]]s, with keyboards that either be [[2-in-1 detachable|detached]] or [[2-in-1 convertible|pivoted out of view]] from the display (often marketed having a "laptop mode"); [[rugged computer|rugged laptops]], for use in construction or [[military application]]s; and [[cost of goods sold|low-production-cost]] laptops such as those from the [[One Laptop per Child]] (OLPC) organization, which incorporate features like [[solar charging]] and semi-flexible components not found on most laptop computers. [[Portable computer]]s, which later developed into modern laptops, were originally considered to be a small [[niche market]], mostly for specialized field applications, such as in the military, for accountants, or travelling sales representatives. As portable computers evolved into modern laptops, they became widely used for a variety of purposes.<ref name=NPD>{{cite web|title=U.S. Commercial Channel Computing Device Sales Set to End 2013 with Double-Digit Growth, According to NPD|url=https://www.npd.com/wps/portal/npd/us/news/press-releases/u-s-commercial-channel-computing-device-sales-set-to-end-2013-with-double-digit-growth-according-to-npd/|website=NPD Group|access-date=23 September 2014|archive-date=9 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809082017/https://www.npd.com/wps/portal/npd/us/news/press-releases/u-s-commercial-channel-computing-device-sales-set-to-end-2013-with-double-digit-growth-according-to-npd/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{TOC limit|3}}
==History==
{{Main|History of laptops}}
{{See also|Portable computer#Early history}}
[[File:Alan Kay and the prototype of Dynabook, pt. 5 (3010032738).jpg|thumb|right|[[Alan Kay]] holding the mockup of his [[Dynabook]] concept in 2008]]
The history of the laptop follows closely behind the development of the [[personal computer]] itself. A "personal, portable information manipulator" was imagined by [[Alan Kay]] at [[Xerox PARC]] in 1968,<ref>{{cite thesis |author=John W. Maxwell |title=Tracing the Dynabook: A Study of Technocultural Transformations |year=2006 |type=PhD |publisher=University of British Columbia |url=http://thinkubator.ccsp.sfu.ca/Dynabook/Maxwell-DynabookFinal.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070124101144/http://thinkubator.ccsp.sfu.ca/Dynabook/Maxwell-DynabookFinal.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2007 |access-date=17 October 2008}}</ref> and described in his 1972 paper as the "[[Dynabook]]".<ref>{{cite conference |author=Alan C. Kay |title=A Personal Computer for Children of All Ages |conference=Proceedings of the ACM National Conference |location=Boston |date=August 1972 |publisher=Xerox Palo Alto Research Center |url=http://www.mprove.de/diplom/gui/Kay72a.pdf |access-date=17 October 2008}}</ref> The IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable (SCAMP) was demonstrated in 1973.<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 January 2003|title=IBM Archives: IBM Personal Computer|url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/pc/pc_1.html|access-date=16 May 2021|website=ibm.com|language=en-US}}</ref> This prototype was based on the [[IBM PALM processor]].<ref>{{cite web|title=IBM Personal Computer|date=23 January 2003|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/pc/pc_1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041209190558/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/pc/pc_1.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 December 2004|publisher=IBM Inc}}</ref> The [[IBM 5100]], the first commercially available [[portable computer]], appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oldcomputers.net/ibm5100.html|title=IBM 5100 computer|website=oldcomputers.net|access-date=6 July 2009}}</ref>
[[File:IBM 5100 - MfK Bern.jpg|thumb|[[IBM 5100]] (1975)]]
As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly. The first "laptop-sized notebook computer" was the [[Epson HX-20]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://files.support.epson.com/pdf/hx20__/hx20__sl.pdf |title=Epson SX-20 Promotional Brochure |access-date=2 November 2008 |publisher=Epson America, Inc. |year=1987 }}</ref><ref name="ipsj">{{cite web|url=http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/personal/0081.html|title=HC-20-Computer Museum|website=museum.ipsj.or.jp}}</ref> invented (patented) by [[Suwa Seikosha]]'s Yukio Yokozawa in July 1980,<ref name="patent">{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/FR2487094A1/en|title=portable computer system small|website=google.com}}</ref> introduced at the [[COMDEX]] computer show in [[Las Vegas]] by Japanese company [[Seiko Epson]] in 1981,<ref name="hx20">[http://oldcomputers.net/hx-20.html Epson HX-20], Old Computers</ref><ref name="ipsj"/> and released in July 1982.<ref name="ipsj"/><ref name="peres">Michael R. Peres, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMJxyAwGvKcC&pg=PA306 ''The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography'', page 306], [[Taylor & Francis]]</ref> It had an [[LCD]] screen, a rechargeable battery, and a calculator-size printer, in a {{convert|1.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}} chassis, the size of an [[A4 paper|A4]] [[notebook]].<ref name="ipsj"/> It was described as a "laptop" and "notebook" computer in its patent.<ref name="patent"/>
[[File:Epson-hx-20.jpg|thumb|The [[Epson HX-20]], the first "[[Notebook (laptop)|notebook computer]]", was invented in 1980 and introduced in 1982.]]
[[File:GRiD Compass 1101 (1).jpg|thumb|[[Grid Compass|GRiD Compass 1101]] (1982)]]
Both [[RadioShack|Tandy/RadioShack]] and [[Hewlett-Packard]] (HP) also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oldcomputers.net/trs100.html|title=Tandy/Radio Shack model 100 portable computer|website=oldcomputers.net|access-date=6 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://oldcomputers.net/hp85.html|title=Hewlett-Packard model 85|website=oldcomputers.net|access-date=6 July 2009}}</ref> The first laptops using the [[flip (form)|flip form factor]] appeared in the early 1980s. The [[Dulmont Magnum]] was released in Australia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85. The {{US$|8150|1982|round=-1}} [[Grid Compass|GRiD Compass 1101]], released in 1982, was used at [[NASA]] and by the [[United States military|military]], among others. The [[Sharp PC-5000]],<ref>[http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=476 Sharp PC-5000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404211845/http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=476 |date=4 April 2019 }}, Old Computers</ref> the [[Ampere WS-1]],<ref name="ampere">{{Cite web |title=Bob Armstrong |url=http://cosy.com/language/cosyhard/cosyhard.htm |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=cosy.com}}</ref> and [[Gavilan SC]] were released between 1983 and 1985.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oldcomputers.net/gavilan.html|title=Gavilian SC computer|website=oldcomputers.net|access-date=7 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="ampere"/><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbh1XP4kCT4 Japanese PCs (1984)] (13:13), ''[[Computer Chronicles]]''</ref> The [[Toshiba T1100]] won acceptance by PC experts and the mass market as a way to have PC portability.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ethw.org/Milestones:Toshiba_T1100,_a_Pioneering_Contribution_to_the_Development_of_Laptop_PC,_1985|title=Milestones:Toshiba T1100, a Pioneering Contribution to the Development of Laptop PC, 1985 – Engineering and Technology History Wiki|website=ethw.org|date=3 November 2021}}</ref>
From 1983 onward, several new input techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the [[touch pad]] ([[Gavilan SC]], 1983), the [[pointing stick]] (IBM [[ThinkPad 700]], 1992), and [[handwriting recognition]] (Linus Write-Top,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oldcomputers.net/linus.html |title=Linus Write-Top |access-date=18 October 2008}}</ref> 1987). Some CPUs, such as the 1990 Intel [[Intel 80386|i386SL]], were designed to use minimum power to increase the battery life of portable computers and were supported by dynamic [[power management]] features such as Intel [[SpeedStep]] and AMD [[PowerNow!]] in some designs.
Some laptops in the 1980s using red [[plasma display]]s could only be used when connected to AC power, and had a built in power supply.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDwEAAAAMBAJ&dq=toshiba+t3100+plasma&pg=PA96 | title=InfoWorld | date=10 November 1986 }}</ref>
The development of [[memory card]]s was driven in the 1980s by the need for a floppy-disk-drive alternative, having lower power consumption, less weight, and reduced volume in laptops. The Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) was an industry association created in 1989 to promote a standard for memory cards in PCs. The specification for PCMCIA type I cards, later renamed PC Cards, was first released in 1990.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNnvbyOKioEC&dq=PCMCIA+september+1989&pg=PA14 | title=PCMCIA System Architecture: 16-bit PC Cards | isbn=978-0-201-40991-8 | last1=Anderson | first1=Don | date=27 January 1995 | publisher=Addison-Wesley Professional }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x2Fa5SDi0G8C&dq=PCMCIA+september+1989&pg=PA264 | title=PC Mag | date=21 December 1993 }}</ref>
[[File:Zenith supersPORT (1).jpg|thumb|200px|A [[Zenith SupersPort]] laptop, released in 1988]]
Displays reached 640x480 ([[VGA]]) resolution by 1988 ([[Compaq SLT|Compaq SLT/286]]), and color screens started becoming a common upgrade in 1991,<ref>{{Cite web|title=IBM PS/2 CL57SX {{!}} Laptop Pics|url=http://laptop.pics/IBM-ps2-cl57sx/|access-date=5 December 2020|language=en-US}}</ref><!-- see discussion --> with increases in resolution and screen size occurring frequently until the introduction of 17" screen laptops in 2003. Hard drives started to be used in portables, encouraged by the introduction of 3.5" drives in the late 1980s, and became common in laptops starting with the introduction of 2.5" and smaller drives around 1990; capacities have typically lagged behind those of physically larger desktop drives.
Resolutions of laptop [[webcam]]s are 720p (HD), or 480p in lower-end laptops.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/laptops-need-better-webcams/|title=In The Age Of Zoom, Bad Laptop Webcams Are A Big Problem|date=8 April 2020|website=Digital Trends}}</ref> The earliest-known laptops with [[1080p]] (Full HD) webcams, like the Samsung 700G7C, were released in the early 2010s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/reviews/samsung-700g7c-review/|title=Samsung 700G7C review: Samsung 700G7C|first=Scott|last=Stein|website=CNET}}</ref>
[[Optical disc drive]]s became common in full-size laptops around 1997: initially, CD-ROM drives, supplanted by CD-R, then DVD, then [[Blu-ray]] drives with writing capability. Starting around 2011, the trend shifted against internal optical drives, and as of 2022, they have largely disappeared, though are still readily available as external [[peripheral]]s.
In 2021, Dell showed Concept Luna, which is a concept for a laptop that can be easily disassembled.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/559373/dell-reveals-concept-luna-a-radically-compelling-vision-for-sustainable-laptops.html | title=Dell reveals Concept Luna, a radically compelling vision for sustainable laptops }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pcmag.com/news/first-look-dells-concept-luna-targets-laptop-sustainability-with-modular | title=First Look: Dell's 'Concept Luna' Targets Laptop Sustainability with Modular Parts }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2021/12/dells-concept-luna-pc-disassembles-easily-so-you-can-reuse-its-parts/ | title=Dell's Concept Luna PC disassembles easily so Dell can reuse its parts | date=14 December 2021 }}</ref>
==Etymology==
The terms ''laptop'' and ''notebook'' both trace their origins to the early 1980s, coined to describe [[portable computer]]s in a size class smaller than the contemporary mainstream units (so-called [[Luggable computer|"luggables"]]) but larger than [[pocket computer]]s.<ref>{{cite news | last=Reid | first=T.&nbsp;R. | date=October 10, 1988 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1988/10/10/the-latest-wave-in-personal-computers-is-small-but-fast/1f947411-c060-43e2-aa57-9ee496eaca9b/ | title=The Latest Wave in Personal Computers Is Small but Fast | newspaper=The Washington Post | page=F28 | archiveurl=https://archive.today/20240505050802/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1988/10/10/the-latest-wave-in-personal-computers-is-small-but-fast/1f947411-c060-43e2-aa57-9ee496eaca9b/ | archivedate=May 5, 2024}}</ref><ref name=byte>{{cite journal | last=Williams | first=Gregg | date=April 1982 | url=https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1982-04/page/n105/ | title=The First ''Byte''-Sized Computer | journal=Byte | publisher=McGraw-Hill | volume=7 | issue=4 | pages=104–105 | via=the Internet Archive}}</ref> The etymologist [[William Safire]] traced the origin of ''laptop'' to some time before 1984;<ref name=safire>{{cite book | last=Safire | first=William | date=2011 | orig-date=1993 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYV0aLwMd6UC | title=Quoth the Maven: More on Language from William Safire | publisher=Random House Publishing Group | page=352 | isbn=9780307799746 | via=Google Books}}</ref> the earliest attestation of ''laptop'' found by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' dates to 1983.<ref>{{cite web | date=n.d. | url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/laptop_n | title=laptop, n. & adj. | work=Oxford English Dictionary | publisher=Oxford University Press | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505044414/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/laptop_n?tl=true | archivedate=May 5, 2024}}</ref> The word is modeled after the term ''desktop'', as in ''[[desktop computer]]''.<ref name=safire /> ''Notebook'', meanwhile, emerged earlier in 1982<ref>{{cite web | date=n.d. | url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/notebook-computer_n | title=notebook computer, n. | work=Oxford English Dictionary | publisher=Oxford University Press | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505183728/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/notebook-computer_n?tl=true | archivedate=May 5, 2024}}</ref> to describe [[Epson]]'s [[HX-20]] portable, whose dimensions roughly correspond to a [[Letter paper|letter]]-sized [[notebook|pad of paper]].<ref name=byte /><ref>{{cite journal | last=Needle | first=David | date=December 13, 1982 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA9 | title=Crowds converge on NE Computer Show | journal=InfoWorld | publisher=IDG Publications | volume=4 | issue=49 | pages=1, 9–11 | via=Google Books}}</ref>{{rp|9}}<ref>{{cite journal | last=Needle | first=David | date=May 14, 1984 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sy4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA9 | title=Epson's PX-8 lap computer | journal=InfoWorld | publisher=IDG Publications | volume=6 | issue=20 | page=9 | via=Google Books}}</ref> Notebooks emerged as their own separate market from laptops with the release of the [[NEC UltraLite]] in 1988.<ref name=fd>{{cite book | last=Gookin | first=Dan | author-link=Dan Gookin | date=2005 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o8jSwAEACAAJ | title=Laptops for Dummies | publisher=Wiley | pages=7–17 | isbn=9780764575556 | via=Google Books}}</ref>{{rp|16}} Notebooks and laptops continued to occupy distinct market segments into the mid-1990s,<ref>{{cite journal | last=Vowels | first=Andrew | date=March 1995 | url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/197745301/ | title=Have computer, will travel | journal=CMA | publisher=Society of Management Accountants of Canada | volume=69 | issue=2 | pages=16–19 | via=ProQuest}}</ref> but ergonomic considerations and customer preference for larger screens soon led to notebooks [[Technological convergence|converging]] with laptops in the late 1990s.<ref name=mueller>{{cite book | last=Mueller | first=Scott | date=2004 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCXVGneKwScC | title=Upgrading and Repairing Laptops | publisher=Que | page=2 | isbn=9780789728005 | via=Google Books}}</ref> Today, the terms ''laptop'' and ''notebook'' are synonymous, with ''laptop'' being the more common term in most English-speaking territories.<ref name=mueller>{{cite book | last=Mueller | first=Scott | date=2004 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCXVGneKwScC | title=Upgrading and Repairing Laptops | publisher=Que | page=2 | isbn=9780789728005 | via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Buzzle">{{cite web |last1=Naik |first1=Abhijit |title=Notebook Vs. Laptop |url=http://www.buzzle.com/articles/notebook-vs-laptop.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214093716/http://www.buzzle.com/articles/notebook-vs-laptop.html|archive-date=14 February 2015 |access-date=23 September 2014 |website=Buzzle.com}}</ref>
== Types of laptops ==
[[File:Compaq Armada 7800.jpg|thumb|[[Compaq Armada]] laptop from the late 1990s]]
[[File:Macbook Air.jpg|thumb|Apple [[MacBook Air]], an "ultraportable" laptop weighing under {{convert|3.0|lb|kg|2|abbr=on}}]]
[[File:Lenovo ideapad 300 300-14IBR.jpg|thumb|[[Lenovo]]'s [[IdeaPad]] laptop]]
[[File:ThinkPad X220.jpg|thumb|Lenovo's [[ThinkPad]] business laptop, originally an [[IBM]] product]]
[[File:Asus Transformer Pad TF701T Tablet and Keyboard Dock.png|thumb|[[ASUS Transformer|Asus Transformer Pad]], a hybrid tablet, powered by [[Android (operating system)|Android]] [[Operating system|OS]]]]
[[File:Microsoft Surface Pro 3 with Type Cover.jpg|thumb|[[Microsoft Surface Pro 3]], 2-in-1 detachable]]
[[File:Alienware.JPG|thumb|[[Alienware]] gaming laptop with [[backlit]] keyboard and touch pad]]
[[File:Samsung QX-511 (2).JPG|thumb|[[Samsung Sens]] laptop]]
[[File:Toughbook-cf-m34 4.jpg|thumb|right|[[Toughbook|Panasonic Toughbook]] CF-M34, a rugged laptop/subnotebook]]
Since the 1970s introduction of portable computers, their forms have changed significantly, [[spawning]] a variety of visually and technologically differing subclasses. Excepting distinct legal trademark around terms (notably [[Ultrabook]]), hard distinctions between these classes were rare, and their usage has varied over time and between sources. Since the late 2010s, more specific terms have become less commonly used, with sizes distinguished largely by the size of the screen.
===Smaller and larger laptops===
{{Main|Notebook (laptop)|Subnotebook|Desktop replacement computer}}
There were in the past a number of marketing categories for smaller and larger laptop computers; these included "notebook" and "[[subnotebook]]" models, low cost "[[netbook]]s", and "[[ultra-mobile PC]]s" where the size class overlapped with devices like [[smartphone]] and handheld [[Tablet computer|tablets]], and "[[Desktop replacement]]" laptops for machines notably larger and heavier than typical to operate more powerful [[Central processing unit|processors]] or [[Graphics processing unit|graphics hardware]].<ref name="types_cnet">{{cite web|title=Laptop Buying Guide|url=http://reviews.cnet.com/4520-7602_7-1016082-2.html|access-date=7 November 2008|website=Cnet}}</ref> All of these terms have fallen out of favor as the size of mainstream laptops has gone down and their capabilities have gone up; except for niche models, laptop sizes tend to be distinguished by the size of the screen, and for more powerful models, by any specialized purpose the machine is intended for, such as a "[[Gaming computer|gaming laptop]]" or a "[[Workstation|mobile workstation]]" for professional use.{{See also|Gaming computer#Gaming laptop computers|Mobile workstation}}
===Convertible, hybrid, 2-in-1===
{{anchor|Convertible}}
{{anchor|Hybrid}}
{{main|2-in-1 PC}}
The latest trend of [[technological convergence]] in the portable computer industry spawned a broad range of devices, which combined features of several previously separate device types. The ''hybrids'', ''convertibles'', and ''2-in-1s'' emerged as crossover devices, which share traits of both tablets and laptops. All such devices have a [[touchscreen]] display designed to allow users to work in a ''tablet'' mode, using either [[multi-touch]] gestures or a [[stylus (computing)|stylus]]/[[digital pen]].
[[2-in-1 PC|Convertibles]] are devices with the ability to conceal a hardware keyboard. Keyboards on such devices can be flipped, rotated, or slid behind the back of the chassis, thus transforming from a laptop into a tablet. ''Hybrids'' have a keyboard detachment mechanism, and due to this feature, all critical components are situated in the part with the display. ''2-in-1s'' can have a hybrid or a convertible form, often dubbed ''2-in-1 detachable'' and ''2-in-1 convertibles'' respectively, but are distinguished by the ability to run a desktop [[operating system|OS]], such as [[Windows 10]]. 2-in-1s are often marketed as ''laptop replacement tablets''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/best-2-in-1-pcs-in-2020-when-you-need-a-laptop-and-tablet-in-one/|title=Best 2-in-1 PCs in 2020 for when you need a laptop and tablet in one|website=CNet|language=en-US|access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref>
2-in-1s are often very thin, around {{convert|10|mm}}, and light devices with a long battery life. 2-in-1s are distinguished from mainstream tablets as they feature an [[x86]]-architecture [[CPU]] (typically a low- or [[ultra-low-voltage]] model), such as the Intel [[Intel Core|Core i5]], run a full-featured desktop [[operating system|OS]] like [[Windows 10]], and have a number of typical laptop [[I/O]] ports, such as [[USB 3]] and [[Mini DisplayPort]].
2-in-1s are designed to be used not only as a [[media consumption]] device but also as valid desktop or laptop replacements, due to their ability to run ''desktop'' applications, such as [[Adobe Photoshop]]. It is possible to connect multiple [[peripheral]] devices, such as a mouse, keyboard, and several external displays to a modern 2-in-1.
[[Microsoft Surface]] Pro-series devices and [[Surface Book]] are examples of modern 2-in-1 detachable, whereas [[Lenovo Yoga]]-series computers are a variant of 2-in-1 convertibles. While the older [[Surface RT]] and [[Surface 2]] have the same chassis design as the Surface Pro, their use of [[ARM processors]] and [[Windows RT]] do not classify them as 2-in-1s, but as hybrid tablets.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lenovo.com/us/en/faqs/laptop-faqs/what-is-hybrid/|title=What Is a Hybrid Laptop? {{!}} Advantages & Buying Guide {{!}} Lenovo US|website=lenovo.com|language=en|access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref> Similarly, a number of hybrid laptops run a [[mobile operating system]], such as [[Android (operating system)|Android]]. These include [[Asus Transformer|Asus's Transformer Pad]] devices, examples of [[hybrid tablet|hybrids]] with a detachable keyboard design, which do not fall in the category of 2-in-1s.
===Rugged laptop===
{{Main|Rugged computer}}
A rugged laptop is designed to reliably operate in harsh usage conditions such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and wet or dusty environments. Rugged laptops are bulkier, heavier, and much more expensive than regular laptops,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.linux-on-laptops.com/rugged-laptop.html |title=Rugged Laptop: Choices, Pointers & Specs of Buying Rugged Laptops |access-date=27 November 2008 |website=Linux-on-laptops.com}}</ref> and thus are seldom seen in regular consumer use.
==Hardware==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2016}}
{{Further|Personal computer|Computer hardware}}
[[File:Macbook_12_Retina_2015_Internal_Snapshot_(30433168804).jpg|thumb|right|Inner view of a [[MacBook (Retina)]] laptop]]
[[File:Samsung-1GB-DDR2-Laptop-RAM.jpg|thumb|right|A [[SODIMM]] memory module]]
The basic components of laptops function identically to their desktop counterparts. Traditionally they were [[miniaturized]] and adapted to mobile use, The design restrictions on power, size, and [[Laptop cooler|cooling]] of laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop parts compared to that of desktop components, although that difference has increasingly narrowed.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dé specialist voor smartphone, tablet en laptop reparaties|title=Laptop reparatie|url=https://www.smart-repair.nl/laptop/|access-date=30 March 2017|work=Smartrepair Den Bosch, Nijmegen, Tilburg, Almere en Utrecht|agency=smart-repair.nl|date=4 January 2013|language=nl-NL}}</ref>
In general, laptop components are not intended to be replaceable or upgradable by the end-user, except for components that can be detached; in the past, batteries and optical drives were commonly exchangeable. Some laptops feature socketed processors with sockets such as the [[Socket G2]], but many laptops use processors that are soldered to the motherboard. Many laptops come with RAM and storage that is soldered to the motherboard and cannot be easily replaced. This restriction is one of the major differences between laptops and desktop computers, because the large "[[Computer tower|tower]]" cases used in desktop computers are designed so that new [[motherboard]]s, [[hard disk]]s, [[sound card]]s, [[RAM]], and other components can be added. Memory and storage can often be upgraded with some disassembly, but with the most compact laptops, there may be no upgradeable components at all.<ref>{{cite web|title=Microsoft Surface Pro 3 Teardown|url=https://www.ifixit.com/Teardown/Microsoft+Surface+Pro+3+Teardown/26595|website=iFixit.com|date=23 June 2014|access-date=1 October 2014}}</ref>
The following sections summarize the differences and distinguishing features of laptop components in comparison to desktop personal computer parts.<ref name="parts-kate">{{cite web |title=What Makes Laptops Work&nbsp;– The Laptop Motherboard |url=http://mobileoffice.about.com/od/laptopstabletpcs/tp/laptopmotherboards.htm |author=Catherine Roseberry |website=About.com |access-date=15 November 2008}}</ref>
===Display===
The typical laptop has a screen that, when unfolded, is upright to the user.
==== Screen technology ====
Laptop screens most commonly employ [[liquid-crystal display|liquid-crystal display (LCD)]] technology, although use of [[OLED]] panels has risen substantially since 2020.{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}} The display interfaces with the motherboard using the [[embedded DisplayPort]] protocol via the [[low-voltage differential signaling|Low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS)]] 30 or 40 pin connector. The panels are mainly manufactured by [[AU Optronics]], [[BOE Technology]], [[LG Display]] or [[Samsung Display]].
==== Surface finish ====
Externally, it can be a ''glossy'' or a ''matte'' (anti-glare) screen.
==== Sizes ====
In the past, there was a broader range of marketing terms (both formal and informal) to distinguish between different sizes of laptops. These included [[Netbook]]s, [[subnotebook]]s, [[Ultra-mobile PC]], and [[Desktop replacement computer]]s; these are sometimes still used informally, although they are essentially dead in terms of manufacturer marketing.
{{As of|2021|post=,}} mainstream consumer laptops tend to come with 11", 13" or 15"-16" screens; 14" models are more popular among business machines. Larger and smaller models are available, but less common – there is no clear dividing line in minimum or maximum size. Machines small enough to be handheld (screens in the 6–8" range) can be marketed either as very small laptops or "handheld PCs", while the distinction between the largest laptops and "All-in-One" desktops is whether they fold for travel.
==== Resolution ====
Having a higher resolution display allows more items to fit onscreen at a time, improving the user's ability to multitask, although, at the higher resolutions on smaller screens, the resolution may only serve to display sharper graphics and text rather than increasing the usable area. Since the introduction of the [[MacBook Pro with Retina display]] in 2012, there has been an increase in the availability of "HiDPI" (or high [[Pixel density]]) displays; {{as of|2022|post=,|lc=y}} this is generally considered to be anything higher than 1920 pixels wide. This has increasingly converged around 4K (3840-pixel-wide) resolutions.
External displays can be connected to most laptops, with most models supporting at least one.<ref name="3-Displays FAQ" /> The use of technology such as [[USB4]] (section [[USB4#Alternate Mode partner specifications|Alternate Mode partner specifications]]). DisplayPort Alt Mode has been utilized to charge a laptop and provide display output over one USB-C Cable.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Apple MacBook Pro 14 and 16 review: return to form |url=https://www.theverge.com/22751921/apple-macbook-pro-14-16-inch-2021-m1-pro-max-review |access-date=21 September 2022 |website=The Verge |date=29 October 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref>
==== Refresh rates ====
Most laptop displays have a maximum [[refresh rate]] of 60&nbsp;Hz. The [[Dell]] M17x and [[Samsung]] 700G7A, both released in 2011, were among the first laptops to feature a 120&nbsp;Hz refresh rate,<ref>{{cite web |title=Dell refreshes Alienware M17x, Dell XPS 17 with 120Hz 3D HD screens, Sandy Bridge CPUs |url=https://www.engadget.com/2011-01-06-dell-outfits-alienware-m17x-dell-xps-17-with-120hz-3d-hd-screen.html |website=Engadget |date=6 January 2011 |access-date=28 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Samsung 700G7A GAMER |url=https://www.pocket-lint.com/laptops/reviews/samsung/72784-samsung-700g7a-gaming-laptop-review |website=pocket-lint.com |access-date=28 April 2021 |language=en-gb |date=11 April 2012}}</ref> and more such laptops have appeared in the years since.
===Central processing unit (CPU)===
A laptop's [[CPU]]  has advanced power-saving features and produces less heat than one intended purely for desktop use. Mainstream laptop CPUs made after 2018 have at least two processor cores, often four cores, and sometimes more, with 6 and 8 cores becoming more common.
For the low price and mainstream performance, there is no longer a significant performance difference between laptop and desktop CPUs, but at the high end, the fastest desktop CPUs still substantially outperform the fastest laptop processors, at the expense of massively higher power consumption and heat generation; the fastest laptop processors top out at 56 watts of heat, while the fastest desktop processors top out at 150 watts (and often need water cooling).
There has been a wide range of [[notebook processors|CPUs designed for laptops]] available from both [[Intel]], [[AMD]], and other manufacturers. On non-[[x86]] architectures, Motorola and IBM produced the chips for the former [[PowerPC]]-based Apple laptops ([[iBook]] and [[PowerBook]]). Between around 2000 to 2014, most full-size laptops had socketed, replaceable CPUs; on thinner models, the CPU was soldered on the motherboard and was not replaceable or upgradable without replacing the motherboard. Since 2015, Intel has not offered new laptop CPU models with pins to be interchangeable, preferring [[ball grid array]] chip packages which have to be soldered;<ref name=btarunr>{{Cite web |author=btarunr |date=26 November 2012 |title=Is Haswell the Last Interchangeable Intel Client Processor? |url=https://www.techpowerup.com/176133/is-haswell-the-last-interchangeable-intel-client-processor |access-date=30 May 2021 |website=TechPowerUp |language=en}}</ref> and as of 2021, only a few rare models using desktop parts.
In the past, some laptops have used a desktop processor instead of the laptop version and have had high-performance gains at the cost of greater weight, heat, and limited battery life; this is not unknown as of 2022, but since around 2010, the practice has been restricted to small-volume gaming models. Laptop CPUs are rarely able to be [[overclocking|overclocked]]; most use locked processors. Even on gaming models where unlocked processors are available, the cooling system in most laptops is often very close to its limits and there is rarely headroom for an overclocking–related operating temperature increase.
===Graphics processing unit (GPU)===
On most laptops, the GPU is ''integrated'' into the CPU to conserve power and space. This was introduced by Intel with the [[Intel Core|Core i-series]] of mobile processors in 2010, followed by similar [[AMD APU]] processors in January 2011.
Before that, lower-end machines tended to use graphics processors integrated into the [[chipset#Computers|system chipset]], while higher-end machines had a separate graphics processor. In the past, laptops ''lacking'' a ''separate'' graphics processor were limited in their utility for gaming and professional applications involving [[3D computer graphics|3D]] graphics, but the capabilities of CPU-integrated graphics have converged with the low-end of dedicated graphics processors since the mid-2010s. For laptops possessing limited onboard graphics capability but sufficient I/O throughput, an [[Graphics processing unit#External GPU (eGPU)|external GPU (eGPU)]] can provide additional graphics power at the cost of physical space and portability.
Higher-end laptops intended for gaming or professional 3D work still come with dedicated (and in some cases even dual) graphics processors on the motherboard or as an internal [[Mobile PCI Express Module|expansion card]]. Since 2011, these almost always involve switchable graphics so that when there is ''no'' demand for the higher performance dedicated graphics processor, the more power-efficient ''integrated'' graphics processor will be used. [[Nvidia Optimus]] and [[AMD Hybrid Graphics]] are examples of this sort of system of switchable graphics.
Traditionally, the system [[RAM]] on laptops (as well as on desktop computers) was physically separate from the graphics memory used by the GPU. Apple's [[Apple silicon#M series|M series]] [[System on a chip|SoC]]s feature a unified pool of memory for both the system and the GPU; this approach can produce substantial efficiency gains for some applications but comes at the cost of eGPU support.
===Memory===
Since around the year 2000, most laptops have used [[SO-DIMM]] slots in which [[RAM]] is mounted,<ref name="parts-kate"/> although, as of 2021, an increasing number of models use memory soldered to the motherboard, either alongside SO-DIMM slots or without any slots and soldering all memory to the motherboard, but a new form factor, the [[CAMM (memory module)|CAMM module]], is slated to fix the size and timing limitation. Before 2000, most laptops used proprietary memory modules if their memory was upgradable.
In the early 2010s, high end laptops such as the 2011 Samsung ''700G7A'' have passed the 10&nbsp;GB RAM barrier, featuring 16&nbsp;GB of RAM.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.notebookcheck.net/Review-Samsung-Series-7-Gamer-700G7A-Notebook.66523.0.html|title=Review Samsung Series 7 Gamer 700G7A Notebook|first=Florian|last=Glaser|website=Notebookcheck|date=24 November 2011 }}</ref>
When upgradeable, memory slots are sometimes accessible from the bottom of the laptop for ease of upgrading; in other cases, accessing them requires significant disassembly. Most laptops have two memory slots, although some will have only one, either for cost savings or because some amount of memory is soldered. Some high-end models have four slots; these are usually mobile engineering workstations, although a few high-end models intended for gaming do as well.
{{As of|2021|post=,}} 8&nbsp;GB RAM is most common, with lower-end models occasionally having 4&nbsp;GB. Higher-end laptops may come with 16&nbsp;GB of RAM or more.
===Internal storage===
The earliest laptops most often used [[floppy disk]] for storage, although a few used either RAM disk or tape, by the late 1980s [[hard disk drive]]s had become the standard form of storage.
Between 1990 and 2009, almost all laptops typically had a [[hard disk drive]] (HDD) for storage; since then, [[solid-state drive]]s (SSD) have gradually come to supplant hard drives in all but some inexpensive consumer models. Solid-state drives are faster and more power-efficient, as well as eliminating the hazard of drive and data corruption caused by a laptop's physical impacts, as they use no mechanical parts such as a rotational platter.<ref name="PCW-SSD">{{cite web|last1=Edwards|first1=Benj|title=Evolution of the Solid-State Drive|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/246617/evolution_of_the_solid_state_drive.html|website=PCWorld.com|access-date=1 October 2014|date=17 January 2012|archive-date=1 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001152519/http://www.pcworld.com/article/246617/evolution_of_the_solid_state_drive.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In many cases, they are more compact as well. Initially, in the late 2000s, SSDs were substantially more expensive than HDDs, but {{as of|2021|lc=y}} prices on smaller capacity (under 1 [[terabyte]]) drives have converged; larger capacity drives remain more expensive than comparable-sized HDDs.
Since around 1990, where a hard drive is present it will typically be a 2.5-inch drive; some very compact laptops support even smaller 1.8-inch HDDs, and a very small number used 1" [[Microdrive]]s. Some SSDs are built to match the size/shape of a laptop hard drive, but increasingly they have been replaced with smaller [[mSATA]] or [[M.2]] cards. SSDs using the newer and much faster [[NVM Express]] standard for connecting are only available as cards.
{{As of|2022|post=,}} many laptops no longer contain space for a 2.5" drive, accepting only M.2 cards; a few of the smallest have storage soldered to the motherboard. For those that can, they can typically contain a single 2.5-inch drive, but a small number of laptops with a screen wider than 15 inches can house two drives.
A variety of [[Hard disk drive#External hard disk drives|external HDDs]] or [[Network-attached storage|NAS]] data storage servers with support of [[RAID]] technology can be attached to virtually any laptop over such interfaces as [[USB]], [[FireWire]], [[eSATA]], or [[Thunderbolt (interface)|Thunderbolt]], or over a wired or wireless network to further increase space for the storage of data. Many laptops also incorporate a [[Secure Digital|SD]] or [[microSD]] card slot. This enables users to download digital pictures from an SD card onto a laptop, thus enabling them to delete the SD card's contents to free up space for taking new pictures.
===Removable media drive===
[[Optical disc drive]]s capable of playing [[CD-ROM]]s, compact discs (CD), [[DVD#DVD drives and players|DVDs]], and in some cases, [[Blu-ray|Blu-ray discs]] (BD), were nearly universal on full-sized models between the mid-1990s and the early 2010s. {{As of|2021|post=,}} drives are uncommon in compact or premium laptops; they remain available in some bulkier models, but the trend towards thinner and lighter machines is gradually eliminating these drives and players – when needed they can be connected via USB instead.
===Speaker===
Laptops usually have built-in speakers and built-in microphones. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space.
===Inputs===
[[File:Acer CB5-311 series touchpad.jpg|thumb|Closeup of a [[touchpad]] on an [[Acer Inc.|Acer]] laptop, where buttons and the touch-sensitive surface are shared]]
[[File:Trackpoint Assembly.JPG|thumb|Closeup of a [[TrackPoint]] cursor and UltraNav buttons on a [[ThinkPad]] laptop]]
[[File:RJ-45 Ethernet socket on Lenovo T410 Laptop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Interfaces on a ThinkPad laptop (2011): [[Ethernet]] network port (center), [[VGA]] (left), [[DisplayPort]] (top right) and [[USB]] 2.0 (bottom right). Due to the trend towards very flat laptops and the widespread use of [[WLAN]], the relatively high Ethernet socket is no longer mandatory in today's devices, as is the technically outdated VGA.]]
An alphanumeric keyboard is used to enter text, data, and other commands (e.g., [[function key]]s). A [[touchpad]] (also called a trackpad), a [[pointing stick]], or both, are used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, and an integrated keyboard<ref>Most keyboards are not illuminated. Some models of laptops feature an illuminated keyboard.</ref> is used for typing. Some touchpads have buttons separate from the touch surface, while others share the surface. A quick double-tap is typically registered as a click, and operating systems may recognize multi-finger touch gestures.
An external keyboard and mouse may be connected using a [[USB]] port or wirelessly, via [[Bluetooth]] or similar technology. Some laptops have [[multitouch]] [[touchscreen]] displays, either available as an option or standard. Most laptops have [[webcam]]s and [[microphone]]s, which can be used to communicate with other people with both moving images and sound, via [[web conferencing]] or [[Videotelephony|video-calling]] software.
Laptops typically have USB ports and a combined headphone/microphone jack, for use with headphones, a combined headset, or an external mic. Many laptops have a [[card reader]] for reading digital camera SD cards.
===Input/output (I/O) ports===
On a typical laptop, there are several [[USB]] [[Computer port (hardware)|ports]]; if they use only the older USB connectors instead of [[USB-C]], they will typically have an external monitor port ([[VGA]], [[DVI]], [[HDMI]] or [[Mini DisplayPort]] or occasionally more than one), an audio in/out port (often in form of a single socket) is common. It is possible to connect up to three external displays to a 2014-era laptop via a single Mini DisplayPort, using [[DisplayPort#Multi-Stream Transport|multi-stream transport]] technology.<ref name="3-Displays FAQ">{{cite web|title=Configuration 3-Displays FAQ|url=http://www.intel.com/support/graphics/sb/CS-033714.htm|website=Intel.com|access-date=16 September 2014}}</ref>
[[Apple Inc.|Apple]], in a 2015 version of its [[MacBook]], transitioned from a number of different [[I/O]] ports to a single USB-C port.<ref name="MacBook_2015">{{cite web|title=Apple — MacBook — Tech Specs|url=https://www.apple.com/macbook/specs/|website=apple.com|access-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> This port can be used both for charging and connecting a variety of devices through the use of [[aftermarket (merchandise)|aftermarket]] adapters. Apple has since transitioned back to using a number of different ports. Google, with its updated version of [[Chromebook Pixel]], shows a similar transition trend towards USB-C, although keeping older USB Type-A ports for a better compatibility with older devices.<ref name="ChromebookPixel_2015">{{cite web|title=Chromebook Pixel|url=https://www.google.com/chromebook/pixel/|website=google.com|access-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> Although being common until the end of the 2000s decade, [[Ethernet]] network port are rarely found on modern laptops, due to widespread use of [[wireless network]]ing, such as [[Wi-Fi]]. [[Legacy port]]s such as a [[PS/2 connector|PS/2]] keyboard/mouse port, [[serial port]], [[parallel port]], or [[FireWire]] are provided on some models, but they are increasingly rare. On [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s systems, and on a handful of other laptops, there are also [[Thunderbolt (interface)|Thunderbolt]] ports, but [[Thunderbolt 3]] uses USB-C. Laptops typically have a headphone jack, so that the user can connect headphones or amplified speaker systems for listening to music or other audio.
===Expansion cards===
In the past, a [[PC Card]] (formerly [[PCMCIA]]) or [[ExpressCard]] slot for expansion was often present on laptops to allow adding and removing functionality, even when the laptop is powered on; these are becoming increasingly rare since the introduction of [[USB 3.0]]. Some internal subsystems such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or a wireless cellular modem can be implemented as replaceable internal expansion cards, usually accessible under an access cover on the bottom of the laptop. The standard for such cards is [[PCI Express]], which comes in both [[PCI Express Mini Card|mini]] and even smaller [[M.2]] sizes. In newer laptops, it is not uncommon to also see [[Micro SATA#mSATA|Micro SATA]] (mSATA) functionality on PCI Express Mini or M.2 card slots allowing the use of those slots for SATA-based solid-state drives.<ref name="parts-cards">{{cite web|title=Innovations in Notebook Expansion |url=http://www.hardwaresecrets.com/article/89 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050428031253/http://www.hardwaresecrets.com/article/89 |archive-date=28 April 2005 |author=Gabriel Torres |date=25 November 2004 |publisher=Hardware Secrets, LLC |access-date=15 November 2008 }}</ref>
[[Mobile PCI Express Module]] (MXM) is a type of expansion card that is used for graphics cards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Notebook Video Card Upgrade / Replacement |url=https://www.notebookcheck.net/Upgrade-Replace-a-Notebook-Video-Card.3236.0.html |website=NotebookCheck}}</ref>
===Battery and power supply===
{{Main|Smart battery}}
[[File:HP Laptop Battery.jpg|thumb|Almost all laptops use smart batteries.]]
Since the late 1990s, laptops have typically used [[lithium ion]] or [[lithium polymer]] [[battery (electricity)|batteries]], These replaced the older [[nickel metal-hydride]] typically used in the 1990s, and [[nickel–cadmium batteries]] used in most of the earliest laptops. A few of the oldest laptops used [[non-rechargeable batteries]], or [[Lead–acid battery|lead–acid batteries.]]
Battery life is highly variable by model and workload and can range from one hour to nearly a day. A battery's performance [[Capacity loss|gradually decreases over time]]; a noticeable reduction in capacity is typically evident after two to three years of regular use, depending on the charging and discharging pattern and the design of the battery. Innovations in laptops and batteries have seen situations in which the battery can provide up to 24 hours of continued operation, assuming average power consumption levels. An example is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://h10010.www1.hp.com/wwpc/ca/en/sm/WF06a/321957-321957-64295-89315-89315-3688868.html?dnr=1 |title=HP EliteBook 6930p Notebook PC specifications – HP Products and Services Products |publisher=HP |date=25 May 2009 |access-date=17 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601103622/http://h10010.www1.hp.com/wwpc/ca/en/sm/WF06a/321957-321957-64295-89315-89315-3688868.html?dnr=1 |archive-date=1 June 2012}}</ref>
Laptops with removable batteries may support larger replacement batteries with extended capacity.
A laptop's battery is charged using an external [[power supply]], which is plugged into a wall outlet. The power supply outputs a DC voltage typically in the range of 7.2—24 volts. The power supply is usually external and connected to the laptop through a DC connector cable. In most cases, it can charge the battery and power the laptop simultaneously. When the battery is fully charged, the laptop continues to run on power supplied by the external power supply, avoiding battery use. If the used power supply is not strong enough to power computing components and charge the battery simultaneously, the battery may charge in a shorter period of time if the laptop is turned off or sleeping. The charger typically adds about {{convert|400|g|lb}} to the overall transporting weight of a laptop, although some models are substantially heavier or lighter. Most 2016-era laptops use a [[smart battery]], a rechargeable [[battery pack]] with a built-in [[battery management system]] (BMS). The smart battery can internally measure voltage and current, and deduce charge level and State of Health (SoH) parameters, indicating the state of the cells.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}
=== Power connectors ===
[[File:Notebook-Computer-AC-Adapter.jpg|thumb|Laptop power supply with cylindrical coaxial DC power connector]]<!--Replace with a more close-up photo if found-->
Historically, [[DC connectors]], typically cylindrical/barrel-shaped [[coaxial power connector]]s have been used in laptops. Some vendors such as [[Lenovo]] made intermittent use of a rectangular connector.
Some connector heads feature a center pin to allow the end device to determine the power supply type by measuring the resistance between it and the connector's negative pole (outer surface). Vendors may block charging if a power supply is not recognized as the original part, which could deny the legitimate use of universal third-party chargers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hackaday.com/2020/05/27/hacking-dell-laptops-to-use-off-brand-chargers/|title=Hacking Dell Laptops To Use Off-Brand Chargers|date=27 May 2020}}</ref>
With the advent of [[USB-C]], [[portable electronics]] made increasing use of it for both [[USB Power Delivery|power delivery]] and data transfer. Its support for 20 V (common laptop power supply voltage) and 5 A typically suffices for low to mid-end laptops, but some with higher power demands such as [[gaming laptop]]s depend on dedicated DC connectors to handle currents beyond 5 A without risking overheating, some even above 10 A. Additionally, dedicated DC connectors are more durable and less prone to wear and tear from frequent reconnection, as their design is less delicate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pcmag.com/how-to/what-is-usb-c-an-explainer|title=What Is USB-C? An Explainer|website=PCMAG}}</ref>
===Cooling===
[[Waste heat]] from the operation is difficult to remove in the compact internal space of a laptop. The earliest laptops used passive cooling; this gave way to [[heat sink]]s placed directly on the components to be cooled, but when these hot components are deep inside the device, a large space-wasting air duct is needed to exhaust the heat. Modern laptops instead rely on [[heat pipe]]s to rapidly move waste heat towards the edges of the device, to allow for a much smaller and compact fan and heat sink cooling system. Waste heat is usually exhausted away from the device operator towards the rear or sides of the device. Multiple air intake paths are used since some intakes can be blocked, such as when the device is placed on a soft conforming surface like a chair cushion. Secondary device temperature monitoring may reduce performance or trigger an emergency shutdown if it is unable to dissipate heat, such as if the laptop were to be left running and placed inside a carrying case. Aftermarket cooling pads with external fans can be used with laptops to reduce operating temperatures.
===Docking station===
[[File:Docking station 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Docking station and laptop]]
A [[docking station]] (sometimes referred to simply as a ''dock'') is a laptop accessory that contains multiple ports and in some cases expansion slots or bays for fixed or removable drives. A laptop connects and disconnects to a docking station, typically through a single large proprietary connector. A docking station is an especially popular laptop accessory in a corporate computing environment, due to the possibility of a docking station transforming a laptop into a full-featured desktop replacement, yet allowing for its easy release. This ability can be advantageous to "[[Road warrior (computing)|road warrior]]" employees who have to travel frequently for work, and yet who also come into the office. If more ports are needed, or their position on a laptop is inconvenient, one can use a cheaper passive device known as a [[Docking station#Port replicator|port replicator]]. These devices mate to the connectors on the laptop, such as through [[USB]] or [[FireWire]].
===Charging trolleys===
[[Laptop charging trolley]]s, also known as laptop trolleys or laptop carts, are mobile storage containers to charge multiple [[laptops]], [[netbooks]], and [[tablet computer]]s at the same time. The trolleys are used in schools that have replaced their traditional static computer labs<ref name="doug">{{cite web|last=Woods|first=Dough|title=Getting rid of the ICT suite|url=http://dougwoods.co.uk/blog/getting-rid-of-the-ict-suite/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006051528/http://dougwoods.co.uk/blog/getting-rid-of-the-ict-suite/|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 October 2010|work=Blog}}</ref> suites of desktop equipped with "tower" computers, but do not have enough plug sockets in an individual classroom to charge all of the devices. The trolleys can be wheeled between rooms and [[classrooms]] so that all students and teachers in a particular building can access fully [[electric charge|charged]] [[IT]] equipment.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wilce|first=Hilary|title=Welcome to Lapland|url=http://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=341261|newspaper=TES Magazine|date=1 December 2000|access-date=5 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526050514/https://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=341261|archive-date=26 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Laptop charging trolleys are also used to deter and protect against opportunistic and organized theft. Schools, especially those with [[open plan]] designs, are often prime targets for [[thieves]] who steal high-value items. Laptops, netbooks, and tablets are among the highest–value portable items in a school. Moreover, laptops can easily be concealed under clothing and stolen from buildings. Many types of laptop–charging trolleys are designed and constructed to protect against theft. They are generally made out of steel, and the laptops remain locked up while not in use. Although the trolleys can be moved between areas from one classroom to another, they can often be mounted or locked to the floor, support pillars, or walls to prevent thieves from stealing the laptops, especially overnight.<ref name="doug" />
===Solar panels===
{{main|Solar notebook}}
In some laptops, solar panels are able to generate enough solar power for the laptop to operate.<ref>{{cite web|last=Clarke|first=Gavin|title=The SOLAR-POWERED Ubuntu laptop|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/08/07/ubuntu_solar_powered_laptop/|publisher=The Register |access-date=7 August 2013}}</ref> The [[One Laptop Per Child]] Initiative released the [[OLPC XO-1]] laptop which was tested and successfully operated by use of solar panels.<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/ITHNbOrPQyM Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20130226120605/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITHNbOrPQyM Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITHNbOrPQyM |title=OLPC XO laptop powered by a solar panel |via=YouTube |date=9 January 2012 |access-date=23 October 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Presently, they are designing an [[OLPC XO-3]] laptop with these features. The OLPC XO-3 can operate with 2 watts of electricity because its renewable energy resources generate a total of 4 watts.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=Elizabeth Woyke |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/elizabethwoyke/2012/01/08/a-look-at-olpcs-xo-3-0-tablets-solar-and-kinetic-chargers/ |title=A Look at OLPC's XO 3.0 Tablet's Solar And Kinetic Chargers |magazine=Forbes |date=18 April 2012 |access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://laptop.org/en/vision/mission/faq.shtml |title=One Laptop per Child (OLPC): Frequently Asked Questions |website=Laptop.org |access-date=23 October 2012 |archive-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318192106/http://www.laptop.org/en/vision/mission/faq.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Samsung]] has also designed the NC215S solar–powered notebook that will be sold commercially in the U.S. market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inhabitat.com/samsungs-solar-powered-laptop-to-go-on-sale-in-us-in-july/ |title=Samsung's Solar Powered Laptop Will Be First Sun Powered Laptop Sold in US &#124; Inhabitat&nbsp;– Sustainable Design Innovation, Eco Architecture, Green Building |date=21 June 2011 |publisher=Inhabitat |access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>
===Accessories===
A common accessory for laptops is a laptop sleeve, laptop skin, or laptop case, which provides a degree of protection from scratches. Sleeves, which are distinguished by being relatively thin and flexible, are most commonly made of [[neoprene]], with sturdier ones made of [[LRPu|low-resilience polyurethane]]. Some laptop sleeves are wrapped in [[ballistic nylon]] to provide some measure of [[waterproofing]]. Bulkier and sturdier cases can be made of metal with polyurethane padding inside and may have locks for added security. Metal, padded cases also offer protection against impacts and drops. Another common accessory is a [[laptop cooler]], a device that helps lower the internal temperature of the laptop either actively or passively. A common active method involves using electric fans to draw heat away from the laptop, while a passive method might involve propping the laptop up on some type of pad so it can receive more airflow. Some stores sell laptop pads that enable a reclining person on a bed to use a laptop.
===Modularity===
[[File:Lenovo G555 состав - Донор.JPG|thumb|Opened bottom covers allow replacement of RAM and storage modules (Lenovo G555)]]
Some of the components of earlier models of laptops can easily be replaced without opening completely its bottom part, such as the keyboard, battery, hard disk, memory modules, CPU cooling fan, etc.
Some of the components of recent models of laptops reside inside. Replacing most of its components, such as the keyboard, battery, hard disk, memory modules, CPU cooling fan, etc., requires the removal of either the top or bottom part, the removal of the motherboard, and returning them.
In some types, solder and glue are used to mount components such as RAM, storage, and batteries, making repairs additionally difficult.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.laptopmag.com/au/articles/ram-upgrade-tutorial|title=How to upgrade the RAM (memory) on a laptop|author1=Melanie Pinola Contributions from Sean Riley|date=8 June 2022|website=LaptopMag}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/apple-macbook-pro-battery-replacement/|title=Need a New MacBook Pro Battery? Here's Your Guide!|date=15 March 2021|website=Digital Trends}}</ref>
===Obsolete features===
[[File:3Com modem - Ethernet PCMCIA in IBM 9547.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[modem]] [[PCMCIA]] card on a 1990s ThinkPad. The card would normally fully insert into the socket.]]
Features that certain early models of laptops used to have that are not available in most current laptops include:
* Reset ("cold restart") button in a hole (needed a thin metal tool to press)
* Instant power off button in a hole (needed a thin metal tool to press)
* Integrated charger or power adapter inside the laptop
* Dedicated Media buttons (Internet, Volume, Play, Pause, Next, Previous)
* [[Floppy disk drive]]
* [[Serial port]]
* [[Parallel port]]
* [[Modem]]
* [[IEEE 1394]] port
* [[Docking port]]
* Shared [[PS/2 port|PS/2]] input device port
* [[IrDA]]
* [[S-video]] port
* [[S/PDIF]] audio port
* [[PC Card]] / [[PCMCIA]] slot
* [[ExpressCard]] slot
* [[CD Drive|CD/DVD Drives]] (starting with 2013 models)
* [[VGA port]] (starting with 2013 models)
==Characteristics==
===Advantages===
[[File:Astrid Gruppefremvisning.jpg|thumb|A teacher using the laptop as part of a workshop for school children]]
[[File:Homework (8120708019).jpg|thumb|A man using a laptop on a park bench]]
*'''Portability''' is usually the first feature mentioned in any comparison of laptops versus desktop PCs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Should I buy a laptop or desktop? |publisher=IT Division&nbsp;– the University of Wisconsin |date=19 March 2008 |url=http://kb.wisc.edu/showroom/page.php?id=3044 |access-date=27 November 2008 }}</ref> Physical portability allows a laptop to be used in many places—not only at home and the office but also during commuting and flights, in coffee shops, in lecture halls and libraries, at clients' locations or a meeting room, etc. Within a home, portability enables laptop users to move their devices from room to room. Portability offers several distinct advantages:
* '''Productivity''': Using a laptop in places where a desktop PC cannot be used can help employees and students to increase their productivity on work or school tasks, such as an office worker reading their work e-mails during an hour-long commute by train, or a student doing their homework at the university coffee shop during a break between lectures, for example.
* '''Up-to-date information''': Using a single laptop prevents fragmentation of files across multiple PC's as the files exist in a single location and are always up-to-date.
* '''Connectivity''': A key advantage of laptops is that they almost always have integrated connectivity features such as [[Wi-Fi]] and [[Bluetooth]], and sometimes connection to [[cellular networks]] either through native integration or use of a [[Hotspot (Wi-Fi)|hotspot]].  Wi-Fi networks and laptop programs are especially widespread at university campuses.<ref>{{cite news |title=Faster Wi-Fi Predicted for Colleges |newspaper=The Chronicle of Higher Education |author=Josh Fischman |date=7 August 2008 |url=http://chronicle.com/wiredcampus/article/3226/faster-wifi-predicted-for-colleges |access-date=27 November 2008 }}</ref>
Other advantages of laptops:
* '''Size''': Laptops are smaller than desktop PCs. This is beneficial when space is at a premium, for example in small apartments and student dorms. When not in use, a laptop can be closed and put away in a desk drawer.
* '''Low power consumption''': Laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 10–100 W, compared to 200–800W for desktops. This could be particularly beneficial for large businesses, which run hundreds of personal computers thus economies of scale, and homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.).
* '''Quiet''': Laptops are typically much quieter than desktops, due both to the components (often silent [[solid-state drives]] replacing hard drives) and to less heat production leading to the use of fewer, sometimes no cooling fans. The latter has given rise to laptops that have no moving parts, resulting in complete silence during use.
* '''Battery''': a charged laptop can continue to be used in case of a power outage and is not affected by short power interruptions and blackouts, an issue that is present with desktop PC's.
* '''All-in-One''': designed to be portable, most modern laptops have all components integrated into the chassis. For desktops (excluding all-in-ones) this is usually divided into the desktop "tower" (the unit with the CPU, hard drive, power supply, etc.), keyboard, mouse, display screen, and optional peripherals such as speakers.
===Disadvantages===
Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages in the following areas:
;Performance: The majority of laptops released in 2022 are capable of common tasks such as web browsing, video playback, and office applications, even at the low end. That said, the performance of desktops often surpasses comparably priced laptops. The upper limits of performance of laptops remain lower than desktops, due to mostly practical reasons, such as decreased battery life, increased size and heat, etc.
;Upgradeability: The upgradeability of laptops is very limited compared to thoroughly standardized desktops, due to technical and economic reasons. In general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily. Due to the integrated nature of laptops, however, the motherboard, CPU, and graphics, are seldom officially upgradeable. Some efforts towards industry standard parts and layouts have been attempted, such as [[Common Building Block]], but the industry remains largely [[Proprietary hardware|proprietary]] and fragmented. There is no industry-wide standard [[Computer form factor|form factor]] for laptops; Moreover, starting with 2013 models, laptops have become increasingly integrated (soldered) with the motherboard for most of its components (CPU, SSD, RAM, etc.) to reduce size and upgradeability prospects.<ref name=btarunr />
;Durability: [[File:Laptop overheating due to dust-clogged internal heatsinks in 2.5 year old laptop.jpg|thumb|A clogged [[heat sink]] on a laptop after 2.5 years of use]] Laptops are less durable than desktops/PCs. However, the durability of the laptop depends on the user if proper maintenance is done then the laptop can work longer.[[File:Laptop keyboard with its keys removed for cleaning.jpg|thumb|Laptop keyboard with its keys (except the space bar) removed, revealing crumbs, pet hair, and other detritus to be cleaned away]]<br>Because of their portability, laptops are subject to more wear and physical damage than desktops, additionally hindered by their integrated nature. A liquid spill onto the keyboard, while a minor issue with a desktop system, can damage the internals of a laptop and destroy the computer, resulting in a costly repair or entire replacement of laptops. One study found that a laptop is three times more likely to break during the first year of use than a desktop.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gartner: Notebook PCs still prone to hardware failure |date=27 June 2006 |publisher=IDG News Service / ITWorld |url=http://www.itworld.com/060627notebookpc |access-date=27 November 2008}}</ref> To maintain a laptop, it is recommended to clean it every three months for dirt, debris, dust, and food particles. Most cleaning kits consist of a lint-free or [[microfiber]] cloth for the screen and keyboard, compressed air for getting dust out of the cooling fan, and a cleaning solution. Harsh chemicals such as bleach should not be used to clean a laptop, as they can damage it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Geier|first=Eric|title=Zen and the Art of Laptop Maintenance|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/260438/zen_and_the_art_of_laptop_maintenance.html|work=PC World|date=6 August 2012|access-date=25 January 2014}}</ref>
;Heating and cooling: Laptops rely on extremely compact cooling systems involving a [[computer fan|fan]] and [[heat sink]] that can fail from blockage caused by accumulated airborne dust and debris. Most laptops do not have any type of removable dust collection filter over the air intake for these cooling systems, resulting in a system that gradually conducts more heat and noise as the years pass. In some cases, the laptop starts to overheat even at idle load levels. This dust is usually stuck inside where the fan and heat sink meet, where it can not be removed by a casual cleaning and vacuuming. Most of the time, compressed air can dislodge the dust and debris but may not entirely remove it. After the device is turned on, the loose debris is reaccumulated into the cooling system by the fans. Complete disassembly is usually required to clean the laptop entirely. However, preventative maintenance such as regular cleaning of the heat sink via compressed air can prevent dust build-up on the heat sink. Many laptops are difficult to disassemble by the average user and contain components that are sensitive to [[electrostatic discharge]] (ESD).
;Battery life: Battery life is limited because the [[Capacity Loss|capacity drops with time]], eventually warranting replacement after as little as 2–3 years. A new battery typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for five to six hours or more, depending on usage and the battery size. The battery is often easily replaceable and a higher capacity model may be obtained for longer charging and discharging time. Some laptops do not have the usual removable battery and have to be brought to the service center of their manufacturer or a third-party laptop service center to have their battery replaced. Replacement batteries can also be expensive, depending on the availability of the parts. Desktop PC's do not face similar problems since they are reliant on long lasting [[Power supply unit (computer)|power supplies]].
;Security and privacy:{{Main|Laptop theft}}Because they are valuable, commonly used, portable, and easy to hide in a backpack or other type of bag, laptops are often [[laptop theft|stolen]]. Every day, over 1,600 laptops go missing from U.S. airports.<ref>[http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/services/dell_lost_laptop_study.pdf PDF], Ponemon Institute, Airport Insecurity: The Case of Lost Laptops, June 2008</ref> The cost of stolen business or personal data, and of the resulting problems ([[identity theft]], [[credit card fraud]], breach of privacy), can be many times the value of the stolen laptop itself. Consequently, the physical protection of laptops and the safeguarding of data contained in them are both of great importance. Some laptops, primarily professional and educational devices, have a [[Kensington security slot]], which can be used to tether them with a security cable and lock. In addition, modern operating systems have features such as [[Activation Lock]] or similar that prevents the use of the device without credentials. {{As of|2015|post=,}} some laptops also have additional security elements added, including [[biometric]] security components such as [[Windows Hello]] or [[Touch ID]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.laptop-security-pro.com/biometric-devices.html|title=Secure File Sharing |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Biometric Devices and Laptop Security |publisher=Laptop Security Pro |access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref><br>Software such as [[GadgetTrak]] and [[Find My| Find My Mac]] have been engineered to help people locate and recover their stolen laptops in the event of theft. Setting one's laptop with a password on its firmware (protection against going to firmware setup or booting), internal HDD/SSD (protection against accessing it and loading an operating system on it afterward), and every user account of the operating system are additional security measures that a user should do.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.howtogeek.com/186235/how-to-secure-your-computer-with-a-bios-or-uefi-password/|title=How to Secure Your Computer With a BIOS or UEFI Password|first=Chris|last=Hoffman|website=How-To Geek|date=3 April 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.howtogeek.com/186881/hard-disk-passwords-explained-should-you-set-one-to-secure-your-files/|title=Hard Disk Passwords Explained: Should You Set One to Secure Your Files?|first=Chris|last=Hoffman|website=How-To Geek|date=14 April 2014 }}</ref> Fewer than 5% of lost or stolen laptops are recovered by the companies that own them,<ref>[http://www.intelligenceinsoftware.com/feature/it_software_strategy/lost_laptop/index.html#.UP2bUFSzBJN#ixzz2Ucm2oKSg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606040557/http://intelligenceinsoftware.com/feature/it_software_strategy/lost_laptop/index.html|date=6 June 2013}}, Ponemon Institute, The Billion Dollar Lost Laptop Problem, September 2010</ref> however, that number may decrease due to a variety of companies and software solutions specializing in laptop recovery. In the 2010s, the common availability of [[webcam]]s on laptops raised privacy concerns. In ''[[Robbins v. Lower Merion School District]]'' (Eastern District of Pennsylvania 2010), school-issued laptops loaded with special software enabled staff from two high schools to take secret webcam shots of students at home, via their students' laptops.<ref>{{cite web|last=Holmes |first=Kristin E. |url=http://www.philly.com/inquirer/local/pa/20100831_Lower_Merion_School_District_ordered_to_pay_plaintiff_s_lawyer__260_000.html |title=Lower Merion School District ordered to pay plaintiff's lawyer $260,000 |website=The Philadelphia Inquirer |date=31 August 2010 |access-date=20 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mainlinemedianews.com/articles/2010/08/31/main_line_times/news/doc4c7cfdad3e059461146296.txt |title=Judge: Lower Merion must pay attorney in laptop case |publisher=Main Line Media News |date=18 September 2010 |access-date=20 September 2010 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305121116/http://mainlinemedianews.com/articles/2010/08/31/main_line_times/news/doc4c7cfdad3e059461146296.txt |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.philly.com/philly/education/20100727_A_lawyer_in_the_Lower_Merion_webcam_case_wants_to_be_paid_now.html "A lawyer in the Lower Merion webcam case wants to be paid now"], Philly.com {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901011357/http://www.philly.com/philly/education/20100727_A_lawyer_in_the_Lower_Merion_webcam_case_wants_to_be_paid_now.html |date=1 September 2010 }}</ref>
====Ergonomics and health effects====
;Wrists: Prolonged use of laptops can cause [[repetitive strain injury]] because of their small, flat keyboard and trackpad pointing devices.<ref>{{cite web |last=Toub |first=Allegra |title=Take It Easy on Those Keyboards |publisher=Backlight Resumes |date=23 May 2017 |url=http://blog.backlightresumes.com/take-it-easy-on-those-keyboards |access-date=23 May 2017}}</ref> Usage of separate, external [[ergonomic keyboard]]s and pointing devices is recommended to prevent injury when working for long periods of time; they can be connected to a laptop easily by USB, [[Bluetooth]] or via a docking station. Some health standards require ergonomic keyboards at workplaces.
;Neck and spine: A laptop's integrated screen often requires users to lean over for a better view, which can cause neck or spinal injuries. A larger and higher-quality external screen can be connected to almost any laptop to alleviate this and to provide additional screen space for more productive work. Another solution is to use a [[Docking station#Computer stands|computer stand]].
;Possible effect on fertility: A study by [[State University of New York]] researchers found that heat generated from laptops can increase the temperature of the lap of male users when balancing the computer on their lap, potentially putting [[sperm count]] at risk. The study, which included roughly two dozen men between the ages of 21 and 35, found that the sitting position required to balance a laptop can increase scrotum temperature by as much as {{convert|2.1|C-change|0}}. However, further research is needed to determine whether this directly affects male [[infertility|sterility]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|title=You Asked: Can Using a Laptop Make You Infertile?|url=https://time.com/4938530/can-laptops-cause-infertility/|access-date=9 November 2021|magazine=Time|language=en}}</ref> A later 2010 study of 29 males published in ''Fertility and Sterility'' found that men who kept their laptops on their laps experienced scrotal hyperthermia (overheating) in which their scrotal temperatures increased by up to {{convert|2.0|C-change|0}}. The resulting heat increase, which could not be offset by a laptop cushion, may increase male infertility.<ref name="study1">{{cite journal |author1=Yefim Sheynkin |author2=Robert Welliver |author3=Andrew Winer |author4=Farshid Hajimirzaee |author5=Hongshik Ahn |author6=Kyewon Lee |journal=Fertility and Sterility |date=8 November 2010 |title=Protection from scrotal hyperthermia in laptop computer users |doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.10.013 |url=http://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282(10)02689-0/abstract |volume=95 |issue=2 |pages=647–651 |pmid=21055743|doi-access=free |issn=0015-0282 }}</ref><ref name="Yin">{{cite web|url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2372317,00.asp|title=Study: Laptop Pads Don't Prevent Male Infertility|last=Yin|first=Sara|date=8 November 2010|work=[[PC Magazine]]|access-date=8 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-laptop-testicles-idUSTRE6A457320101108|title=Is your laptop cooking your testicles?|date=8 November 2010|work=Reuters|access-date=8 November 2010}}</ref><ref name="Caulfield">{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/lifestyle/health/2010/11/07/2010-11-07_study_finds_men_who_place_laptop_computer_on_lap_put_testicles_at_risk_of_overhe.html|title=Study finds men who place laptop computer on lap put testicles at risk of overheating, infertility|last=Caulfield|first=Philip|date=7 November 2010|work=[[Daily News (New York)|Daily News]]|access-date=8 November 2010|archive-date=10 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101110061017/http://www.nydailynews.com/lifestyle/health/2010/11/07/2010-11-07_study_finds_men_who_place_laptop_computer_on_lap_put_testicles_at_risk_of_overhe.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Joelving">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6A457320101108|title=Is your laptop cooking your testicles?|last=Joelving|first=Frederik|date=8 November 2010|access-date=8 November 2010|work=Reuters}}</ref> [[File:laptop-coaster.jpg|thumb|[[Laptop cooler]] (silver) under laptop (white), preventing heating of lap and improving laptop airflow]]<br>A common practical solution to this problem is to place the laptop on a table or desk or to use a book or pillow between the body and the laptop.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}} Another solution is to obtain a cooling unit for the laptop. These are usually USB powered and consist of a hard thin plastic case housing one, two, or three cooling fans&nbsp;– with the entire assembly designed to sit under the laptop in question&nbsp;– which results in the laptop remaining cool to the touch, and greatly reduces laptop heat buildup.
;Thighs:Heat generated from using a laptop on the lap can also cause skin discoloration on the thighs known as "[[toasted skin syndrome]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Levinbook |first=WS. |author2=Mallet J |author3=Grant-Kels JM |title=Laptop computer—associated erythema ab igne |journal=Cutis |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=319–20|date=October 2007 |publisher=Quadrant HealthCom |pmid=18038695}}</ref><ref name="Diaz">{{cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/5657721/what-is-toasted-skin-syndrome|title=What Is Toasted Skin Syndrome?|last=Diaz|first=Jesus|date=7 October 2010 |website=Gizmodo|access-date=8 November 2010}}</ref><ref name="Hendrick">{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/news/20101004/laptop-risk-toasted-skin-syndrome|title=Laptop Risk: 'Toasted Skin Syndrome'|last=Hendrick|first=Bill|date=4 October 2010|website=WebMD|access-date=8 November 2010}}</ref><ref name="TANNER">{{cite news|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/39490660|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301044434/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/39490660|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 March 2013|title=Laptops lead to 'toasted skin syndrome'|last=Tanner|first=Lindsey|date=10 April 2010 |agency=Associated Press|access-date=8 November 2010}}</ref>
==Sales==
===Manufacturers===
{{major laptop brands}}
{{Main|List of laptop brands and manufacturers}}There are many laptop brands and manufacturers. Several major brands that offer notebooks in various classes are listed in the adjacent box. The major brands usually offer good service and support, including well-executed documentation and driver downloads that remain available for many years after a particular laptop model is no longer produced. Capitalizing on service, support, and brand image, laptops from major brands are more expensive than laptops from smaller brands and [[Original design manufacturer|ODMs]]. Some brands specialize in a particular class of laptops, such as gaming laptops ([[Alienware]]), high-performance laptops ([[HP Envy]]), netbooks ([[EeePC]]) and laptops for children ([[OLPC]]).
Many brands, including the major ones, do not design and do not manufacture their laptops. Instead, a small number of Original Design Manufacturers (ODMs) design new models of laptops, and the brands choose the models to be included in their lineup. In 2006, 7 major ODMs manufactured 7 of every 10 laptops in the world, with the largest one ([[Quanta Computer]]) having 30% of the world market share.<ref>{{cite web |title=Identical Laptops, Different Prices: Don't Be Fooled by Branding |url-access=registration |publisher=Info-Tech Research Group |date=10 October 2006 |url=http://www.infotech.com/research/identical-laptops-different-prices-dont-be-fooled-by-branding |access-date=11 November 2011}}</ref> Therefore, identical models are available both from a major label and from a low-profile ODM in-house brand.
==== Historic market share ====
{{Further|Market share of personal computer vendors}}
As of 1992–1993, [[Toshiba]] ranked as the global leading vendor in the notebook computer market. In the United States meanwhile, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] led the market followed by [[Compaq]].<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/1993/06/23/business/notebooks-may-hold-key-to-ibm-s-revival.html</ref> In the year 1993, global revenue for the laptop market was led by Compaq, followed by Toshiba, Apple, [[NEC]] and [[IBM]], altogether accounting for over 53% of global revenue.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/12/business/compaq-tops-in-laptops.html</ref>
In the United States, the top three vendors for notebooks in market share as of 1996 were: Toshiba, followed by Compaq, and followed by IBM.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/17/business/at-96-pc-expo-laptops-reserve-center-stage.html</ref>
As of 1999, Toshiba ranked first in worldwide laptop sales followed by IBM, Compaq, and [[Dell]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/austin/stories/1999/08/16/story5.html |access-date=2024-11-19 |website=www.bizjournals.com}}</ref> Toshiba led the market with a share of 18.6%.<ref>https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB929572639137623392</ref>
In the first quarter of 2002 in the United States market, Dell controlled 25.2% in the notebook space, well ahead of Toshiba (13.6%) and Compaq (11.7%), the latter of which had been acquired by [[Hewlett-Packard]] (HP). At fourth and fifth place were [[Vaio|Sony]] and IBM.<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin-ectnews |date=2002-06-03 |title=Toshiba Topples Dell in Global Notebook Battle |url=https://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/toshiba-topples-dell-in-global-notebook-battle-18046.html |access-date=2024-11-19 |website=E-Commerce Times |language=en-US}}</ref>
In [[Europe, the Middle East and Africa]] (EMEA) territories, [[Acer Inc.|Acer]] was the largest vendor of laptops, in 2004–2005, having overtaken HP and IBM there.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/23/business/worldbusiness/new-laptops-made-to-be-manhandled.html</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Acer reshuffles execs amid growth |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/computing/acer-reshuffles-execs-amid-growth/ |access-date=2024-11-19 |website=CNET |language=en}}</ref>
In the year 2005 according to [[IDC (consulting group)|IDC]], Dell was the top global vendor of notebooks with a market share of 17.29%, followed by: HP (15.7%), Toshiba (10.96%), Acer (10.15%) and [[Lenovo]] (8.23%); Lenovo had acquired IBM that same year. The remaining of the top ten was made up of [[Fujitsu Siemens Computers|Fujitsu Siemens]], Sony, [[NEC]], Apple and [[Asus]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-02-07 |title=IDC 2005 top 10 global notebook computer vendors; Apple #9 with 2.171 million units shipped |url=https://macdailynews.com/2006/02/07/idc_2005_top_10_global_notebook_computer_vendors_apple_9_with_2171_million/ |access-date=2024-11-19 |website=MacDailyNews |language=en-US}}</ref>
In the first quarter of 2010, the largest vendor of portable computers, including [[netbooks]], was either HP or Acer, depending on data source. Both had shipped approximately 9 million units each. Dell, Toshiba, Asus and Lenovo followed, each with approximate sales of 5 to 6 million each. Apple, [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]] and Sony sold under 2 million each.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Schofield |first=Jack |date=2010-04-27 |title=The top notebook suppliers and the future of netbooks |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2010/apr/27/notebooks-netbooks-suppliers-intel-atom |access-date=2024-11-19 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
As of the third quarter of 2020, [[HP Inc.|HP]] was cited as the leading vendor for notebook computers closely followed by Lenovo, both with a share of 23.6% each. They were followed by Dell (13.7%), Apple (9.7%) and Acer (7.9%).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Apple fourth largest seller of laptops |url=https://www.macworld.com/article/675655/apple-fourth-largest-seller-of-laptops.html |access-date=2024-11-19 |website=Macworld |language=en}}</ref>
=== Adoption by users ===
Battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986.<ref>{{cite news |title=Lap-top computers gain stature as power grows |work=Daily News of Los Angeles (CA) |date=12 April 1987 |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=LA&p_theme=la&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EF513A9C40DA46F&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |access-date=1 November 2008 }}</ref> However, laptops have become increasingly popular, both for business and personal use.<ref name="Computer Economics, Inc">{{cite web |title=The Falling Costs of Mobile Computing |work=Falling Costs of Mobile Computing Drive Corporate Adoption |publisher=Computer Economics, Inc.|date=December 2005 |url=http://www.computereconomics.com/article.cfm?id=1084 |access-date=1 November 2008 }}</ref> The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when worldwide notebook PC shipments exceeded [[Desktop computer|desktops]], with 38.6&nbsp;million units versus 38.5&nbsp;million units.<ref name="Computer Economics, Inc"/><ref name="is2009-01-13">[http://www.isuppli.com/NewsDetail.aspx?ID=19823 Notebook PC Shipments Exceed Desktops for First Time in Q3], isuppli.com, accessed at 13 January 2009</ref><ref name="NYT09">{{cite news |title=The PC Doesn't Have to Be an Anchor |work=The New York Times |author=Randall Stross |date=18 April 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/19/business/19digi.html?_r=1&ref=technology |access-date=20 April 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reghardware.co.uk/2008/04/17/intel_laptop_desktop_crossover/ |title=Intel: laptop/desktop crossover coming sooner than expected |work=The Register, UK |access-date=10 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007091449/http://www.reghardware.co.uk/2008/04/17/intel_laptop_desktop_crossover/ |archive-date=7 October 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2023, it was estimated that 166 million laptops were sold,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Huang |first1=Sanesha |title=Global Notebook Market Demand to Grow by 3.6% in 2024, with AI Innovation Applications Key to Future Growth, Says TrendForce |url=https://www.trendforce.com/presscenter/news/20240229-11997.html |website=TrendForce |access-date=23 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref> and in the first quarter of 2024, around 64% of personal computers sold were laptops or detachable tablets.<ref>{{cite web |title=IDC - Personal Computing Devices Market Insights |url=https://www.idc.com/promo/pcdforecast |website=IDC |access-date=23 November 2024 |date=26 September 2024}}</ref> Due to the advent of tablets and affordable laptops, many computer users now have laptops due to the convenience offered by the device.
=== Price ===
Before 2008, laptops were very expensive. In May 2005, the average notebook sold for {{US$|long=no|1131}} while desktops sold for an average of {{US$|long=no|696}}.<ref>Michael Singer. [http://news.cnet.com/PC+milestone--notebooks+outsell+desktops/2100-1047_3-5731417.html "PC milestone—notebooks outsell desktops"]. 2005.</ref> Around 2008, however, prices of laptops decreased substantially due to low-cost [[netbook]]s, drawing an average {{US$|689}} at U.S. retail stores in August 2008. Starting with the 2010s, laptops have decreased substantially in price at the low end due to inexpensive and low power [[ARM architecture family|Arm processor]]s, less demanding operating systems such as [[ChromeOS]], and [[system on a chip|SoC's]]. {{As of|2023}}, a new laptop can be obtained for {{US$|long=no|299}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hanson |first=Matt |date=13 July 2022 |title=The best laptop 2023: top portable picks for all budgets |url=https://www.techradar.com/news/mobile-computing/laptops/best-laptops-1304361 |access-date=20 September 2023 |website=TechRadar |language=en}}</ref>
== Disposal ==
<!-- To avoid invalidating existing links to this section. -->
{{See also|Electronic waste|l1=E-Waste}}
The list of materials that go into a laptop computer is long, and many of the substances used, such as [[beryllium]], [[lead]], [[chromium]], and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] compounds, are [[toxic]] or [[carcinogenic]] to humans. Although these toxins are relatively harmless when the laptop is in use, concerns that discarded laptops cause a serious health and environmental risks when improperly discarded have arisen. The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) in Europe specified that all laptop computers must be recycled by law. Similarly, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ([[Epargyreus clarus|EPA]]) has outlawed [[landfill]] dumping or the incinerating of discarded laptop computers.
Most laptop computers begin the recycling process with a method known as [[Demanufacturing]], which involves the physical separation of the components of the laptop.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newtechrecycling.com/where_to_recycle/business_laptops/what_to_do_with_used_office_laptops.html|title=Laptop Disposal Ewaste Recycling and IT asset disposition (ITAD)|last=Recycling|first=Newtech|website=www.newtechrecycling.com|language=en|access-date=11 June 2018}}</ref> These components are then either grouped into materials (e.g. plastic, metal and glass) for recycling or more complex items that require more advanced materials separation (e.g.) circuit boards, hard drives and batteries.
Corporate laptop recycling can require an additional process known as data destruction. The data destruction process ensures that all information or data that has been stored on a laptop hard drive can never be retrieved again. Below is an overview of some of the data protection and environmental laws and regulations applicable for laptop recycling data destruction:
{{div col |colwidth = 20em }}
* [[Data Protection Act 1998]] (DPA)
* [[EPrivacy Directive (European Union)|EU Privacy Directive]] (Due 2016)
* [[Financial Conduct Authority]]
* [[Sarbanes-Oxley Act]]
* PCI-DSS Data Security Standard
* Waste, Electronic & Electrical Equipment Directive ([[Weekly Shōnen Jump|WEEE]])
* Basel Convention
* [[Bank Secrecy Act]] (BSA)
* [[Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act|FACTA]] Sarbanes-Oxley Act
* FDA Security Regulations (21 C.F.R. part 11)
* Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA)
* [[HIPAA]] (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act)
* NIST SP 800–53
* Add NIST SP 800–171
* Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act
* Patriot Act of 2002
* PCI Data Security Standard
* US Safe Harbor Provisions
* Various state laws<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 February 2006 |title=Act 1410 |url=http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/ftproot/acts/2001/htm/act1410.pdf |access-date=26 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060214204212/http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/ftproot/acts/2001/htm/act1410.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/austin/stories/2006/06/12/focus3.html|title=Law holds businesses responsible for disposal of computers|author=Kuhlenbeck, Phil|date=2006-06-09|work=[[Austin Business Journal]]|access-date=2024-08-23|archive-date=2024-08-24|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240824010533/https://www.bizjournals.com/austin/stories/2006/06/12/focus3.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 6/3 JAN
* Gramm-leach-Bliley Act
* DCID
{{div col end}}
==Extreme use==
{{See also|International Space Station#Communications and computers}}
[[File:ISS-38 EVA-1 Laptops.jpg|thumb|right|ISS laptops in the US lab]]
The ruggedized [[Grid Compass]] computer was used since the early days of the Space Shuttle program. The first [[Commercial off-the-shelf|commercial]] laptop used in space was a [[Macintosh portable]] in 1990 on Space Shuttle mission [[STS-41]] and again in 1991 aboard [[STS-43]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Peter H. |date=12 August 1991 |title=SHUTTLE MISSION PUTS COMPUTERS TO THE TEST NASA makes Grid, Macintosh space-friendly |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1991-08-12-1991224096-story.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022010624/https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1991-08-12-1991224096-story.html |archive-date=22 October 2020 |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=Baltimore Sun}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://support.apple.com/kb/TA30635?viewlocale=en_US |title=Macintosh Portable: Used in Space Shuttle |publisher=Support.apple.com |access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Linzmayer|first=Owen W.|title=Apple confidential 2.0 : the definitive history of the world's most colorful company|year=2004|publisher=No Starch Press|location=San Francisco, Calif.|isbn=1-59327-010-0|edition=[Rev. 2. ed.].}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macobserver.com/columns/thisweek/2004/20040831.shtml |title=This Week in Apple History&nbsp;– August 22–31: "Welcome, IBM. Seriously", Too Late to License |publisher=The Mac Observer |date=31 October 2004 |access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref> Apple and other laptop computers continue to be flown aboard crewed spaceflights, though the only long-duration flight certified computer for the International Space Station is the [[ThinkPad#Use in space|ThinkPad]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/space/space_thinkpad.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720220124/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/space/space_thinkpad.html|url-status=dead|title=IBM Archives: IBM ThinkPads in space|date=23 January 2003|archivedate=20 July 2011|website=www.ibm.com}}</ref> As of 2011, over 100 ThinkPads were aboard the ISS. Laptops used aboard the International Space Station and other spaceflights are generally the same ones that [[commercial off-the-shelf|can be purchased]] by the general public but needed modifications are made to allow them to be used safely and effectively in a weightless environment such as updating the cooling systems to function without relying on hot air rising and accommodation for the lower cabin air pressure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=213|title=2001: A Space Laptop – SpaceRef – Your Space Reference|website=www.spaceref.com|date=18 September 2000 }}</ref> Laptops operating in harsh usage environments and conditions, such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and wet or dusty conditions differ from those used in space in that they are [[Rugged computer|custom designed]] for the task and do not use [[commercial off-the-shelf]] hardware.
== See also ==
{{div col |colwidth = 20em }}
* [[List of computer size categories]]
* [[List of laptop brands and manufacturers]]
* [[Netbook]]
* [[Smartbook]]
* [[Chromebook]]
* [[Ultrabook]]
* [[Smartphone]]
* [[Subscriber Identity Module]]
* [[Mobile broadband]]
* [[Mobile Internet device]] (MID)
* [[Personal digital assistant]]
* [[VIA OpenBook]]
* [[Tethering]]
* [[XJACK]]
* [[Open-source computer hardware]]
* [[Novena (computing platform)|Novena]]
* [[Mobile USB modem|Mobile modem]]
* [[Stereoscopy]] glasses
* [[Cloudbook]]
* [[Laptop–tablet convergence]]
{{div col end}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Laptops}}
{{Clear}}
{{Computer sizes}}
{{Electronic systems}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Laptops| ]]
[[Category:Classes of computers]]
[[Category:Mobile computers]]
[[Category:Office equipment]]
[[Category:Personal computers]]
[[Category:1980s neologisms]]