View source for Leo III the Isaurian

{{short description|Byzantine emperor from 717 to 741}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Leo III the Isaurian
| image        = Solidus of Leo III sb1504.png
| caption      = [[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]] of Leo III marked {{Smallcaps|leon {{Abbreviation|pa mul|PER ANNOS MULTOS ("for many years")}}}}.
| succession   = [[Byzantine emperor]]
| reign        = 25 March 717 – 18 June 741
| coronation   =
| predecessor  = [[Theodosius III]]
| successor    = [[Constantine V]]
| spouse       = [[Maria (wife of Leo III)|Maria]]
| issue        = [[Constantine V]]<br />[[Anna (wife of Artabasdos)|Anna]]<br/>Irene<br/>Kosmo
| house        = [[Isaurian dynasty]]
| full name    =
| regnal name  = Leo
| religion     = [[Chalcedonian Christianity]]
| house-type   = Dynasty
| birth_name   = Konon
| birth_date   = {{circa}} 685
| birth_place  = [[Marash|Germanikeia]], [[Umayyad Caliphate]]<br />(now [[Marash]], [[Turkey]])
| death_date   = {{Death date and age|741|06|18|685}}
| death_place  =
| burial_date  =
| burial_place =
| title        = [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Emperor of the Romans]]|
}}
{{Isaurian dynasty}}
'''Leo III the Isaurian''' ({{langx|el|Λέων ὁ Ἴσαυρος|Leōn ho Isauros}}; {{circa}} 685 – 18 June 741), also known as '''the Syrian''', was the first [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine emperor]] of the [[Isaurian dynasty]] from 717 until his death in 741.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Craig, Graham, Kagan, Ozment, and Turner|title=The Heritage of World Civilizations|year=2011|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn=978-0-205-80766-6|page=321}}</ref> He put an end to the [[Twenty Years' Anarchy]], a period of great instability in the Byzantine Empire between 695 and 717, marked by the rapid succession of several emperors to the throne, along with ending the continual defeats and territorial losses the Byzantines had suffered during the 7th century. He also successfully defended the Empire against the invading [[Umayyad]]s and [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|forbade the veneration of icons]].<ref>{{cite book
| last = Gero
| first = Stephen
| title = Byzantine Iconoclasm during the Reign of Leo III, with Particular Attention to the Oriental Sources
| publisher =Secrétariat du Corpus SCO
| location= Louvain
| year = 1973
| isbn = 90-429-0387-2}}</ref>
== Early life ==
Leo III was born in [[Germanikeia]], [[Commagene]], which is in modern [[Kahramanmaraş]] in [[Turkey]]. His original name was '''Konon''' ({{langx|el|Κόνων}}).<ref>{{cite book |author1 = Mati Meyer |author2 = Stavroula Constantinou
|date = 2018 |title = Emotions and Gender in Byzantine Culture |isbn = 9783319960388 |pages = 128–129 |publisher = Springer}}</ref> Leo III was fluent in Arabic,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hitti|first=Philip|title=History of The Arabs|publisher=Red Globe Press|year=2002|isbn=0333631420|pages=203}}</ref> possibly as a native language,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ball|first=Warwick|title=Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire| publisher=Routledge| year=2002| isbn=0415243572| pages=489}}</ref> and was described by [[Theophanes the Confessor]] as "the [[Saracen]]-minded," although there is very little evidence that he was directly influenced by [[Islam]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=A. A. Vasiliev|title=History of the Byzantine Empire, 324-1453, Volume 1|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press| year=1964| pages=255–256}}</ref>
After the victory of [[Justinian II]], Konon was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to [[Alania]] and [[Lazica]] to organize an alliance against the [[Umayyad]] [[caliphate]] under [[al-Walid I]]. According to the chronicle written by [[Theophanes the Confessor]], Justinian wanted to get rid of Konon and took back the money that had been given to him to help advance Byzantine interests, thus leaving Konon stranded in Alania. The chronicle describes the mission as successful and Konon returning eventually to Justinian after crossing the Caucasus mountains in May with [[snowshoes]] and taking the fortress of Sideron, associated with the [[Tsebelda fortress]], on the way.<ref>{{cite book | last = Theophanes the Confessor | title = The Chronicle of Theophanes: Anni Mundi 6095–6305 (A.D. 602–813) | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press| year = 1982| page =85| isbn =0812211286}}</ref>
Konon was appointed commander ([[strategos|''stratēgos'']]) of the [[Anatolic Theme]] by Emperor [[Anastasius II (emperor)|Anastasius II]].  On his deposition, Konon joined with his colleague [[Artabasdos]], the ''stratēgos'' of the [[Armeniac Theme]], in conspiring to overthrow the new Emperor [[Theodosius III]], ostensibly in support of Anastasius. Artabasdos was betrothed to Konon's daughter [[Anna (wife of Artabasdos)|Anna]].<ref>{{cite book| author1 = Warren Treadgold  | title =A History of the Byzantine State and Society| publisher = University of Stanford Press | year = 1997| page =346| isbn =0804726302}}</ref> In 717, Konon marched on Constantinople, capturing Theodosius' son at [[Nicomedia]]. He forced Theodosius to abdicate, promising safety for him and his family. Theodosius then became a [[monk]] at [[Ephesus]]. On 25 March, abandoning his allegiance to Anastasius, Konon was crowned by Patriarch [[Germanus I of Constantinople]] as Emperor Leo III at the [[Hagia Sophia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |page=73}}</ref>
== Siege of Constantinople ==
{{main|Siege of Constantinople (717–718)}}
The new emperor was immediately forced to attend to the [[Siege of Constantinople (717–18)|second Arab siege of Constantinople]], which commenced in August of the same year. The Arabs were Umayyad forces sent by Caliph [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik]] and serving under his brother [[Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik]]. They had taken advantage of the civil discord in the Byzantine Empire to bring a force of 80,000 to 150,000 men and a massive fleet to the [[Bosphorus]],<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Guilland, Rodolphe. "L’expédition de Maslama contre Constantinople (717–720)" in ''Études Byzantines''. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1959, pp. 109–133.</ref> intending to seize the Byzantine capital and destroy the Empire with a single overwhelming attack.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |page=75}}</ref>
Careful preparations, begun three years earlier under Anastasius II, and the stubborn resistance put up by Leo wore out the invaders. An important factor in the victory of the Byzantines was their use of [[Greek fire]].<ref>Treadgold. ''History of the Byzantine State'', p. 347.</ref> The Arab forces also fell victim to Bulgarian reinforcements arriving to aid the Byzantines. Leo was allied with the Bulgarians but the chronicler [[Theophanes the Confessor]] was uncertain if they were still serving under [[Tervel of Bulgaria]] or his eventual successor [[Kormesiy of Bulgaria]].
Faced with the Bulgarian onslaught, the impenetrability of Constantinople's walls, and their own exhausted provisions, the Arabs were forced to abandon the siege in August 718. Sulayman had died the previous year, and his successor [[Umar II]] never made a second attempt to capture the city.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |page=73}}</ref> The siege had lasted 12 months.
== Reign ==
[[File:ByzantineEmpire717+extrainfo+themes.svg|thumb| Byzantine Empire 717 AD. 1. Ravenna 2. Venetia and Istria 3. Rome 4. Naples 5. Calabria 6. Hellas 7. Thrace 8. Opsikion 9. Thrakesion 10. Anatolikon 11. Karabisianoi 12. Armeniakon. Hatched area: Frequently invaded by [[Umayyad Caliphate]]]]
Having thus saved the Empire from extinction, Leo proceeded to consolidate its administration, which in the previous years of anarchy had become completely disorganized.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |page=78}}</ref> In 718 he suppressed a rebellion in [[Sicily]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-15 |title=Leo III the Isaurian (ca. 680–741) - Weapons and Warfare |url=https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2020/01/15/leo-iii-the-isaurian-ca-680-741/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |language=en-US}}</ref> The following year saw the deposed Emperor [[Anastasius II (emperor)|Anastasius II]] raise an army and attempt to retake the throne, but he was captured and executed by Leo's government. The rebellion was the only serious threat to Leo's usurpation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |pages=77–78}}</ref> Umayyad attacks under Caliph [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik]] continued in the form of yearly raids in eastern and central [[Asia Minor]] (see hatched area in figure), which affected communications, commerce and agricultural production. In 721, the city of [[Dalisandus (Isauria)|Dalisandus]] was captured, followed by the fortresses of [[Kemah, Erzincan|Kamachon]] and [[Ikonion]] in 723/724 and several frontier fortresses in 725. [[Kayseri|Caesarea (Cappadocia)]] was captured in 727, then [[Çankırı|Gangra]] in 728. The Byzantine counter-raids were generally of little strategic impact, although crucially a major invading force was destroyed in the [[Battle of Akroinon]] of 740. It was only during the [[Third Fitna]] of 744–747, a civil war within the Umayyad Caliphate, that the regularity of attacks were temporarily interrupted.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |pages=75–76}}</ref>
Leo secured the Empire's frontiers by inviting [[Slavs|Slavic]] settlers into the depopulated districts and by restoring the [[Byzantine military|army]] to efficiency.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-15 |title=Leo III the Isaurian (ca. 680–741) - Weapons and Warfare |url=https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2020/01/15/leo-iii-the-isaurian-ca-680-741/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |language=en-US}}</ref> His military efforts were supplemented by his alliances with the [[Khazars]] and the [[Georgians]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-15 |title=Leo III the Isaurian (ca. 680–741) - Weapons and Warfare |url=https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2020/01/15/leo-iii-the-isaurian-ca-680-741/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |language=en-US}}</ref> However, the [[Lombards]] exploited the Empire's difficulties beginning in 717, when the duke of [[Benevento]] captured [[Cumae]], the duke of [[Spoleto]] captured [[Narni]]  and [[Liutprand, King of the Lombards]], occupied [[Classe, ancient port of Ravenna|Classe]] in the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]]. Although Narni was never regained, Gregory II recovered Cumae and Liutprand withdrew from Classe. In 724 or 725, Leo increased taxes in Italy which Gregory opposed. This led to two plots to assassinate Gregory, the second of which was supported by [[Paul (exarch)|Exarch Paul]], but both were foiled by the Romans with the help of the Lombards of Benevento and Spoleto.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Thomas S. |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=440 |chapter=Byzantine Italy (680–876) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref>
Leo effected many political and ecclesiastical restructurings in order to bolster the authority of the Empire and the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]. Since the end of the seventh century, imperial ''stratēgoi'' were sent to the theme of Sicily (which included [[Calabria]]), and in 732–733 Leo deprived the church of Rome of the [[patrimony of St Peter]] in the theme, reallocating tax income that originally went to the church of Rome to the imperial administration (a large annual sum of 350 pounds of gold).  However in 743, Constantine V compensated [[Pope Zachary]] for this loss by granting him the estates of Ninfa and Norma to the south of Rome. Between 732 and 754, the bishops of Illyricum, [[Crete]], Sicily, Calabria and [[Naples]] (until 769) were transferred from the authority of Rome to Constantinople.<ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=285 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref> The Isaurians in general saw the church and its patriarchs as subordinate to the imperial will.<ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=286 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref>
The [[740 Constantinople earthquake]] damaged the [[Walls of Constantinople]], the restoration of which Leo paid for out of the imperial treasury, raising the City taxes by 8<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub> per cent in order to do so, as was recorded on the land walls near the [[Sea of Marmara]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=265 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |pages=155}}</ref> The Empire of the eighth century was characterized by ruralization and depopulation, which along with the Arab invasions motivated Leo to undertake intense centralization and militarization, particularly involving the many fortresses and walls in towns such as [[Nicaea]] and [[Padyandus]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=265–266 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref>
Leo III died of [[dropsy]] on 18 June 741 and was buried in the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]].<ref>[[John Robert Martindale|Martindale, J. R.]] (2001), "[http://www.pbe.kcl.ac.uk/data/D48/F18.htm Leo 3]". ''[[Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire]]''</ref>
=== Iconoclastic policies ===
[[File:Mosaic cross (7th century) in the apse of Agia Sophia, Thessaloniki. Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, April 18 2024.jpg|thumb|A [[mosaic]] [[Greek cross|cross]] in the [[apse]] of the [[Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki]]. This mosaic is exemplary of the 8th-century iconoclast style, in which prominence to the symbol of the cross was given rather than to icons.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |pages=135–136}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.thessalonikitourism.gr/index.php/el/component/k2/item/365-church-of-the-wisdom-of-god-church-of-agia-sophia | language = Greek | access-date = November 2, 2022 | title = Ιερός Ναός της του Θεού Σοφίας | trans-title = Holy Temple of God's Wisdom | website = thessalonikitourism.gr}}</ref>]]
Leo's most striking legislative reforms dealt with religious matters, especially [[iconoclasm]] ("icon-breaking," therefore an iconoclast is an "icon-breaker").<ref>Ladner, Gerhart. "Origin and Significance of the Byzantine Iconoclastic Controversy." ''Mediaeval Studies'', '''2''', 1940, pp. 127–149.</ref> After an apparently successful attempt to enforce the [[baptism]] of all [[Jew]]s and [[Montanists]] in the empire (722), he issued a [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|series of edicts]] against the veneration of images (726–729).<ref>Treadgold. ''History of the Byzantine State'', pp. 350, 352–353.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=261 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref>
A revolt broke out in Greece under the leadership of [[Agallianos Kontoskeles]], mainly on religious grounds, with a certain Kosmas being declared rival emperor. The imperial fleet quashed the uprising in 727 by way of [[Greek fire]]. In 730, Patriarch [[Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople|Germanus]] opted to resign rather than subscribe to iconoclasm; Leo replaced him with [[Patriarch Anastasius of Constantinople|Anastasius]],<ref>Treadgold. ''History of the Byzantine State'', p. 353.</ref> who willingly sided with the Emperor on the question of icons. Patriarch [[John V of Jerusalem]] along with [[John of Damascus]] fiercely opposed imperial iconoclasm, issuing a pamphlet entitled ''Adversus Constantinum Caballinum''. A later polemical version of the pamphlet attributes to Leo the saying, "I am emperor and priest."<ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=283 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref>
In the [[Italian Peninsula]], the defiant attitude of Popes [[Pope Gregory II|Gregory II]] and later [[Pope Gregory III|Gregory III]] on behalf of image-veneration led to a fierce quarrel with the Emperor, with the ''[[Liber Pontificalis]]'' stating that Gregory II "took up arms against the  emperor as if against an enemy."<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Thomas S. |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=441–442 |chapter=Byzantine Italy (680–876) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref> In Rome, the population was more sympathetic to iconodulia, killing a pro-imperial duke and blinding another, while in Naples, iconoclasm was broadly well-received. A conflict between pro- and anti-imperial factions in the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]] led to the death of Exarch Paul.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Thomas S. |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=441 |chapter=Byzantine Italy (680–876) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref> The struggle was accompanied by an armed outbreak in the Exarchate in 727, which Leo endeavoured to subdue by means of a large fleet. The new Exarch, [[Eutychius (exarch)|Eutychius]], disembarked in Naples but could not enter Rome and assert his authority. This led to an unexpected alliance between Liutprand and Eutychius against Gregory, who, however, managed to convince the King, appealing to his piety, to return north and the Exarch to put down a revolt in [[Etruria]] led by the usurper [[Tiberius Petasius]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Thomas S. |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=441 |chapter=Byzantine Italy (680–876) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref> In response to the promulgation of stronger iconoclastic decrees in 730, Gregory II and Gregory III summoned councils in [[Rome]] to anathematize and excommunicate the iconoclasts (730, 732). Leo retaliated by making the aforementioned transferals in [[Southern Italy]] and [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] from the papal diocese to that of the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]].<ref>Treadgold. ''History of the Byzantine State'', pp. 354–355.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Thomas S. |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=441–442 |chapter=Byzantine Italy (680–876) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref>
====Analysis of Leo's iconoclasm====
Scholars offer various explanations for the ban on venerating icons {{circa|730}}. On the basis of Patriarch Germanus' letters read at the 787 [[Second Council of Nicaea]], which state that that the bishops Constantine of [[Nakoleia]] and Thomas of [[Claudiopolis (Cilicia)|Claudiopolis]] had forbidden the veneration of icons even before 730, some scholars argue that the alleged [[aniconism]] of the eastern part of the Empire, Leo's place of origin, motivated his policies. The phrase "I am emperor and priest" attributed to Leo by later iconodule polemicists represents the characteristically Isaurian imperial ascendancy over the church, which was rejected in the mid-9th century after Patriarch [[Methodios I of Constantinople]] purged the clergy of iconoclasts, asserting the autonomy of the church against the iconoclast emperor, [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] ({{reign|829|842}}).<ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=279 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref> Others have discussed the mutual influence of Muslim and Byzantine iconoclasm, noting that [[Caliph]] [[Yazid II]] had issued an iconoclastic edict, also targeting his Christian subjects, already in 721.<ref>A. A. Vasiliev (1956), ''The Iconoclastic Edict of the Caliph Yazid II, A. D. 721'', pp. [https://archive.org/details/Vasiliev1956YazidEdict721  25-26]</ref>
According to historian Marie-France Auzépy, these explanations are insufficient. She appeals to an explanation by Byzantine chroniclers, that a terrifying volcanic eruption at [[Thira]] in 726 was interpreted by Leo as a manifestation of God's wrath. In the [[Bible]], God allows his people to fall to [[Babylonian captivity]] because of their [[idolatry]]. Thus, Auzépy says, the banning of the veneration of images was fundamentally a rejection of idolatry in order to ensure the survival of the Christian people of the Empire, a decision which was apparently vindicated by the abatement of the Arab and Bulgar threat during Leo's reign.<ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=280–282 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref>
Some scholars, such as Leslie Brubaker and John Haldon, doubt whether there was any active imperial involvement in iconoclasm at all, proposing instead that Leo made a qualified critique of the use of images in public spaces, likely leading to the adoption of a somewhat iconoclastic attitude among the clergy in the late 730s or early 740s.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |pages=155}}</ref> The notion that there was mass imperial persecution and destruction of images is dismissed as a later "iconophile myth".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |page=152}}</ref> Brubaker and Haldon support this hypothesis by pointing to the absence of any reports of iconoclasm in several contemporary accounts, including those of [[Willibald]], who travelled to Nicaea from 727 to 729, Germanus and even [[John of Damascus]]. The [[Venerable Bede]] does refer to a critique of images in Constantinople, and Germanus and John of Damascus say that the clergy was divided on the issue of iconoclasm, however there was no evidence of widespread support for the iconoclastic policies or of systematic removal of images under Leo.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |pages=152–153}}</ref> Brubaker and Haldon attribute a more moderate iconoclasm to Leo, "It is quite possible that Leo did attempt to restrict the public display of certain types of image and to remove them from certain places in churches (near the [[altar]] and in the [[apse]], for example) to avoid their receiving the honour due to God alone", confirming this conclusion with the writings of Germanus and John of Damascus which appear to describe a kind of initial or moderate stage of iconoclasm.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |page=153}}</ref>
=== Legislation ===
{{See also|Silentiarius}}
Leo reformed the ''silention'', a type of restricted council instituted by [[Justinian I]], transforming it into a special assembly in the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]], in which the emperor would announce a solemn decision.<ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=277 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref>
Leo undertook a set of civil reforms including the abolition of the system of prepaying taxes which had weighed heavily upon the wealthier proprietors, the elevation of the [[serf]]s into a [[social class|class]] of free [[Tenant farmer|tenant]]s and the remodelling of [[family law]], [[maritime law]] and [[criminal law]], notably substituting [[mutilation]] for the [[death penalty]] in many cases.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Freshfield |first=Edwin |title=The Official Manuals of Roman Law of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries |date=March 1930 |publisher=Cambridge Law Journal and Contributors |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |pages=35}}</ref> These punishments were contrary to the Roman legal tradition, and bear the influence of [[canon law]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |page=78}}</ref> The new measures, which were embodied in a new [[Legal code|code]] called the ''[[Ecloga]]'' (''Selection''), published in 741, met with some opposition on the part of the nobles and higher clergy. The ''Ecloga'' were a revision and abridgement of the sixth-century [[Code of Justinian]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |page=78}}</ref>  Leo's prologue to the ''Ecloga'' sets out his conception of law as requiring ethical significance founded upon God's will and divinely-sanctioned imperial authority.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |pages=78–79}}</ref> The authors of the legal codes of [[Basil I]] ({{reign|867|886}}) and [[Leo VI the Wise]] ({{reign|886|912}}) of the [[Macedonian dynasty]] formally rejected the ''Ecloga''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |page=79}}</ref>
Leo and his successor [[Constantine V]] transformed the Byzantine ''[[orphanotrophos]]'' into a [[magistrate]]. Prior to these legislative reforms, [[Byzantine law]] required that all [[orphan]]s are passed into the Byzantine [[orphanage]] or to a [[monastery]].<ref>{{cite book | author1 = Timothy S. Miller | title = The Orphans of Byzantium: Child Welfare in the Christian Empire | year = 2003  | publisher =  Catholic University of America Press | isbn =9780813213132| page=203}}</ref>
===Numismatics===
[[File:Leo III and Constantine V miliaresion.jpg|thumb|right|Example of the ''[[miliaresion|miliarēsion]]'' silver coins, first struck by Leo III to commemorate the coronation of his son, [[Constantine V]] in 720.]]The coins minted during Leo's reign exclusively depicted male imperial dynasts, promoting the dynastic [[order of succession]].<ref>{{cite book | editor1 =  Leslie Brubaker | editor2= Shaun Tougher  | title = Approaches to the Byzantine Family | year = 2016  | publisher =  Taylor & Francis | isbn =9781317180005 | page=}}</ref> In 721, Leo introduced the [[miliaresion|''miliarēsion'']], a silver coin worth one-twelfth of a ''[[nomisma]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=270 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref> The [[gold coin]]s of [[Leo IV the Khazar]] show posthumous portraits of Leo III.<ref>{{cite book | editor1 =  Leslie Brubaker | editor2= Shaun Tougher  | title = Approaches to the Byzantine Family | year = 2016  | publisher =  Taylor & Francis | isbn =9781317180005 | page=}}</ref>
==Assessment and legacy==
In response to the catastrophic [[Twenty Years' Anarchy]], Leo, and his son Constantine V in emulation, fundamentally changed the formula of imperial survival as established by Justinian I. The military was closely associated with the regime in order to stifle the possibility of usurpation. Imperial power was also strengthened by the introduction of low-denomination silver coins, allowing greater flexibility in raising taxes. This autocratic renewal of imperial authority was motivated by justice and spiritual welfare, leading to the denunciation and eventual destruction of images deemed to be "idolatrous".<ref>{{cite book |last=Shepard |first=Jonathan |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=30–31|chapter=General Introduction |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref> These aspects, which all originate in the personality of Leo, can be attributed to the entire Isaurian dynasty, which was unwaveringly iconoclastic, [[Irene of Athens]] excepted. Succeeding generations of the Byzantine ruling class regarded the Isaurian period as one of religious persecution.<ref>{{cite book |last=McCormick |first=Michael |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=399|chapter=Western Approaches (700–900) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref> The phrase "I am emperor and priest" attributed to Leo by later iconodule polemicists represents the characteristically Isaurian imperial ascendancy over the church, which was rejected in the mid-9th century after Patriarch [[Methodios I of Constantinople]] purged the clergy of iconoclasts, asserting the autonomy of the church against the iconoclast emperor, [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] ({{reign|829|842}}).<ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=290 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref>
The few primary sources of the eighth and ninth centuries were mostly written by clerical or monastic iconodules who were hostile to Leo and Constantine V. They tended to view the period as dominated by ecclesiastical matters and in particular the imperial persecution of iconodules, despite the Empire's contemporaneous existential struggle against its enemies. Modern assessment of the reign of Leo as well as that of his son is that it was a period of violence which saw the Empire's rescue from destruction, within a context of extensive domestic policy reform.<ref>{{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=253–254 |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref> Leo's successful ruse against Caliph Sulayman and his general Maslama, which secured his place on the throne, and then his successful defense of the Empire during the siege of Constantinople, earned him a reputation as a wily and formidable commander against colossal odds.<ref>{{cite book |last=McCormick |first=Michael |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=380|chapter=Western Approaches (700–900) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kaegi |first=Walter E. |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=380|chapter=Confronting Islam: Emperors versus Caliphs (641–''c.'' 850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref> His personal knowledge of the geography of the foothills of the [[Taurus Mountains]] helped in the countering of Arab incursions mainly in the latter part of his reign, as was especially signified in the Battle of Akroinon—a crucial victory for Leo which had changed the tide of the [[Arab–Byzantine wars]] in the favour of Rome for the next 350 years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaegi |first=Walter E. |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=385–386|chapter=Confronting Islam: Emperors versus Caliphs (641–''c.'' 850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref> However, the Byzantine control over its Italian possessions was steadily weakened during Leo's reign, and his attempts to reassert imperial authority there failed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Thomas S. |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=440–442 |chapter=Byzantine Italy (680–876) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}</ref>
In 1573, a translation of [[John of Damascus]]' attack on Leo III was published, under the title ''Apologie divisée en trois livres contre Léon Isaure'', triggering religious controversy.<ref>{{Cite book|title= Books in Motion in Early Modern Europe: Beyond Production, Circulation and Consumption | editor1= Daniel Bellingradt |editor2= Jeroen Salman | editor3=Paul Nelles |publisher= Springer International Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=  9783319533667 | pages=27}}</ref>
==Family==
[[File:Leo III with Constantine V.png|thumb|280px|Solidus of Leo III with Constantine V]]
With his wife [[Maria (wife of Leo III)|Maria]], Leo III had four known children:
* [[Constantine V]], born in 718. He was crowned co-emperor in 720 and became senior emperor in 741.
* [[Anna (wife of Artabasdos)|Anna]], born before 705. She married the future emperor [[Artabasdos]].<ref>[[Ralph-Johannes Lilie|Lilie, Ralph-Johannes]] ''et al.'' (2013). "[https://www.degruyter.com/database/PMBZ/entry/PMBZ11528/html Anna (#443)]". ''[[Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit|PmbZ]]''</ref>
*Kosmo and Irene. They were both buried in a sarcophagus of Proconnesian marble in the Church of the Apostles.<ref>Lilie, Ralph-Johannes ''et al.'' (2013). "[https://www.degruyter.com/database/PMBZ/entry/PMBZ15303/html Kosmo (#4148)]". ''PmbZ''</ref>
==See also==
{{portal|Byzantine Empire}}
*[[List of Byzantine emperors]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Leon III}}
{{S-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty|Isaurian dynasty]]||c. 685|18 June|741}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Theodosius III]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Byzantine emperor]]
| years = 25 March 717 – 18 June 741
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Constantine V]]
}}
{{S-off}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Anastasius II (emperor)|Anastasius II]] in 714,<br/>then lapsed}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Roman consul]] | years=718 }}
{{s-aft | after= Lapsed,<br />[[Constantine V]] in 742}}
{{s-end}}
{{Roman Emperors}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Leo 03}}
[[Category:Leo III the Isaurian| ]]
[[Category:685 births]]
[[Category:710s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:720s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:730s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:740s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:741 deaths]]
[[Category:8th-century Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:Byzantine Iconoclasm]]
[[Category:Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars]]
[[Category:Deaths from edema]]
[[Category:Governors of the Anatolic Theme]]
[[Category:Isaurian dynasty]]
[[Category:Medieval legislators]]
[[Category:People from Kahramanmaraş]]
[[Category:Byzantine consuls]]