View source for Loyalist (American Revolution)

{{short description|Colonists loyal to Britain during the American Revolution}}
{{other uses|Loyalism|Loyalist (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Reception of the American Loyalists.jpg|thumb|325px|[[Britannia]] offers solace and a promise of compensation for her exiled American-born British Loyalists. (''[[Reception of the American Loyalists by Great Britain in the Year 1783]]'', engraving by [[Henry Moses (engraver)|Henry Moses]] after a painting by [[Benjamin West]].)]]
[[File:Flag of the United Empire Loyalists.svg|thumb|Flag of the [[United Empire Loyalist]]s.]]
'''Loyalists''' were colonists in the [[Thirteen Colonies]] who remained loyal to the [[The Crown|British Crown]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]], often referred to as '''Tories''',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chopra |first1=Ruma |title=Choosing Sides: Loyalists in Revolutionary America |year= 2013 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4422-0573-4 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mqIC52Dv3HEC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hoock |first1=Holger |title=Scars of Independence: America's Violent Birth |date=2017 |publisher=Crown |isbn=978-0-8041-3729-4 |page=29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSnWDAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> '''Royalists''', or '''King's Men''' at the time. They were opposed by the [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriots]] or Whigs, who supported the revolution, and considered them "persons inimical to the liberties of America."<ref>{{cite book|author=Barbara Smith|title=The Freedoms We Lost: Consent and Resistance in Revolutionary America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzs5XX-QEL8C&pg=PT142|year=2013|publisher=New Press|page=142|isbn=978-1595585974}}</ref>
Prominent Loyalists repeatedly assured the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] that many thousands of them would spring to arms and fight for the Crown. The British government acted in expectation of that, especially during the [[Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War|Southern campaigns]] of 1780 and 1781. Britain was able to effectively protect the people only in areas where they had military control, and in return, the number of military Loyalists was significantly lower than what had been expected. Due to conflicting political views, loyalists were often under suspicion of those in the British military, who did not know whom they could fully trust in such a conflicted situation; they were often looked down upon.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Devoss |first1=David |title=Divided Loyalties |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/divided-loyalties-107489501/ |magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |access-date=July 11, 2019 |date=January 2004 |quote=Curiously, Tories suffered even at the hands of British officers who, for the most part, dismissed them as ignorant provincials. The British especially distrusted Loyalist militia regiments, claiming that they were slow to follow orders and often went off on their own to seek revenge against those who had destroyed their property. |archive-date=June 23, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623223340/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/divided-loyalties-107489501/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Patriots watched suspected Loyalists very closely and would not tolerate any organized Loyalist opposition. Many outspoken or militarily active Loyalists were forced to flee, especially to their stronghold of [[New York City]]. [[William Franklin]], the royal governor of [[New Jersey]] and son of Patriot leader [[Benjamin Franklin]], became the leader of the Loyalists after his release from a Patriot prison in 1778. He worked to build Loyalist military units to fight in the war. [[Woodrow Wilson]] wrote that <blockquote>"there had been no less than twenty-five thousand loyalists enlisted in the British service during the five years of the fighting. At one time (1779) they had actually outnumbered the whole of the continental muster under the personal command of Washington."<ref>Woodrow Wilson. [https://archive.org/details/harpersnew0104various/page/110/mode/1up The Coming of Peace], ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', Volume 104, December 1901, p. 110.</ref></blockquote>When their cause was defeated, about 15 percent of the Loyalists (65,000–70,000 people) fled to other parts of the [[British Empire]]; especially to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] itself, or to [[British North America]] (present day [[Canada]]).<ref>G. Patrick O'Brien. [https://theconversation.com/refugees-after-the-american-revolution-needed-money-homes-and-acceptance-166921 Refugees after the American Revolution needed money, homes and acceptance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410001342/https://theconversation.com/refugees-after-the-american-revolution-needed-money-homes-and-acceptance-166921 |date=2022-04-10 }}, ''The Conversation'', August 31, 2021</ref> The southern Loyalists moved mostly to [[Florida]], which had remained loyal to the Crown, and to British Caribbean possessions. Northern Loyalists largely migrated to [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]], [[New Brunswick]], and [[Nova Scotia]]. They called themselves [[United Empire Loyalist]]s. Most were compensated with Canadian land or British cash distributed through formal claims procedures. Loyalists who left the US received over £3 million or about 37% of their losses from the British government. Loyalists who stayed in the US were generally able to retain their property and become American citizens.<ref name="Calhoon2008">{{cite book |last1=Calhoon |first1=Robert M. |editor1-last=Greene |editor1-first=Jack P. |editor2-last=Pole |editor2-first=J. R. |title=A Companion to the American Revolution |year=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75644-7 |pages=246, 399, 641–642 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xK1NuzpAcH8C&pg=PA246 |chapter=Loyalism and Neutrality}}</ref> Many Loyalists eventually returned to the US after the war and discriminatory laws had been repealed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Loyalist {{!}} Definition & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/loyalist |access-date=2022-09-18 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=2022-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171044/https://www.britannica.com/topic/loyalist |url-status=live }}</ref> Historians have estimated that between 15% and 20% (300,000 to 400,000) of the 2,000,000 whites in the colonies in 1775 were Loyalists.<ref>Calhoon, "Loyalism and neutrality", p. 235; Middlekauff (2005) pp. 563–564; Thomas B. Allen, ''Tories: Fighting for the King in America's First Civil War'' (2010) p. xx</ref>
==Background==
Families were often divided during the American Revolution, and many felt themselves to be both American and British, still owing loyalty to the mother country. Maryland lawyer [[Daniel Dulany the Younger|Daniel Dulaney the Younger]] opposed [[No taxation without representation|taxation without representation]] but would not break his oath to the King or take up arms against him. He wrote: "There may be a time when redress may not be obtained. Till then, I shall recommend a legal, orderly, and prudent resentment".<ref>Andrews, p. 284</ref> Most Americans hoped for a peaceful reconciliation but were forced to choose sides by the Patriots who took control nearly everywhere in the Thirteen Colonies in 1775–76.<ref>Jassanoff, ch 1</ref>
==Motives for Loyalism==
Yale historian Leonard Woods Larabee has identified eight characteristics of the Loyalists that made them essentially conservative and loyal to the King and to Britain:<ref>Leonard Woods Larabee, ''Conservatism in Early American History'' (Cornell UP, 1948) pp 164–165 [https://archive.org/details/conservatisminea0000laba/page/4 online].</ref>
* They were older, better established, and resisted radical change.
* They felt that rebellion against the Crown—the legitimate government—was morally wrong. They saw themselves as [[Americans]] but loyal to the [[British Empire]] and saw a rebellion against [[Great Britain]] as a betrayal to the Empire. At the time the [[national identity]] of Americans was still in formation and the very idea of two separate peoples (nationalities) with their own sovereign states (the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[United States|United States of America]]) was itself revolutionary.
* They felt alienated when the Patriots (seen by them as [[separatist]]s who rebelled against the Crown) resorted to violence, such as burning down houses and [[tarring and feathering]].
* They wanted to take a middle-of-the-road position and were not pleased when forced by Patriots to declare their opposition.
* They had business and family links with Britain.
* They felt that independence from Britain would come eventually, but wanted it to come about organically.
* They were wary that chaos, corruption, and mob rule would come about as a result of revolution.
* Some were "pessimists" who did not display the same belief in the future that the Patriots did. Others recalled the dreadful experiences of many [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]]s after the failure of their [[1715 Jacobite Rebellion|1715]] and [[1745 Jacobite rebellion|1745]] rebellions, who often had their lands confiscated by the [[House of Hanover|Hanoverian]] government.<ref>See also N. E. H. Hull, Peter C. Hoffer and Steven L. Allen, "Choosing Sides: A Quantitative Study of the Personality Determinants of Loyalist and Revolutionary Political Affiliation in New York," ''Journal of American History'',  (1978) 65#2 pp. 344–366 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1894084 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223064405/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1894084 |date=2020-02-23 }}</ref><ref>Edwin G. Burrows and Michael Wallace, "The American Revolution: The Ideology and Psychology of National Liberation," ''Perspectives in American History,'' (1972) vol. 6 pp 167–306</ref><ref>Mark Jodoin. ''Shadow Soldiers of the American Revolution: Loyalist Tales from New York to Canada.'' 2009. {{ISBN|978-1-59629-726-5}}. [[The History Press]], Charleston, SC.</ref>
Other motives of the Loyalists included:
* They felt a need for order and believed that Parliament was the legitimate authority.<ref>Hull, Hoffer and Allen, ''Choosing Sides'' (1978), p. 352</ref>
* In New York, powerful families had assembled colony-wide coalitions of supporters; the [[de Lancey family]] (of [[Huguenot]] and [[New York Dutch]] ancestry) formed [[De Lancey's Brigade]] with support from its associates.<ref>Hull, Hoffer and Allen, ''Choosing Sides'' (1978), pp. 347, 354, 365</ref>
* They felt themselves to be weak or threatened within American society and in need of an outside defender such as the British Crown and Parliament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/loyalists|title=Loyalists|first=Bruce G.|last=Wilson|access-date=2013-03-11|archive-date=2013-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326000919/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/loyalists|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Black Loyalist]]s were promised freedom from slavery by the British.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brighthubeducation.com/history-homework-help/112430-loyalists-during-the-american-revolution/|title=Loyalists During the American Revolutionary War: What Happened to Them?|website=Bright Hub Education|date=March 31, 2011|access-date=March 11, 2013|archive-date=September 24, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924184607/http://www.brighthubeducation.com/history-homework-help/112430-loyalists-during-the-american-revolution/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://blackloyalist.com/canadiandigitalcollection/story/revolution/dunmore.htm |title=Lord Dunmore's Proclamation |access-date=March 11, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515175351/http://www.blackloyalist.com/canadiandigitalcollection/story/revolution/dunmore.htm |archive-date=May 15, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackpast.org/?q=aah%2Flord-dunmore-s-ethiopian-regiment|title=Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment – The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed|website=blackpast.org|date=June 29, 2007|access-date=March 11, 2013|archive-date=April 20, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420200130/http://www.blackpast.org/?q=aah%2Flord-dunmore-s-ethiopian-regiment|url-status=live}}</ref>
* They felt that being a part of the British Empire was crucial in terms of commerce and their business operations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/loyalists/|title=Loyalists|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon|access-date=2016-05-01|archive-date=2016-05-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507163239/http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/loyalists/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h568.html|title=The Loyalists|access-date=2013-03-16|archive-date=2013-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105005902/http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h568.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Loyalism and military operations==
{{main|Loyalists fighting in the American Revolution}}
In the opening months of the Revolutionary War, the Patriots [[Siege of Boston|laid siege]] to [[Boston]], where most of the British forces were stationed. Elsewhere there were few British troops and the Patriots seized control of all levels of government, as well as supplies of arms and gunpowder. Vocal Loyalists recruited people to their side, often with the encouragement and assistance of royal governors. In the South Carolina back country, Loyalist recruitment outstripped that of Patriots. A [[Siege of Savage's Old Fields|brief siege]] at [[Ninety Six, South Carolina]] in the fall of 1775 was followed by a rapid rise in Patriot recruiting. In what became known as the [[Snow Campaign]], partisan militia arrested or drove out most of the back country Loyalist leadership. North Carolina back country Scots and former [[War of the Regulation|Regulators]] joined forces in early 1776, but they were broken as a force at the [[Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge]].
By July 4, 1776, the Patriots had gained control of virtually all territory in the Thirteen Colonies and expelled all royal officials. No one who openly proclaimed their loyalty to the Crown was allowed to remain, so Loyalists fled or kept quiet. Some of those who remained later gave aid to invading British armies or joined uniformed Loyalist regiments.<ref>Calhoun (1973){{Page needed|date=January 2012}}</ref>
The British were forced out of Boston by March 17, 1776. They regrouped at Halifax and attacked [[Province of New York|New York]] in August, defeating [[George Washington]]'s army at [[Long Island]] and capturing [[New York City]] and its vicinity, and they occupied the mouth of the [[Hudson River]] until 1783. British forces seized control of other cities, including [[Philadelphia]] (1777), [[Savannah, Georgia]] (1778–83), and [[Charleston, South Carolina]] (1780–82). But 90% of the colonial population lived outside the cities, with the effective result that Congress represented 80 to 90 percent of the population. The British removed their governors from colonies where the Patriots were in control, but Loyalist civilian government was re-established in coastal [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]<ref name = "Gerogian">[http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2709 Georgia Encyclopædia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919032502/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2709 |date=2008-09-19 }}.</ref> from 1779 to 1782, despite the presence of Patriot forces in the northern part of Georgia. Essentially, the British were only able to maintain power in areas where they had a strong military presence.
===Numbers of Loyalists===
Historian Robert Calhoon wrote in 2000, concerning the proportion of Loyalists to Patriots in the Thirteen Colonies:
{{blockquote|Historians' best estimates put the proportion of adult white male loyalists somewhere between 15 and 20 percent. Approximately half the colonists of European ancestry tried to avoid involvement in the struggle—some of them deliberate pacifists, others recent immigrants, and many more simple apolitical folk. The patriots received active support from perhaps 40 to 45 percent of the white populace, and at most no more than a bare majority.<ref>Robert M. Calhoon, in ''A companion to the American Revolution'' (2000); p. 235. {{ISBN?}}</ref>}}
[[File:Jury finding Kentucky County Virginia John Connolly Daniel Boone 1780.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A jury finding from [[Kentucky County, Virginia]] in July 1780, confiscating lands of two men adjudged to be British subject. [[Daniel Boone]] was listed as a member of the jury.]]
Before Calhoon's work, estimates of the Loyalist share of the population were somewhat higher, at about one-third, but these estimates are now rejected as too high by most scholars.<ref>[[John Adams]] has sometimes been cited as having claimed, in an 1813 letter, that one-third of Americans supported the revolution and one-third were against. However, the passage in question actually refers to the [[French Revolution of 1789]]. {{cite book|author=Robert D. Marcus|title=The American Scene: Varieties of American History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-w_xPy-S3aEC&pg=PA147|year=1971|page=147|publisher=Ardent Media |isbn=978-0390597731}} See also [http://hnn.us/articles/5641.html "Only 1/3 of Americans Supported the American Revolution?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930033733/http://hnn.us/articles/5641.html |date=2007-09-30 }}, by William Marina. Jun 28, 2004. Retrieved on July 14, 2008.</ref> In 1968 historian Paul H. Smith estimated there were about 400,000 Loyalists, or 16% of the white population of 2.25 million in 1780.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ray Raphael|title=A People's History of the American Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HEXNoC7ket4C&pg=PT393|year=2012|publisher=The New Press|page=393|isbn=978-1595588517}}</ref><ref>Paul H. Smith, "The American Loyalists: Notes on Their Organization and Numerical Strength," ''William and Mary Quarterly'' (1968) 25#2 pp. 259–277 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1919095 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001034818/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1919095 |date=2018-10-01 }}</ref>
Historian [[Robert Middlekauff]] summarized scholarly research on the nature of Loyalist support as follows:
<blockquote>The largest number of loyalists were found in the [[Middle Colonies|middle colonies]]: many [[tenant farmer]]s of [[Province of New York|New York]] supported [[George III of the United Kingdom|the king]], for example, as did many of the [[Dutch Americans|Dutch]] in the colony and in [[Province of New Jersey|New Jersey]]. The [[German Americans|Germans]] in [[Province of Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]] tried to stay out of the Revolution, just as many [[Quakers]] did, and when that failed, clung to the familiar connection rather than embrace the new. [[Scottish Americans|Highland Scots]] in [[the Carolinas]], a fair number of [[Anglicanism|Anglican clergy]] and their parishioners in [[Connecticut Colony|Connecticut]] and [[Province of New York|New York]], a few [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]] in the [[Southern Colonies|southern colonies]], and a large number of the [[Iroquois]] stayed loyal to the king.<ref>Robert Middlekauff,  ''The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789'' (1985) p. 550.</ref></blockquote>
[[File:Johnson Hall, Johnstown, NY.jpg|left|thumb|Johnson Hall, seat of [[Sir John Johnson, 2nd Baronet|Sir John Johnson]] in the [[Mohawk Valley region|Mohawk Valley]]]]
After the British military capture of [[New York and New Jersey Campaign|New York City and Long Island]] it became the British military and political base of operations in North America from 1776 to 1783, prompting revolutionaries to flee and resulting in a large concentration of Loyalists, many of whom were refugees from other states.<ref name="Calhoon 1973">Calhoon (1973)</ref>
According to Calhoon,<ref name="Calhoon 1973"/> Loyalists tended to be older and wealthier, but there were also many Loyalists of humble means. Many active [[Church of England]] members became Loyalists. Some recent arrivals from Britain, especially those from Scotland, had a high Loyalist proportion. Loyalists in the southern colonies were suppressed by the local Patriots, who controlled local and state government. Many people—including former [[War of the Regulation|Regulators]] in [[History of North Carolina|North Carolina]]—refused to join the rebellion, as they had earlier protested against corruption by local authorities who later became Revolutionary leaders. The oppression by the local Whigs during the Regulation led to many of the residents of backcountry North Carolina sitting out the Revolution or siding with the Loyalists.<ref name="Calhoon 1973"/>
In areas under Patriot control, Loyalists were subject to [[Confiscation|confiscation of property]], and outspoken supporters of the king were threatened with public humiliation such as [[tarring and feathering]], or physical attack. It is not known how many Loyalist civilians were harassed by the Patriots, but the treatment was a warning to other Loyalists not to take up arms. In September 1775, [[William Drayton]] and Loyalist leader Colonel [[Thomas Fletchall]] signed a treaty of neutrality in the interior community of [[Ninety Six, South Carolina|Ninety Six]], [[South Carolina]].<ref>See [http://www.nps.gov/revwar/revolution_day_by_day/1775_main.html online NPS.gov] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230051626/http://www.nps.gov/revwar/revolution_day_by_day/1775_main.html |date=2020-12-30 }}</ref> For actively aiding the British army when it occupied Philadelphia, two residents of the city were tried for treason, convicted, and executed by returning Patriot forces.<ref>{{cite book|author=Louis P. Masur |title=Rites of Execution: Capital Punishment and the Transformation of American Culture, 1776–1865|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6KsUQE57fYC&pg=PA75|year=1989|publisher=Oxford UP|page=75|isbn=978-0198021582}}</ref>
===Slavery and Black Loyalists===
{{Main|Black Loyalist}}
[[File:AricanNovaScotianByCaptain William Booth1788.png|thumb|A [[Black Loyalist]] wood cutter at [[Shelburne, Nova Scotia]] in 1788]]
As a result of the looming crisis in 1775, the Royal [[Governor of Virginia]], [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Lord Dunmore]], [[Dunmore's Proclamation|issued a proclamation]] that promised freedom to indentured servants and slaves who were able to bear arms and join his Loyalist [[Ethiopian Regiment]]. Many of the slaves in the South joined the Loyalists with intentions of gaining freedom and escaping the South. About 800 did so; some helped rout the Virginia militia at the [[Battle of Kemp's Landing]] and fought in the [[Battle of Great Bridge]] on the [[Elizabeth River (Virginia)|Elizabeth River]], wearing the motto "Liberty to Slaves", but this time they were defeated. The remains of their regiment were then involved in the evacuation of [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]], after which they served in the [[Chesapeake, Virginia|Chesapeake]] area. Eventually the camp that they had set up there suffered an outbreak of smallpox and other diseases. This took a heavy toll, putting many of them out of action for some time. The survivors joined other Loyalist units and continued to serve throughout the war. [[African Americans|African-Americans]] were often the first to come forward to volunteer and a total of 12,000 African Americans served with the British from 1775 to 1783. This forced the Patriots to also offer freedom to those who would serve in the Continental Army, with thousands of [[Black Patriot]]s serving in the [[Continental Army]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackloyalist.com/canadiandigitalcollection/story/revolution/philipsburg.htm |title=The Philipsburg Proclamation |access-date=October 17, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071117055926/http://www.blackloyalist.com/canadiandigitalcollection/story/revolution/philipsburg.htm |archive-date=November 17, 2007 }}</ref>
Americans who gained their freedom by fighting for the British became known as [[Black Loyalist]]s. The British honored the pledge of freedom in New York City through the efforts of General [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Guy Carleton]], who recorded the names of African Americans who had supported the British in a document called the [[Book of Negroes]], which granted freedom to slaves who had escaped and assisted the British. About 4,000 Black Loyalists went to the British colonies of [[Nova Scotia]] and [[New Brunswick]], where they were promised land grants. They founded communities across the two provinces, many of which still exist today. Over 2,500 settled in [[Birchtown, Nova Scotia]], instantly making it the largest [[Free Negro|free black]] community in North America. However, the long period of waiting time to be officially given land grants that were given to them and the prejudices of white Loyalists in nearby [[Shelburne, Nova Scotia|Shelburne]] who regularly harassed the settlement in events such as the [[Shelburne riots|Shelburne Riots]] in 1784, made life very difficult for the community.<ref name="blackloyalist.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.blackloyalist.com/historypage2.html |title=Black Loyalist Heritage Society |website=www.blackloyalist.com |access-date=January 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021110054520/http://www.blackloyalist.com/historypage2.html |archive-date=November 10, 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1791 the [[Sierra Leone Company]] offered to transport dissatisfied black Loyalists to the nascent colony of [[Sierra Leone]] in West Africa, with the promise of better land and more equality. About 1,200 left Nova Scotia for Sierra Leone, where they named the capital [[Freetown]].<ref name="blackloyalist.com"/> After 1787 they became Sierra Leone's ruling elite [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|during the colonial era]]<ref name="yeliba">{{Cite journal|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00596.x|title=Understanding Sierra Leone in Colonial West Africa: A Synoptic Socio-Political History|first=Joseph|last=Bangura|date=6 May 2009|journal=History Compass|volume=7|issue=3|pages=583–603|doi=10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00596.x|access-date=19 November 2022|archive-date=19 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119043456/https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00596.x|url-status=live}}</ref> and their descendants, the [[Sierra Leone Creoles]], are the cultural elites of the nation.<ref name="yeliba"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Walker |first=James W. |year=1992 |chapter=Chapter Five: Foundation of Sierra Leone |title=The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870 |location=Toronto |publisher=University of Toronto Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/blackloyalistsse0000walk/page/94 94]–114 |url=https://archive.org/details/blackloyalistsse0000walk |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-8020-7402-7}} Originally published by Longman & Dalhousie University Press (1976).</ref> About 400 to 1,000 free blacks who joined the British side in the Revolution went to London and joined the free black community of about 10,000 there.<ref>{{cite book|first=Stephen|last=Braidwood|
year=1994|title=Black Poor and White Philanthropists: London's Blacks and the Foundation of the Sierra Leone Settlement, 1786–1791|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=978-0-85323-377-0}}</ref><ref>Sivapragasam, Michael, "Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?" Unpublished master's dissertation (London: Open University, 2013).</ref>
=== Loyalist women ===
While men were out fighting for the Crown, women served at home protecting their land and property.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Women's Narratives of the Early Americas and the Formation of Empire.|last=Tillman|first=Kacy Dowd|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2016|location=New York |pages=142, 143|chapter=Women Left Behind: Female Loyalism, Coverture, and Grace Growden Galloway's Empire of Self}}</ref> At the end of the war, many loyalist men left America for the shelter of England, leaving their wives and daughters to protect their land.<ref name=":0" /> The main punishment for Loyalist families was the expropriation of property, but married women were protected under "[[Coverture|feme covert]]", which meant that they had no political identity and their legal rights were absorbed by their husbands.<ref name=":0" /> This created an awkward dilemma for the confiscation committees: confiscating the land of such a woman would punish her for her husband's actions.<ref name=":0" /> In many cases, the women did not get a choice on if they were labeled a loyalist or a patriot; the label was dependent on their husband's political association. However, some women showed their loyalty to the crown by continually purchasing British goods, writing it down, and showing resistance to the Patriots.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Who were the Loyalist Women of Cambridge? Introduction {{!}} History Cambridge |url=https://historycambridge.org/research/did-you-know/who-were-the-loyalist-women-of-cambridge-introduction/ |access-date=March 1, 2022 |website=historycambridge.org |archive-date=March 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301035944/https://historycambridge.org/research/did-you-know/who-were-the-loyalist-women-of-cambridge-introduction/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Grace Growden Galloway<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baxter|first=Beverly|year=1978|title=Grace Growden Galloway|journal=Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies|volume=62}}</ref> recorded the experience in her diary. Her writings show the difficulties that her family faced during the revolution. Galloway's property was seized by the [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Rebels]] and she spent the rest of her life fighting to regain it.<ref name=":0" /> It was returned to her heirs in 1783, after she and her husband had died.<ref name=":0" />
Patriots allowed women to become involved in politics in a larger scale than the loyalists. Some women involved in political activity include Catharine Macaulay (a loyalist) and Mercy Otis Warren who were both writers during this time. Both women maintained a 20-year friendship although they wrote about different sides of the war. Macaulay wrote from a loyalist British perspective whereas Warren wrote about her support for the American Revolution. Macaulay's work include ''History of England'' and Warren wrote ''History of the Rise'', ''Progress'', and ''Termination of the American Revolution.'' Although both women's works were unpopular, during this time, it pushed them to learn from social critique.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Kate |title=Catherine Macaulay and Mercy Otis Warren: The Revolutionary Atlantic and the Politics of Gender |publisher=Oxford |year=2005 |isbn=0199281106 |pages=Volume 43: Issue 1}}</ref>
===Loyalism in Canada and Nova Scotia===
[[File:Tory Refugees by Howard Pyle.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Painting shows a woman on horseback, a man with a rifle and a boy fleeing town. In the distance, people are throwing rocks at them.|''Tory Refugees on their way to Canada'' by Howard Pyle]]
Rebel agents were active in [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Quebec]] (which was then frequently called "Canada", the name of the [[Canada (New France)|earlier French province]]) in the months leading to the outbreak of active hostilities. [[John Brown of Pittsfield|John Brown]], an agent of the [[Committees of correspondence|Boston Committee of Correspondence]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Aptheker |first=Herbert |title=The American Revolution, 1763–1783 |publisher=International Publishers Co |year=1960 |page=[https://archive.org/details/americanrevoluti0000apth/page/169 169] |url=https://archive.org/details/americanrevoluti0000apth|url-access=registration |quote=  John Brown  Boston Committee of Correspondence. |isbn=0-7178-0005-9}}</ref> worked with Canadian merchant Thomas Walker and other rebel sympathisers during the winter of 1774–1775 to convince inhabitants to support the actions of the [[First Continental Congress]]. However, many of Quebec's inhabitants remained neutral, resisting service to either the British or the Americans.
Although some Canadians took up arms in support of the rebellion, the majority remained loyal to the King. [[French Canadians]] had been satisfied by the British government's [[Quebec Act]] of 1774, which offered religious and linguistic toleration; in general, they did not sympathize with a rebellion that they saw as being led by Protestants from [[New England]], who were their commercial rivals and hereditary enemies. Most of the [[English language|English-speaking]] settlers had arrived following the British [[Conquest of New France (1758-1760)|conquest of Canada]] in 1759–1760, and were unlikely to support separation from Britain. The older British colonies, [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] and [[Nova Scotia]] (including what is now [[New Brunswick]]) also remained loyal and contributed military forces in support of the Crown.
In late 1775 the [[Continental Army]] [[Invasion of Quebec (1775)|sent a force into Quebec]], led by General [[Richard Montgomery]] and Colonel [[Benedict Arnold]], with the goal of convincing the residents of Quebec to join the Revolution. Although only a minority of Canadians openly expressed loyalty to King George, about 1,500 militia fought for the King in the [[Siege of Fort St. Jean]]. In the region south of Montreal that was occupied by the Continentals, some inhabitants supported the rebellion and raised two regiments to join the Patriot forces.<ref name = "Wade">Mason Wade, ''The French Canadians'' (1955) 1:67–69.</ref>
In [[Nova Scotia]], there were many Yankee settlers originally from New England, and they generally supported the principles of the revolution. The allegiance toward the rebellion waned as American privateers [[Nova Scotia in the American Revolution|raided Nova Scotia communities]] throughout the war. As well, the Nova Scotia government used the law to convict people for sedition and treason for supporting the rebel cause. There was also the influence of an influx of recent immigration from the British isles, and they remained neutral during the war, and the influx was greatest in Halifax.<ref>George Rawlyck, ''A People Highly Favoured Of God. The Nova Scotia Yankees. And the American Revolution'' (Toronto: 1972)</ref> Britain in any case built up powerful forces at the naval base of [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] after the failure of [[Jonathan Eddy]] to [[Battle of Fort Cumberland|capture Fort Cumberland]] in 1776.<ref>Philip Buckner and John G Reid, eds. ''The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History'' (1995) pp 168–170</ref><ref>J.B. Brebner, ''The Neutral Yankees of Nova Scotia'' (1937)</ref> Although the Continentals captured [[Montreal]] in November 1775, they were [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|turned back]] a month later at [[Quebec City]] by a combination of the British military under Governor [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Guy Carleton]], the difficult terrain and weather, and an indifferent local response. The Continental forces would be driven from Quebec in 1776, after the breakup of ice on the St. Lawrence River and the arrival of British transports in May and June. There would be no further serious attempt to challenge British control of present-day Canada until the [[War of 1812]].
In 1777, 1,500 Loyalist militia took part in the [[Saratoga campaign]] in New York, and surrendered with General [[John Burgoyne|Burgoyne]] after the [[Battles of Saratoga]] in October. For the rest of the war, Quebec acted as a base for raiding expeditions, conducted primarily by Loyalists and Indians, against frontier communities.
===Military service===
The Loyalists rarely attempted any political organization. They were often passive unless regular British army units were in the area. The British, however, assumed a highly activist Loyalist community was ready to mobilize and planned much of their strategy around raising Loyalist regiments. The British provincial line, consisting of Americans enlisted on a regular army status, enrolled 19,000 Loyalists (50 units and 312 companies). The maximum strength of the Loyalist provincial line was 9,700 in December 1780.<ref>Smith 264–267.</ref><ref name="Calhoon502">Calhoon 502.</ref> In all about 19,000 at one time or another were soldiers or militia in British forces.<ref>Smith, p. 267</ref> Loyalists from South Carolina fought for the British in the [[Battle of Camden]]. The British forces at the [[Battle of Monck's Corner]] and the [[Battle of Lenud's Ferry]] consisted entirely of Loyalists with the exception of the commanding officer ([[Banastre Tarleton]]).<ref>Wilson, David. ''The Southern Strategy'' (University of South Carolina Press. 2005.)</ref> Both white and black Loyalists fought for the British at the [[Battle of Kemp's Landing]] in Virginia.<ref>Selby, John E; Higginbotham, Don (2007)</ref>
==Emigration from the United States==
{{Main|Expulsion of the Loyalists}}
[[File:Nova Scotia DSC01409 - End of a Great Day (7705708372).jpg|thumb|[[Shelburne, Nova Scotia]], a major early destination of Loyalist refugees]]
Estimates for how many Loyalists emigrated after the war differ. Historian [[Maya Jasanoff]] calculated 60,000 in total went to British North America, including about 50,000 whites, however Philip Ranlet estimates that only 20,000 adult white Loyalists went to Canada,<ref>Ranlet, Philip (2014) "How Many American Loyalists Left the United States?." ''Historian'' 76.2: 278–307.</ref> while Wallace Brown cites about 80,000 Loyalists in total permanently left the United States.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=Wallace|title=The American Farmer during the Revolution: Rebel or Loyalist?|journal=Agricultural History|date=1968|volume=42|issue=4|page=331}}</ref>
According to Jasanoff, the majority of these Loyalists – 36,000 – went to [[New Brunswick]] and [[Nova Scotia]], while about 6,600 went to Quebec and 2,000 to [[Prince Edward Island]]. About 5,090 white Loyalists went to Florida, bringing along their slaves who numbered about 8,285 (421 whites and 2,561 blacks returned to the States from Florida).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Russell |first1=David Lee |title=The American Revolution in the Southern colonies |date=2000 |publisher=McFarland & Co |isbn=0-7864-0783-2 |page=317}}</ref> When Florida was returned to Spain, however, very few Loyalists remained there.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Approximately 6,000 whites went to Jamaica and other Caribbean islands, notably the Bahamas, and about 13,000 went to Britain (including 5,000 free blacks). The total is 60–62,000 whites.
A precise figure cannot be known because the records were incomplete and inaccurate, and small numbers continued to leave after 1783. The 50,000 or so white departures represented about 10% of the Loyalists (at 20–25% of the white population).<ref>{{cite book|author=Maya Jasanoff|title=Liberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGKsn09oVwQC&pg=PA357|year=2012|publisher=Random House |page=357|isbn=978-1400075478}}</ref> Loyalists (especially soldiers and former officials) could choose evacuation. Loyalists whose roots were not yet deeply embedded in the United States were more likely to leave; older people who had familial bonds and had acquired friends, property, and a degree of social respectability were more likely to remain in the US.<ref>Lohrenz (1998)</ref> The vast majority of the half-million white Loyalists, about 20–25% of the total number of whites, remained in the US. Starting in the mid-1780s a small percentage of those who had left returned to the United States. The exiles amounted to about 2% of the total US population of 3 million at the end of the war in 1783.
After 1783 some former Loyalists, especially Germans from Pennsylvania, emigrated to Canada to take advantage of the British government's offer of free land. Many departed the fledgling United States because they faced continuing hostility. In another migration-motivated mainly by economic rather than political reasons-<ref>''The Canadian Encyclopedia'', "Loyalists"; and ''Liberty's Exiles'', Maya Jasanoff, pp.&nbsp;206–208.</ref> more than 20,000 and perhaps as many as 30,000 "Late Loyalists" arrived in Ontario in the 1790s attracted by [[John Graves Simcoe|Lieutenant-Governor Simcoe]]'s policy of land and low taxes, one-fifth those in the US and swearing an oath{{when|date=May 2019}} of allegiance to the King.
The 36,000 or so who went to Nova Scotia were not well received by the 17,000 Nova Scotians, who were mostly descendants of New Englanders settled there before the Revolution.<ref>Neil MacKinnon, ''This Unfriendly Soil: The Loyalist Experience in Nova Scotia, 1783–1791'' (1989)</ref> "They [the Loyalists]", Colonel Thomas Dundas wrote in 1786, "have experienced every possible injury from the old inhabitants of Nova Scotia, who are even more disaffected towards the British Government than any of the new States ever were. This makes me much doubt their remaining long dependent."<ref>S.D. Clark, ''Movements of Political Protest in Canada, 1640–1840'' (1959), pp. 150–151</ref> In response, the colony of [[New Brunswick]], until 1784 part of Nova Scotia, was created for the 14,000 who had settled in those parts. Of the 46,000 who went to Canada, 10,000 went to Quebec, especially what is now modern-day [[Ontario]], the rest to Nova Scotia and PEI.
Realizing the importance of some type of consideration, on November 9, 1789, [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Lord Dorchester]], the governor of Quebec, declared that it was his wish to "put the mark of Honour upon the Families who had adhered to the Unity of the [[British Empire|Empire]]." As a result of Dorchester's statement, the printed militia rolls carried the notation:
<blockquote>Those Loyalists who have adhered to the Unity of the Empire, and joined the Royal Standard before the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Separation]] in the year 1783, and all their Children and their Descendants by either sex, are to be distinguished by the following Capitals, affixed to their names: U.E. Alluding to their great principle The Unity of the Empire.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Boudreau|first1=Claire|last2=Cogné|first2=Daniel|last3=Vachon|first3=Auguste|title=Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Genealogical and Heraldic Sciences in Ottawa from August 18 to 23, 1996|date=1998|publisher=University of Ottawa Press|page=202}}</ref></blockquote>
The [[Post-nominal letters|post-nominals]] "U.E." are rarely seen today, but the influence of the Loyalists on the evolution of Canada remains. Their ties to Britain and/or their antipathy to the United States provided the strength needed to keep Canada independent and distinct in North America. The Loyalists' basic distrust of [[republicanism]] and "[[Ochlocracy|mob rule]]" influenced [[Canadian Confederation|Canada's gradual path to independence]]. The new British North American provinces of [[Upper Canada]] (the forerunner of Ontario) and [[New Brunswick]] were founded as places of refuge for the United Empire Loyalists.<ref name="Corse1997">{{cite book |last1=Corse |first1=Sarah M. |title=Nationalism and Literature: The Politics of Culture in Canada and the United States |year=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57912-4 |pages=49–50 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YH0Ru6Al66sC&pg=PA49}}</ref>
In an interesting historical twist [[Peter Matthews (rebel)|Peter Matthews]], a son of Loyalists, participated in the [[Upper Canada Rebellion]] which sought relief from oligarchic British colonial government and pursued American style [[Republicanism]]. He was arrested, tried and executed in [[Toronto]], and later became heralded as a patriot to the movement which led to Canadian self-governance.
The wealthiest and most prominent Loyalist exiles went to Great Britain to rebuild their careers; many received pensions. Many Southern Loyalists, taking along their slaves, went to the [[West Indies]], particularly to the [[Abaco Islands]] in the [[The Bahamas|Bahamas]].
Certain Loyalists who fled the United States brought their slaves with them to Canada (mostly to areas that later became [[Ontario]] and [[New Brunswick]]) where [[Slavery in Canada|slavery was legal]]. An imperial law in 1790 assured prospective immigrants to Canada that their slaves would remain their property.<ref>Patrick Bode, "Upper Canada, 1793: Simcoe and the Slaves." ''Beaver'' 1993 73(3): 17–19</ref> However, a law enacted by eminent British lieutenant general and founder of modern [[Toronto]] [[John Graves Simcoe]] in 1793 entitled the [[Act Against Slavery]] tried to suppress slavery in [[Upper Canada]] by halting the sale of slaves to the United States, and by freeing slaves upon their escape from the latter into Canada. Simcoe desired to demonstrate the merits of [[loyalism]] and [[abolitionism]] in Upper Canada in contrast to the nascent republicanism and prominence of [[slavery in the United States]], and, according to historian Stanley R. Mealing:
:"...he had not only the most articulate faith in its imperial destiny but also the most sympathetic appreciation of the interests and aspirations of its inhabitants".<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.7202/300570ar|title=The Enthusiasms of John Graves Simcoe|year=1958|last1=Mealing|first1=S. R.|journal=Report of the Annual Meeting|volume=37|page=50|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>Fryer, M.B., &amp; Dracott, C. (1998). ''John Graves Simcoe, 1752–1806: A biography''. Toronto: Dundurn Press. {{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=September 2024}}</ref>
However the actual law was a compromise. According to historian Afua Cooper, Simcoe's law required children in slavery to be freed when they reached age 25 and:
:forbade the importation of slaves but, to Simcoe's disappointment, did not grant freedom to adult slaves. Having not been freed by the act, many Canadian slaves fled across the border into the Old Northwest Territory, where slavery had been abolished.<ref>Afua Cooper, "Acts of Resistance: Black Men and Women Engage Slavery in Upper Canada, 1793–1803" ''Ontario History'' (Spring 2007) 99#1 pp 5–17.</ref>
Thousands of [[Iroquois]] and other [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] were expelled from New York and other states and resettled in Canada. The descendants of one such group of Iroquois, led by [[Joseph Brant]] (Thayendenegea), settled at [[Six Nations of the Grand River]], the largest [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] [[Indian reserve|reserve]] in Canada. (The remainder, under the leadership of [[Cornplanter]] (John Abeel) and members of his family, stayed in New York.) A group of African-American Loyalists settled in Nova Scotia but emigrated again for [[Sierra Leone]] after facing [[discrimination]] there.
Many of the Loyalists were forced to abandon substantial properties to America restoration of or compensation for these lost properties, which was a major issue during the negotiation of the [[Jay Treaty]] in 1794. Two successive boards were formed, and under a new convention signed in 1802 by the United States and Great Britain for the mutual payment of claims, the US paid the sum of £600,000, while only £1,420,000 of nearly £5 million in claims considered by commissioners in Britain were judged to be good.<ref name="BritishNationalArchives223">{{cite web |title=American Loyalist Claims Commission: Records, 1777–1841 |url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C13816 |publisher=The National Archives, Kew |date=2023}}</ref>
==Ex-Loyalists in the United States==
The great majority of Loyalists never left the United States; they stayed on and were allowed to be citizens of the new country, retaining for a time the earlier designation of "Tories". Some became nationally prominent leaders, including [[Samuel Seabury]], who was the first Bishop of the Episcopal Church, and [[Tench Coxe]]. There was a small but significant trickle of returnees who found life in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick too difficult. Perhaps 10% of the refugees to New Brunswick returned to the States as did an unknown number from Nova Scotia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Christopher |title=The Loyalists : revolution, exile, settlement |date=1984 |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |isbn=978-0771060939 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/loyalists00chri/page/244 244–252] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/loyalists00chri/page/244 }}</ref> Some Massachusetts Tories settled in the [[Maine District]]. Nevertheless, the vast majority never returned. Captain Benjamin Hallowell, who as Mandamus Councilor in Massachusetts served as the direct representative of the Crown, was considered by the insurgents as one of the most hated men in the Colony, but as a token of compensation when he returned from England in 1796, his son was allowed to regain the family house.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jphs.org/colonial/capt-benjamin-hallowell-homestead.html|title=Jamaica Plain Historical Society – 'Colonial Era' Editor – Capt Benjamin Hallowell Homestead|website=jphs.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080904235939/http://www.jphs.org/colonial/capt-benjamin-hallowell-homestead.html|archive-date=September 4, 2008}}</ref>
In many States, moderate Whigs, who had not been in favor of separation from Britain but preferred a negotiated settlement which would have maintained ties to the Mother Country, aligned with Tories to block radicals. Among these was [[Alexander Hamilton]] in 1782–85, to wrest control of New York State from the faction of the [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]. Most States had rescinded anti-Tory laws by 1787, although the accusation of being a Tory was heard for another generation. Several hundred who had left for Florida returned to Georgia in 1783–84. South Carolina which had seen a bitter bloody internal civil war in 1780–82 adopted a policy of reconciliation that proved more moderate than any other state. About 4500 white Loyalists left when the war ended, but the majority remained behind. The state government successfully and quickly reincorporated the vast majority. During the war, pardons were offered to Loyalists who switched sides and joined the Patriot forces. Others were required to pay a 10% fine of the value of the property. The legislature named 232 Loyalists liable for the confiscation of their property, but most appealed and were forgiven.<ref>Rebecca Brannon, ''From Revolution to Reunion: The Reintegration of the South Carolina Loyalists'' (Univ of South Carolina Press, 2016).</ref> In Connecticut much to the disgust of the Radical Whigs the moderate Whigs were advertising in New York newspapers in 1782–83 that Tories who would make no trouble would be welcome on the grounds that their skills and money would help the State's economy. The Moderates prevailed. All anti-Tory laws were repealed in early 1783 except for the law relating to confiscated Tory estates: "... the problem of the loyalists after 1783 was resolved in their favor after the War of Independence ended." In 1787 the last of any discriminatory laws were rescinded.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeichner |first1=Oscar |title=The Rehabilitation of Loyalists in Connecticut |journal=The New England Quarterly |date=June 1938 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=308–330|doi=10.2307/360711 |jstor=360711 }}</ref>
==Effect of the departure of Loyalist leaders==
{{Toryism |expanded=related}}
The departure of so many royal officials, rich merchants and landed gentry destroyed the hierarchical networks that had dominated most of the colonies. A major result was that a Patriot/Whig elite supplanted royal officials and affluent Tories.<ref>''The Forging of the New Nation, 1781–1789'', Robert B. Morris, 1987, p. 163. {{ISBN?}}</ref> In New York, the departure of key members of the De Lancey, De Peyster, Walton and Cruger families undercut the interlocking families that largely owned and controlled the Hudson Valley. Likewise in Pennsylvania, the departure of powerful families—Penn, Allen, Chew, Shippen—destroyed the cohesion of the old upper class there. Massachusetts passed an act banishing forty-six Boston merchants in 1778, including members of some of Boston's wealthiest families. The departure of families such as the Ervings, Winslows, Clarks, and Lloyds deprived Massachusetts of men who had hitherto been leaders of networks of family and clients. The bases of the men who replaced them were much different. One rich Patriot in Boston noted in 1779 that "fellows who would have cleaned my shoes five years ago, have amassed fortunes and are riding in chariots." New men became rich merchants but they shared a spirit of republican equality that replaced the former elitism.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gordon S. Wood|title=The Radicalism of the American Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lGinKwz7l8C&pg=PA177|year=1992|publisher=Random House |pages=176–177|isbn=978-0307758965}}</ref>
The Patriot reliance on Catholic France for military, financial and diplomatic aid led to a sharp drop in anti-Catholic rhetoric. Indeed, the king replaced the pope as the demon Patriots had to fight against. Anti-Catholicism remained strong among Loyalists, some of whom went to Canada after the war most remained in the new nation. By the 1780s, Catholics were extended legal toleration in all of the New England states that previously had been so hostile. "In the midst of war and crisis, New Englanders gave up not only their allegiance to Britain but one of their most dearly held prejudices."<ref>Francis Cogliano, ''No King, No Popery: Anti-Catholicism in Revolutionary New England'' (1995) pp. 154–155, quote p. 155.</ref>
==Loyalists in art==
* [[John Singleton Copley]] painted many prominent Loyalists and produced an oil-on-canvas depiction of a soldier wearing the uniform of the Royal Ethiopian Regiment (a regiment composed of black Loyalist soldiers) in ''[[The Death of Major Peirson, 6 January 1781|The Death of Major Pierson]]'' (1784).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://atlanticportal.hil.unb.ca/acva/blackloyalists/en/context/gallery/copley.html|title=Black Loyalists in New Brunswick, 1783–1854: 'The Death of Major Peirson', John Singleton Copley|website=atlanticportal.hil.unb.ca|access-date=2013-03-16|archive-date=2013-01-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126093109/http://atlanticportal.hil.unb.ca/acva/blackloyalists/en/context/gallery/copley.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Benjamin West]] characterized the ethnic and economic diversity of the Loyalists in his ''Reception of the American Loyalists by Great Britain in the Year 1783''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.toriesfightingfortheking.com/WhoTories.htm |title=Tories: Fighting for the King in America's First Civil War |first=Thomas |last=Allen |website=toriesfightingfortheking.com |access-date=2013-03-16 |archive-date=2013-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130221083301/http://www.toriesfightingfortheking.com/WhoTories.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The original painting was lost, but a smaller version of it can be seen in the background of West's portrait of John Eardley Wilmot.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://atlanticportal.hil.unb.ca/acva/blackloyalists/en/context/gallery/wilmot.html|title=Black Loyalists in New Brunswick, 1783–1854: 'John Eardley Wilmot' by Benjamin West|website=atlanticportal.hil.unb.ca|access-date=2013-11-14|archive-date=2014-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331174538/http://atlanticportal.hil.unb.ca/acva/blackloyalists/en/context/gallery/wilmot.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Gilbert Stuart]] painted a portrait of [[James De Lancey|James DeLancey]] around 1785. It stays in the collection of the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], a bequest of his descendant George DeLancey Harris Jr. of New York City & [[Annapolis Royal|Annapolis Royal, NS]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/19826|title=Gilbert Stuart – James DeLancey|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=2017-06-08|archive-date=2017-11-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117180205/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/19826|url-status=live}}</ref>
<gallery class="center" widths="275px" heights="225px">
File:John Singleton Copley 001.jpg|John Copley's ''The Death of Major Pierson''
File:Benjamin West - John Eardley Wilmot - Google Art Project.jpg|Benjamin West's ''Reception'' as a detail of ''John Eardley Wilmot''
</gallery>
==Loyalists in literature==
{{See also|:Category:Novels set during the American Revolutionary War}}
* ''The Adventures of Jonathan Corncob, Loyal American Refugee'' (1787) by Jonathan Corncob. According to Maya Jasanoff, "traveling to London to file a claim served as the opening gambit" for this "[[picaresque novel]] about the American Revolution".<ref>Maya Jasanoff (2011), p, 386, n. 67.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18Et4ZikXLMC&q=the+adventures+of+jonathan+corncob&pg=PA427|title=Revolution and the Word: The Rise of the Novel in America|first=Cathy N.|last=Davidson|date= 2004|publisher=Oxford University Press, US|via=Google Books|isbn=9780195177718}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fO9zG7ILq10C&q=the+adventures+of+jonathan+corncob+phd&pg=PR10|title=A Reader's Delight|first=Noel|last=Perrin|date=1988|publisher=UPNE|via=Google Books|isbn=9780874514322}}</ref>
* "[[Rip Van Winkle]]" (1819), short story by [[Washington Irving]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enotes.com/rip-van-winkle-reference/rip-van-winkle|title=Rip Van Winkle Summary |website=eNotes.com|access-date=2013-03-16|archive-date=2013-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731094119/http://www.enotes.com/rip-van-winkle-reference/rip-van-winkle|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[The Spy (Cooper novel)|The Spy: a Tale of the Neutral Ground]]'' (1821), novel by [[James Fenimore Cooper]]
* ''Oliver Wiswell'' (1940), a novel by [[Kenneth Roberts (author)|Kenneth Roberts]]
*{{cite book |last1=Downie |first1=Mary Alice |author-link1=Mary Alice Downie |last2=Downie |first2=John |title=Honor Bound |year=1971 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Toronto |isbn=0-19-540192-1 |others=illus. Joan Huffman }}
* ''[[The Book of Negroes (novel)|The Book of Negroes]]'' (2007) by [[Lawrence Hill]]
* ''[[The Fort (novel)|The Fort]]'' (2010), novel by [[Bernard Cornwell]]
* {{cite book | first=Wendy| last=Long Stanley | year=2019 | title=The Power to Deny: A Woman of the Revolution Novel | publisher=Carmenta Publishing | isbn=978-1-951747-00-8 }} Well received historical fiction account of the life of [[Elizabeth Graeme Fergusson]]
* ''[[The Domination]]'', a [[dystopian]] [[science fiction]] [[alternate history]] series by [[S.M. Stirling]], is premised on the resettlement of Loyalists in the [[Cape Colony]].
==List of notable Loyalists==
{{Main list|List of notable Loyalists (American Revolution)}}
==See also==
{{portal|Biography|British Empire|Conservatism|Politics}}
* [[Monarchism in the United States]]
* [[Military history of Nova Scotia#American Revolution|American Revolution – Nova Scotia theatre]]
* [[Expulsion of the Loyalists]]
* [[List of places named for Loyalists (American Revolution)]]
* [[Frederick Haldimand]] (1718–1791) while serving in Canada amassed a huge [https://archive.today/20130628045904/http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&lang=eng&rec_nbr=105513 collection] filling 115 microfilm reels of documents, letters, etc. reflecting the Loyalist experience in Canada. A [https://archive.today/20130628065452/http://db.archives.queensu.ca/dbtw-wpd/exec/dbtwpub.dll?AC=GET_RECORD&XC=/dbtw-wpd/exec/dbtwpub.dll&BU=http://db.archives.queensu.ca/dbtw-wpd/fondsdb/query-fonds.html&TN=fonds&SN=AUTO6470&SE=950&RN=0&MR=20&TR=0&TX=1000&ES=0&CS=2&XP=&RF=Fonds+Results&EF=&DF=HTML+-+Fonds+Display&RL=1&EL=1&DL=1&NP=3&ID=&MF=&MQ=&TI=0&DT=&ST=0&IR=7418&NR=0&NB=0&SV=0&BG=ffffff&FG=000080&QS=query&OEX=ISO-8859-1&OEH=ISO-8859-1 partial finding aid] to this collection may be found on the Queens University Archives website.
* [[Godfrey–Milliken Bill]], proposed Canadian law demanding compensation from the US for Loyalist claims after its independence.
* [[Lorenzo Sabine]] (1803–1877), early historian and chronicler of the Loyalist experience
* ''[[Martin v. Hunter's Lessee]]''
* [[Maryland Loyalists Battalion]]
* [[Tory]]
* [[Tory scum]]
* [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]]
* [[United Empire Loyalist]]
* [[Southern Unionist]], a Southerner who fought for the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] during the [[American Civil War]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* [[Thomas B. Allen (author)|Allen, Thomas B.]] ''Tories: Fighting for the King in America's First Civil War.'' New York: HarperCollins, 2010. 496 pp. {{ISBN|978-0061241819}}
* Andrews, Matthew Page, ''History of Maryland'', Doubleday, New York (1929)
* [[Bernard Bailyn|Bailyn, Bernard]]. ''The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution'' (2nd ed. 1992) pp.&nbsp;230–319.
* ———. ''The Ordeal of Thomas Hutchinson: Loyalism and the Destruction of the First British Empire'' (1974), full scale biography of the most prominent Loyalist
*  Brown, Wallace. "The Loyalists and the American Revolution." ''History Today'' (Mar 1962), 12# 3, pp.&nbsp;149–157.
* Brown, Wallace. ''The King's Friends: The Composition and Motives of the American Loyalist Claimants'' (1966).
* Calhoon, Robert M. "Loyalism and neutrality" in Jack P. Greene and [[Jack Pole|J.R. Pole]], eds., ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution'' (1991); reprinted in {{cite book|last1=Greene|first1=Jack P.|last2=Pole|first2=J. R.|title=A Companion to the American Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xK1NuzpAcH8C&pg=PA235|year=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|pages=235–247|isbn=978-0470756447}}
* Calhoon, Robert M. ''The Loyalists in Revolutionary America, 1760–1781'' (1973), the most detailed scholarly study
* Calhoon, Robert M., Timothy M. Barnes and George A. Rawlyk, eds. ''Loyalists and Community in North America'' (1994).
* Chopra, Ruma. "Enduring Patterns of Loyalist Study: Definitions and Contours" ''History Compass'' (2013) 11#11 pp 983–993, {{doi|10.1111/hic3.12105}}
* Chopra, Ruma. ''Choosing Sides: Loyalists in Revolutionary America'' (2015)
* Doré, Gilbert. "Why The Loyalists Lost," ''Early America Review'' (Winter 2000) [http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/winter2000/loyalists.html online]
* Frazer, Gregg L. ''God Against the Revolution: The Loyalist Clergy's Case against the American Revolution'' Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2018. {{ISBN?}}
* Gould, Philip. ''Writing the Rebellion: Loyalists and the Literature of Politics in British America'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). {{ISBN?}}
* [[Maya Jasanoff|Jasanoff, Maya]]. ''Liberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World'' (2011), a comprehensive treatment, winner of the 2011 [[National Book Critics Circle Award]] for Non-Fiction and 2012 [[George Washington Book Prize]]
* [[Merrill Jensen|Jensen, Merrill]]. ''The New Nation: A History of the United States during the Confederation, 1781–1789'' 1950; detailed discussion of return of Loyalists, popular anger at their return; repeal of wartime laws against them
* Kermes, Stephanie. "'I Wish for Nothing More Ardent upon Earth, than to See My Friends and Country Again': The Return of Massachusetts Loyalists." ''Historical Journal of Massachusetts'' 2002 30(1): 30–49. {{ISSN|0276-8313}}
* Kerber, Linda. ''Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America'' (1997)
* Knowles, Norman. ''Inventing the Loyalists: The Ontario Loyalist Tradition and the Creation of Usable Pasts'' (1997) explores the identities and loyalties of those who moved to Canada.
* Lambert, Robert Stansbury. ''South Carolina Loyalists in the American Revolution'' (2nd ed. Clemson University Digital Press, 2011). [http://tigerprints.clemson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=cudp_mono full text online] 273 pp
* Lennox, Jeffers. ''North of America: Loyalists, Indigenous Nations, and the Borders of the Long American Revolution'' (Yale University Press, 2022) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58494 online review]
* Middlekauff, Robert. "The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789." (2005 edition)
* Moore, Christopher. ''The Loyalist: Revolution Exile Settlement''. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart (1994).
* Mason, Keith. "The American Loyalist Diaspora and the Reconfiguration of the British Atlantic World." In ''Empire and Nation: The American Revolution and the Atlantic World'', ed. Eliga H. Gould and Peter S. Onuf (2005).
* Minty, Christopher F. [https://www.amazon.com/Unfriendly-Liberty-Loyalist-Networks-Revolution/dp/1501769103/ref=sr_1_4?qid=1659618017&refinements=p_27%3AChristopher+F.+Minty&s=books&sr=1-4&text=Christopher+F.+Minty ''Unfriendly to Liberty: Loyalist Networks and the Coming of the American Revolution in New York City''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2023].
* Nelson, William H. ''The American Tory'' (1961)
* [[Mary Beth Norton|Norton, Mary Beth]]. ''The British-Americans: The Loyalist Exiles in England, 1774–1789''. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972.
* ———. ''Liberty's Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750–1800'' (1996)
* ———. "The Problem of the Loyalist – and the Problems of Loyalist Historians," ''Reviews in American History'' June 1974 v. 2 #2 pp 226–231
* Peck, Epaphroditus; ''The Loyalists of Connecticut'' (Yale University Press, 1934)
* Potter, Janice. ''The Liberty We Seek: Loyalist Ideology in Colonial New York and Massachusetts'' (1983).
* Quarles, Benjamin; ''Black Mosaic: Essays in Afro-American History and Historiography'' [[University of Massachusetts Press]]. (1988)
* Ranlet, Philip. "How Many American Loyalists Left the United States?." ''Historian'' 76.2 (2014): 278–307; estimates that only 20,000 adult white Loyalists went to Canada.
* [[Egerton Ryerson|Ryerson, Egerton]]. ''The Loyalists of America and Their Times: From 1620 to 1816''. 2 volumes. 2nd ed., 1880.
* Smith, Paul H. "The American Loyalists: Notes on Their Organization and Numerical Strength," ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 25 (1968): 259–277. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1919095 in JSTOR]
* [[Claude H. Van Tyne|Van Tyne, Claude Halstead]]. ''The Loyalists in the American Revolution'' (1902)
* Wade, Mason. ''The French Canadians: 1760–1945'' (1955) 2 vol.
::'''Compiled volumes of biographical sketches'''
* Palmer, Gregory. ''Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution''. Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., 1983. 998 pp. {{ISBN|978-0313281020}}
* [[Lorenzo Sabine|Sabine, Lorenzo]]. ''The American Loyalists, or Biographical Sketches of Adherents to the British Crown in The War of the Revolution; Alphabetically Arranged; with a Preliminary Historical Essay.'' Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1847. [https://archive.org/details/americanloyalis00sabigoog <!-- quote=inauthor:"Lorenzo Sabine". --> Google Books vi, 733 pp.]
* ———. ''Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution, with an Historical Essay''. 2 volumes. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1864. [https://archive.org/details/biographicalske00sabigoog <!-- quote=american loyalist claims. --> Google Books Volume 1, vi, 608 pp.] [https://archive.org/details/biographicalske03sabigoog <!-- quote=inauthor:"Lorenzo Sabine". --> Google Books Volume 2, 600 pp.]
::'''Studies of individual Loyalists'''
* {{Cite DNB|wstitle=Boucher, Jonathan |short=x}}
* Gainey, Joseph R. "Rev. Charles Woodmason (''c''. 1720–1789): Author, Loyalist, Missionary, and Psalmodist." ''West Gallery: The Newsletter of the West Gallery Music Association'' ({{ISSN|0960-4227}}), Issue No. 59 (Autumn 2011), pp.&nbsp;18–25. This undocumented article is the first publication to identify Woodmason's parents, background, baptism, marriage, and burial dates and places and contains much previously unavailable information.
* Hill, James Riley, III. ''An exercise in futility: the pre-Revolutionary career and influence of loyalist James Simpson''. M. A. Thesis. University of South Carolina, Columbia, 1992.  viii, 109 leaves ; 28&nbsp;cm. {{OCLC|30807526}}
* Hooker, Richard J., ed. ''The Carolina Backcountry on the Eve of the Revolution: The Journal and Other Writings of Charles Woodmason, Anglican Itinerant''. 1953. {{ISBN|978-0-8078-4035-1}}
* Lohrenz, Otto; "The Advantage of Rank and Status: Thomas Price, a Loyalist Parson of Revolutionary Virginia." ''The Historian.'' 60#3 (1998) pp 561+.
* Randall, Willard Sterne. ''A Little Revenge: Benjamin Franklin & His Son'' Little, Brown & Co, 1984.
* Skemp, Sheila. ''William Franklin: Son of a Patriot, Servant of a King'' Oxford University Press, 1990.
* Wright, J. Leitch. ''William Augusutus Bowles: Director General of the Creek Nation''. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1967.
* Zimmer, Anne Y. ''Jonathan Boucher, loyalist in exile''. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1978.
::'''Primary sources and guides to manuscripts and the literature'''
* Allen, Robert S. ''Loyalist Literature: An Annotated Bibliographic Guide to the Writings on the Loyalists of the American Revolution''. Issue 2 of Dundurn Canadian historical document series, 1982. {{ISBN|978-0919670617}}
* Brown, Wallace. "Loyalist Historiography." ''Acadiensis'', Vol. 4, No. 1 (Autumn 1974), pp.&nbsp;133–138. Link to [http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/Acadiensis/issue/view/971/showToc downloadable pdf] of this article.
* ———. [http://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44497991.pdf "The View at Two Hundred Years: The Loyalists of the American Revolution"], ''Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society'', Vol. 80, Part 1 (April 1970), pp.&nbsp;25–47.
* [[Catherine Crary|Crary, Catherine S.]], ed. ''Price of Loyalty: Tory Writings from the Revolutionary Era'' (1973)
* Egerton, Hugh Edward, ed. ''The Royal commission on the losses and services of American loyalists, 1783 to 1785, being the notes of Mr. Daniel Parker Coke, M. P., one of the commissioners during that period''. Oxford: The Roxburghe Club, 1915. [https://archive.org/details/lossesservicesloy00cokerich Link to downloadable pdf]
* [[Joseph Galloway|Galloway, Joseph]]. ''The claim of the American loyalists: reviewed and maintained upon incontrovertible principles of law and justice''. G. and T. Wilkie, 1788. Downloadable [https://archive.org/details/cihm_20695 <!-- quote=american loyalist claims. --> Google Books pdf 138 pages]
* [http://www.lib.unb.ca/collections/loyalist/index.html Guide to The Loyalist Collection] website, Harriet Irving Library, Fredericton campus, [[University of New Brunswick]], Canada
* [http://www.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/americanloyalists.pdf Guide to the New York Public Library Loyalist Collection] (19 pdfs)
* Palmer, Gregory S. ''A Bibliography of Loyalist Source Material in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain''. Westport, CT, 1982.
* ''The Particular Case of the Georgia Loyalists: in Addition to the General Case and Claim of the American Loyalists, which was Lately Published by Order of Their Agents. February 1783''. n.p., 1783. 16 pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Be1bAAAAQAAJ Google Books pdf]
==External links==
* [http://www.redcoat.me.uk/index.htm American Loyalists]
* [https://archive.org/details/americanloyalis00sabigoog The American Loyalists: Or, Biographical Sketches of Adherents to the ... (1847) by Lorenzo Sabine]. Complete text of the first of two editions (the second appeared in 1864 in two volumes) of [[Lorenzo Sabine|Sabine's]] ''magnum opus'' in pdf format.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081013170947/http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/yale?vol=43&page=246&rqs=230&rqs=283&rqs=674&rqs=687 Benjamin Franklin to Baron Francis Maseres, June 26, 1785] (Opinion of [[Benjamin Franklin]] on persons who called themselves "Loyalists", whom he judged better called "Royalists")
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100608052723/http://www.history.army.mil/reference/revbib/loyalp.htm Bibliography of the Loyalist Participation in the American Revolution] compiled by the [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041012050118/http://collections.ic.gc.ca/blackloyalists/wireframe.htm "Black Loyalists: Our History, Our People"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070223042047/http://www.haldimand-collection.ca/ Haldimand Collection] The main source for historians in the study of the settlement of the American Loyalists in Canada. More than 20,000 letters and documents, now fully indexed, and free on the Web.
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=Yw45AAAAMAAJ&dq=Loyalist+Privateer+Vengeance&pg=PA286 Story of Loyalist Privateer "Vengeance"]
* [http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/fall96/loyalists.html James Chalmers and "Plain Truth" (A Loyalist Answers Thomas Paine)]
* [http://www.royalprovincial.com/military/facts/ofrdecl.htm The Loyalist Declaration of Independence] published in ''The Royal Gazette'' (New York) on November 17, 1781 (Transcription provided by Bruce Wallace and posted on The On-Line Institute for Advanced Loyalist Studies.)
* [https://archive.today/20121205231248/http://www.virtualmuseum.ca/pm.php?id=story_line&lg=English&fl=0&ex=00000170&sl=2490&pos=1 The Loyalist Link: The Forest and The Sea – Port Roseway Loyalists]
* [http://www.cyndislist.com/loyalist.htm Loyalist Page – Cyndi's List]
* [http://www.loyalistresearchnet.org/ The Loyalist Research Network (LRN)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611003102/http://loyalistresearchnet.org/ |date=2013-06-11 }} This website focuses on Canadian Loyalists, but, the links and bibliographies are extremely helpful to all serious Loyalist researchers.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051216034236/http://users.erols.com/candidus/overview.htm Maryland]
* [http://www.royalprovincial.com The On-Line Institute for Advanced Loyalist Studies]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070718101519/http://museum.gov.ns.ca/BlackLoyalists/index.htm "Remembering Black Loyalists, Black Communities in Nova Scotia"]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=LxKCmTq3cZwC&dq=Joseph+Blaney+married+Abigail+Browne&pg=PA244 "Salem Loyalists-unpublished letters" ''The New-England Historical and Geuealogical Register and Antiquarian Journal  1872'' pp. 243–248]
* [http://www.uelac.org/PDF/loyalist.pdf  "A Short History of the United Empire Loyalists" Ann Mackenzie]
* [http://sc_tories.tripod.com/rebels.htm South Carolina]
* {{cite book|last=Lambert|first=Robert Stansbury|url=http://www.clemson.edu/cedp/press/pubs/lambert/ |title=South Carolina Loyalists in the American Revolution|edition=2nd|place=Clemson, SC|publisher=Clemson University Digital Press|year=2011}} Originally published in 1987. 272 pages, available online in PDF format.
* [http://www.uelac.org/ United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada (UELAC)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051224091454/http://www.ls.net/~newriver/va/varevtoc.htm Virginia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150928215935/http://www.common-place.org/vol-08/no-01/larkin/ "What is a Loyalist? The American Revolution as civil war"] by Edward Larkin, published in common-place, Vol. 8, No. 1 (October 2007).
* "[http://sciway3.net/clark/revolutionarywar/loyalists.html Why Were Some of Our Ancestors Tories?]", The SCGenWeb Project
'''Videos'''
* {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=30jgH_fahi0  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/30jgH_fahi0 |archive-date=December 22, 2021 |url-status=live|website=youtube|title=An Imperial Disaster? The Loyalist Diaspora after the American Revolution|author=a lecture by Maya Jasanoff|date=20 October 2010 }}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite news|url=http://www.toriesfightingfortheking.com/index.htm |author=Thomas B. Allen|author-link=Thomas B. Allen (author)|title= Video discussing his book |work=Tories: Fighting for the King in America's First Civil War}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AxLS8mnLrj0 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211104/AxLS8mnLrj0| archive-date=November 4, 2021 | url-status=live|work=Tories: Fighting for the King in America's First Civil War|author=Thomas B. Allen |title=Lecture on his book at the Library of Congress}}{{cbignore}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W5j8TsHAzsA  | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211104/W5j8TsHAzsA| archive-date=November 4, 2021 | url-status=live|title=Who Were the Loyalists? (Youtube video)|author= YaleCourses YouTube |date=March 18, 2011|work=The American Revolution (HIST 116), Session 9 (of 25)}}{{cbignore}}
{{Black Loyalists}}
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[[Category:Loyalists in the American Revolution]]
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