View source for Lunar Society of Birmingham

{{Short description|British dinner club and learned society, 1755–1813}}
{{Redirect|Lunar Society|society on the Moon|Colonization of the Moon|the society promoting colonization of the Moon|Lunar Explorers Society}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
[[File:Sohohouse1.JPG|thumb|right|300px|[[Soho House]] in [[Handsworth, West Midlands|Handsworth]], Birmingham, a regular venue for meetings of the Lunar Society]]
The '''Lunar Society of Birmingham''' was a British dinner club and informal [[learned society]] of prominent figures in the [[Midlands Enlightenment]], including industrialists, [[natural philosophy|natural philosophers]] and intellectuals, who met regularly between 1765 and 1813 in [[Birmingham]].  At first called the Lunar Circle, "Lunar Society" became the formal name by 1775. The name arose because the society would meet during the [[full moon]], as the extra light made the journey home easier and safer in the absence of street lighting. The members cheerfully referred to themselves as ''"lunaticks"'', a contemporary spelling of [[lunatic]]s. Venues included [[Erasmus Darwin]]'s [[Erasmus Darwin House|home]] in [[Lichfield]], [[Matthew Boulton]]'s home, [[Soho House]], Bowbridge House in Derbyshire, and [[Great Barr Hall]].
==Membership and status==
[[File:Matthew Boulton - Carl Frederik von Breda.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Matthew Boulton]]]]The Lunar Society evolved through various degrees of organisation over a period of up to fifty years, but was only ever an informal group. No constitution, minutes, publications or membership lists survive from any period, and evidence of its existence and activities is found only in the correspondence and notes of those associated with it.<ref name="Schofield 1957 410–411">{{Harvnb|Schofield|1957|pp=410–411}}</ref> Historians therefore disagree on what qualifies as membership of the Lunar Society, who can be considered to have been members, and even when the society can be said to have existed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|p=145}}</ref> [[Josiah Wedgwood]], for example, is described by some commentators as being one of five "principal members" of the society,<ref name="ref11">{{Harvnb|Uglow|2008}}</ref> while others consider that he "cannot be recognized as [a] full member" at all.<ref>{{Harvnb|Musson|Robinson|1969|p=143}}</ref> Dates given for the establishment of the society range from "sometime before 1760"<ref name="Schofield 1957 411">{{Harvnb|Schofield|1957|p=411}}</ref> to 1775.<ref name="Robinson 1962 156">{{Harvnb|Robinson|1962|p=156}}</ref> Some historians argue that it had ceased to exist by 1791;<ref name="King-Hele 1998 166">{{Harvnb|King-Hele|1998|p=166}}</ref> others that it was still operating as late as 1813.<ref name="Robinson 1962 156"/>
Despite this uncertainty, fourteen individuals have been identified as having verifiably attended Lunar Society meetings regularly over a long period during its most productive eras: these are [[Matthew Boulton]], [[Erasmus Darwin]], [[Thomas Day (writer)|Thomas Day]], [[Richard Lovell Edgeworth]], [[Samuel Galton, Jr.]], Robert Augustus Johnson, [[James Keir]], [[Joseph Priestley]], [[William Small]], [[Jonathan Stokes]], [[James Watt]], [[Josiah Wedgwood]], [[John Whitehurst]] and [[William Withering]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|p=144}}</ref>
[[File:Benjamin Franklin by Jean-Baptiste Greuze.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Benjamin Franklin]]]]While the society's meetings provided its name and social focus, however, they were relatively unimportant in its activities, and far more activity and communication took place outside the meetings themselves – members local to Birmingham were in almost daily contact, more distant ones in correspondence at least weekly.<ref name="Schofield 1957 410–411"/> A more loosely defined group has therefore been identified over a wider geographical area and longer time period, who attended meetings occasionally and who corresponded or co-operated regularly with multiple other members on group activities. These include [[Joseph Pickford]], [[Richard Kirwan]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Musson|Robinson|1969|pp=122–123}}</ref> [[John Smeaton]],<ref name="ref2">{{Harvnb|Musson|Robinson|1969|p=144}}</ref> [[Henry Moyes]],<ref name="ref2" /> [[John Michell]],<ref name="ref9">{{Harvnb|King-Hele|1998|p=165}}</ref> [[Pieter Camper]],<ref name="ref2" /> [[R. E. Raspe]],<ref name="ref2" /> [[John Baskerville]],<ref name="Robinson 1962 156"/> [[Thomas Beddoes]],<ref name="ref5">{{Harvnb|Musson|Robinson|1969|p=177}}</ref> [[John Wyatt (inventor)|John Wyatt]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|1962|p=157}}</ref> [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]],<ref name="ref5" /> [[Cyril Jackson (priest)|Cyril Jackson]],<ref name="ref5" /> [[Jean-André Deluc]],<ref name="Musson 1969 195">{{Harvnb|Musson|Robinson|1969|p=195}}</ref> [[John Wilkinson (industrialist)|John Wilkinson]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|1962|p=158}}</ref> [[John Ash (divine)|John Ash]],<ref name="Musson 1969 195"/> [[Samuel More]],<ref name="ref3">{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|p=149}}</ref> [[Robert Bage]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Porter|2000|p=401}}</ref> [[James Brindley]],<ref name="ref3" /> [[Ralph Griffiths]],<ref name="ref3" /> [[John Roebuck]],<ref name="ref3" /> [[Thomas Percival]],<ref name="ref3" /> [[Joseph Black]],<ref name="ref3" /> [[James Hutton]],<ref name="ref3" /> [[Benjamin Franklin]],<ref name="Schofield 1957 411"/> [[Joseph Banks]],<ref name="ref4">{{Harvnb|Jones|2008|p=88}}</ref> [[James Lind (naturalist)|James Lind]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=King-Hele|first=Desmond George|date=1992-07-31|title=Shelley and science|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.1992.0025|journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London|language=en|volume=46|issue=2|pages=257|doi=10.1098/rsnr.1992.0025|pmid=11623027|s2cid=43302716|issn=0035-9149|via=The Royal Society Publishing}}</ref> [[William Herschel]],<ref name="ref4" /> [[Daniel Solander]],<ref name="ref4" /> [[John Warltire]],<ref name="ref4" /> [[George Fordyce]],<ref name="ref4" /> [[Alexander Blair (writer)|Alexander Blair]],<ref name="ref4" /> [[Samuel Parr]],<ref name="ref4" /> [[Louis Joseph d'Albert d'Ailly]], William Emes, [[Louis Joseph d'Albert d'Ailly|the seventh Duke of Chaulnes]],<ref name="ref4" /> [[Barthélemy Faujas de Saint-Fond]],<ref name="ref4" /> [[Grossart de Virly]],<ref name="ref4" /> [[Johann Gottling]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Jones|2008|p=89}}</ref> and [[Joseph Wright of Derby|Joseph Wright]].<ref>Fraser, David. "Joseph Wright of Derby and the Lunar Society", in Egerton, Judy, Wright of Derby (London, 1990)</ref>
This lack of a defined membership has led some historians to criticise a Lunar Society "legend", leading people to "confuse it and its efforts with the general growth of intellectual and economic activities in the provinces of eighteenth century Britain".<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|p=146}}</ref> Others have seen this both as real and as one of the society's main strengths: a paper read at the [[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]] in London in 1963 claimed that
{{blockquote|"of all the provincial philosophical societies it was the most important, perhaps because it was not merely provincial. All the world came to Soho to meet Boulton, Watt or Small, who were acquainted with the leading men of Science throughout Europe and America. Its essential sociability meant that any might be invited to attend its meetings."<ref name="Robinson 1962 160">{{Harvnb|Robinson|1962|p=160}}</ref>}}
==Development==
===Origins 1755–1765===
[[File:Erasmus Darwin - Joseph Wright - 1770.jpg|thumb|upright| ''[[Erasmus Darwin]]'' by [[Joseph Wright of Derby]], 1770 ([[Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery]])]]
The origins of the Lunar Society lie in a pattern of friendships that emerged in the late 1750s. [[Matthew Boulton]] and [[Erasmus Darwin]] met some time between 1757 and 1758, possibly through family connections, as Boulton's mother's family were patients of Darwin; or possibly though shared friendships, as both were admirers of the printer [[John Baskerville]] and friends of the astronomer and geologist [[John Michell]], a regular visitor to Darwin's house in [[Lichfield]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Uglow|2002|p=45}}</ref> Darwin was a physician and poet who had studied at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] and [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]]; Boulton had left school at fourteen and started work in his father's business making metal goods in [[Birmingham]] at the age of 21. Despite their different backgrounds they shared a common interest in experiment and invention, and their activities would show Darwin's theoretical understanding and Boulton's practical experience to be complementary.<ref name="ref11" /> Soon they were visiting each other regularly and conducting investigations into scientific subjects such as electricity, [[meteorology]] and geology.<ref name="ref6">{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|p=147}}</ref>
Around the same time the [[Derby]]-based clockmaker [[John Whitehurst]] became a friend, first of Boulton and subsequently of Darwin, through his business supplying clock movements to Boulton's [[ormolu]] manufacturing operation. Although older than both Boulton and Darwin, by 1758 Whitehurst was writing to Boulton telling excitedly of a [[pyrometer]] he had built, and looking forward to visiting Birmingham "to spend one day with you in trying all necessary experiments".<ref>{{Harvnb|Uglow|2002|p=58}}</ref>
Boulton, Darwin and Whitehurst were in turn introduced by Michell to [[Benjamin Franklin]] when he travelled to Birmingham in July 1758 "to improve and increase Acquaintance among Persons of Influence",<ref>{{Harvnb|Uglow|2002|p=59}}</ref> and Franklin returned in 1760 to conduct experiments with Boulton on electricity and sound.<ref>{{Harvnb|Uglow|2002|p=78}}</ref> Although Michell seems to have withdrawn slightly from the group when he moved to Thornhill (near Dewsbury) in 1767,<ref name="ref9" /> Franklin was to remain a common link among many of the early members.<ref name="Schofield 1957 411"/>
===The Lunar Circle 1765–1775===
[[File:William Small - Tilly Kettle.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[William Small]]]]The nature of the group was to change significantly with the move to Birmingham in 1765 of the Scottish physician [[William Small]], who had been Professor of Natural Philosophy at [[The College of William & Mary]] in [[Williamsburg, Virginia]]. There he had taught and been a major influence over [[Thomas Jefferson]], and had formed the focus of a local group of intellectuals. His arrival with a letter of introduction to Matthew Boulton from Benjamin Franklin was to have a galvanising effect on the existing circle, which began to explicitly identify itself as a group and actively started to attract new members.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|pp=146–147}}</ref>
The first of these was [[Josiah Wedgwood]], who became a close friend of Darwin in 1765 while campaigning for the building of the [[Trent and Mersey Canal]]<ref>{{Harvnb|King-Hele|1998|p=159}}</ref> and subsequently closely modelled his large new [[pottery]] factory at [[Etruria, Staffordshire]] on Boulton's [[Soho Manufactory]].<ref name="ref6" /> Another new recruit, [[Richard Lovell Edgeworth]], met Darwin, Small and Boulton in 1766 through a shared interest in carriage design, and he in turn introduced his friend and fellow [[Rousseau]]-admirer [[Thomas Day (writer)|Thomas Day]], with whom he had studied at [[Corpus Christi College, Oxford]].<ref name="ref8">{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|pp=147–148}}</ref> In 1767 [[James Keir]] visited Darwin in Lichfield, where he was introduced to Boulton, Small, Wedgwood and Whitehurst and subsequently decided to move to Birmingham.<ref name="ref8" />
The Lunar Circle also attracted more distant involvement. [[Joseph Priestley]], then living in [[Leeds]] and a close friend of John Michell, became associated with the Society in 1767 when Darwin and Wedgwood became involved with his work on electricity.<ref name="Schofield 1957 411"/> In the same year [[James Watt]] visited Birmingham on the recommendation of his business patron [[John Roebuck]], being shown around the Soho Manufactory by Small and Darwin in Boulton's absence. Although neither Priestley nor Watt were to move to Birmingham for several years, both were to be in constant communication with the Birmingham members and central to the circle's activities from 1767.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|p=148}}</ref>
By 1768 the core group of nine individuals who would form the nucleus of the Lunar Society had come together with Small at their heart.<ref name="ref3" /> The group at this time is sometimes referred to as the "Lunar circle", though this is a later description used by historians,<ref name="Schofield 1963 17">{{Harvnb|Schofield|1963|p=17}}</ref> and the group themselves used a variety of less specific descriptions, including "Birmingham Philosophers" or simply "fellow-schemers".<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|pp=149–150}}</ref>
===The Lunar Society 1775–1780===
[[File:William Withering.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[William Withering]]]]If William Small's arrival in 1765 had been the catalyst to the development of the Lunar Circle as a cohesive group, his death – probably from malaria<ref name="King-Hele 1998 166"/> – in 1775 was to mark another change in its structure.<ref name="ref7">{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|p=150}}</ref> Small had been the key link between the members, and in his absence those remaining moved to place the group on a more organised footing. Meetings were to be held on the Sunday nearest the full moon,<ref name="ref7" /> lasting from two o'clock in the afternoon until eight o'clock in the evening.<ref name="ref10">{{Harvnb|Robinson|1962|p=164}}</ref> The first was probably that held on 31 December 1775,<ref name="King-Hele 1998 166"/> and the "Lunar" name is first recorded in 1776.<ref name="Schofield 1963 17"/>
The era also saw significant changes in membership. [[William Withering]] – like Small, a physician – was already an acquaintance of Darwin, Boulton and Wedgwood when he moved from [[Stafford]] to Birmingham and became a member of the Society in 1776.<ref name="ref7" /> John Whitehurst's move to London in 1775 had a less dramatic effect: he kept in regular contact with other members of the society and remained an occasional attender of meetings.<ref name="ref7" />
The leading figure behind the establishment of the society as a more organised body during this early period seems to have been [[Matthew Boulton]]: his home at [[Soho House]] in [[Handsworth, West Midlands|Handsworth]] was the principal venue for meetings, and in 1776 he is recorded as planning "to make many Motions to the Members respecting new Laws, and regulations, such as will tend to prevent the decline of a society which I hope will be lasting."<ref name="ref10" /> This reliance on Boulton was also to prove a weakness, however, as the period coincided with the peak of his work building up his steam engine business and he was frequently absent. Although the 1770s was one of the society's richest eras in terms of its collaborative achievements, the society's meetings declined from regular occurrences in 1775 to infrequent ones by the end of the decade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1963|pp=144–145}}</ref>
===Heyday of the Society 1780–1789===
[[File:PriestleyFuseli.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Joseph Priestley]], c. 1783]]
In late 1780 the nature of the society was to change again with the move to Birmingham of [[Joseph Priestley]]. Priestley had been closely associated with the group's activities for over a decade and was a strong advocate of the benefits of scientific societies. Shortly after his arrival Lunar meetings moved from Sunday afternoons to Mondays to accommodate Priestley's duties as a clergyman, while the society's dependence on Matthew Boulton was lessened by holding meetings at other members' houses in addition to Soho House. The result was to be the society's most productive era.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|pp=153–154}}</ref>
Several other major new figures became associated with the society during this period. [[Samuel Galton, Jr.]], unusual as a [[Quaker]] who was also a gun-manufacturer, appears in the letters of other Lunar members as attending meetings from July 1781, and his daughter [[Mary Anne Schimmelpenninck]] was to provide one of the few first-hand accounts of the Lunar Society's activities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1963|pp=219–223}}</ref> The botanist and physician [[Jonathan Stokes]], who had known [[William Withering]] as a child, moved to [[Stourbridge]] and started attending Lunar Society meetings from 1783. His contribution to the society was significant but short-lived: after collaborating with Withering on his ''Botanical Arrangement of British Plants'' the two quarrelled bitterly and Stokes severed his relations with the main Lunar members by 1788.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|pp=154–155}}</ref>
The society also lost several major figures over the period: [[Richard Lovell Edgeworth]] ceased regular involvement in the society's activities when he returned to Ireland in 1782,<ref name="ref12"/> John Whitehurst died in London in 1788,<ref name="ref12">{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|p=154}}</ref> and [[Thomas Day (writer)|Thomas Day]] died the following year.<ref name="ref12" /> Most significantly, [[Erasmus Darwin]] moved to [[Derby]] in 1781, but although he complained of being "cut off from the milk of science", he continued to attend Lunar Society meetings at least until 1788.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1963|p=204}}</ref>
===Decline 1789–1813===
[[File:Priestley Riots painting.jpg|thumb|The [[Priestley riots]] of 1791]]
The outbreak of the [[French Revolution]] in 1789 caused political strains between members of the society,<ref name="Schofield 1966 157">{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|p=157}}</ref> but it was the [[Priestley riots]] of 1791 in Birmingham itself that saw a decisive falling off of the society's spirit and activities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1963|p=214}}</ref> [[Joseph Priestley]] himself was driven from the town, leaving England entirely for the United States in 1794, [[William Withering]]'s house was invaded by rioters and [[Matthew Boulton]] and [[James Watt]] had to arm their employees to protect the Soho Manufactory.<ref name="Schofield 1966 157"/> Lunar meetings were continued by the younger generation of the families of earlier Lunar members, including [[Gregory Watt]], [[Matthew Robinson Boulton]], [[Thomas Wedgwood (photographer)|Thomas Wedgwood]] and [[James Watt junior]], and possibly [[Samuel Tertius Galton]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|pp=157–158}}</ref> Regular meetings are recorded into the nineteenth century – eight in 1800, five or six before August 1801 and at least one in 1802,<ref name="Robinson 1962 156"/> while as late as 1809 [[Leonard Horner]] was describing "the remnant of the Lunar Society" as being "very interesting".<ref name="Robinson 1962 156"/> While individual members continued to produce work of importance, however, the collaborative activity that marked the heyday of the society was noticeably absent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schofield|1966|p=158}}</ref>
The society had definitely collapsed by 1813, however: in August of that year [[Samuel Galton, Jr.]] is recorded as having won a ballot for possession of the scientific books from the society's library.<ref name="Robinson 1962 160"/>
==Modern Lunar Societies==
[[File:Boulton, Watt and Murdoch.jpg|right|thumb|[[William Bloye]]'s gold-covered statue ''[[Boulton, Watt and Murdoch]]'', in central Birmingham]]
Among memorials to the Society and its members are the [[Lunar Society Moonstones|Moonstones]]; two statues of Watt and a statue of ''[[Boulton, Watt and Murdoch]]'' by [[William Bloye]]; and the museum at [[Soho House]] – all in Birmingham.
A new Lunar Society<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lunarsociety.org.uk|title=The Lunar Society|website=Lunar Society}}</ref> was formed in Birmingham by a group led by Dame [[Rachel Waterhouse]]. Its aim was to play a leading part in the development of the city and the wider region.<ref>[http://www.lunarsociety.org.uk/page/59.htm Lunar Society award to Rachel Waterhouse].{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630003515/http://www.lunarsociety.org.uk/page/59.htm |date=30 June 2007 }}</ref> Its chair, appointed for a two-year term in 2019, was Deirdre LaBassiere.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thephoenixnewspaper.com/lunar-societys-new-chair-pledges-to-protect-heritage-and-engage-with-young-people|title = The Phoenix Newspaper}}</ref> The society was still in operation in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Executive Board of Trustees |url=https://lunarsociety.org.uk/executive-committee/ |access-date=2024-09-25 |website=Lunar Society |language=en-GB}}</ref>
'''Outside Birmingham'''
In Australia, The Lunaticks Society of Newcastle was formed by leading digital entrepreneurs, software developers, educators, film producers, creatives, investors to encourage creative thinking and new ideas in a digital age.<ref>[http://www.thelunatickssociety.com.au ‘The Lunaticks Society of Newcastle’]</ref>
===University of Birmingham Lunar Society===
In the latter part of the 20th century, the University of Birmingham Lunar Society met every Thursday to debate and discuss all manner of topics in the Guild bar. In 2011, steps were undertaken to reform the discussion society as an alternative to the more regulated debate options available at the university. This was agreed by the University's Guild of Students in autumn 2012. The society now hosts symposiums every two weeks. Any member has always been welcome to suggest a topic for discussion. These meetings occur in a variety of environments from University rooms to local bars. In 2013 the society attempted to change the name of one of the rooms in the Guild of Students to 'The Lunar Room' in honour of the original Birmingham Lunar Society. Like the [[Oxford Union]], the society has always traditionally put a huge emphasis on freedom of speech. The society has similar aims to [[The Speculative Society]] of Edinburgh University.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/groups/135606923209137/|title=Security Check Required|website=facebook.com}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=June 2018}} In 2019, the society was rebranded as the Devil's Advocate Society, and retained the goals of the Lunar Society whilst changing much of its branding.
Today, the society is an informal [[Learned society|academic association]] open to both undergraduate and graduate students, as well as professional academics, from the University of Birmingham.
== Archives ==
Historical material related to the Lunar Society is held in multiple collections. The University of Birmingham's Cadbury Research Library holds a series of portraits of the original Lunar Society members.<ref>{{Cite web|title=UoB Calmview5: Search results|url=https://calmview.bham.ac.uk/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=XMS624|access-date=2021-05-14|website=calmview.bham.ac.uk}}</ref> The Library of Birmingham holds a large collection of Joseph Priestley's publications.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Search Results|url=http://calmview.birmingham.gov.uk/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=JP|access-date=2021-05-14|website=calmview.birmingham.gov.uk}}</ref> Both archives also hold various letters of society members.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Search Results|url=http://calmview.birmingham.gov.uk/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=MS+3782/12/57/51&pos=64|access-date=2021-05-14|website=calmview.birmingham.gov.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Search Results|url=http://calmview.birmingham.gov.uk/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=MS+3219|access-date=2021-05-14|website=calmview.birmingham.gov.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=UoB Calmview5: Search results|url=https://calmview.bham.ac.uk/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=XJP|access-date=2021-05-14|website=calmview.bham.ac.uk}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Scottish Enlightenment]]
* [[Science and invention in Birmingham]]
* [[Erasmus Darwin House]]
* [[Lunar Society Moonstones]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Citation|last=Jones|first=Peter M.|year=2008|title=Industrial Enlightenment: Science, technology and culture in Birmingham and the West Midlands, 1760–1820|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIHsAAAAMAAJ  |location=Manchester|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-7770-8}}
*{{Citation|last=King-Hele|first=Desmond| author-link =Desmond King-Hele|title=The 1997 Wilkins Lecture: Erasmus Darwin, the Lunaticks and Evolution|journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London|volume=52|issue=1|date=January 1998|pages=153–180|jstor=532084|issn=0035-9149|doi=10.1098/rsnr.1998.0042|pmid=11619941|s2cid=27134915}}
*{{Citation|last1=Musson|first1=Albert Edward|last2=Robinson|first2=Eric|year=1969|title=Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution|location=Manchester|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=0-7190-0370-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0c-8AAAAIAAJ|access-date=26 January 2009}}
*{{Citation|last=Porter|first=Roy|publication-date=2001|year=2000|title=Enlightenment: Britain and the Creation of the Modern World|location=London|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=0-14-025028-X}}
*{{Citation|last=Robinson|first=Eric|title=The Lunar Society: Its Membership and Organisation|journal=[[Transactions of the Newcomen Society]]|volume=35|year=1962|pages=153–178|issn=0372-0187|doi=10.1179/tns.1962.009}}
*{{Citation|last=Schofield|first=Robert E.|title=The Industrial Orientation of Science in the Lunar Society of Birmingham|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|volume=48|issue=4|date=December 1957|publisher=The University of Chicago Press on behalf of [[The History of Science Society]]|pages=408–415|jstor=227513|issn=0021-1753|doi=10.1086/348607|s2cid=144950413}}
*{{Citation|last=Schofield|first=Robert E.|year=1963|title=The Lunar Society of Birmingham : a social history of provincial science and industry in eighteenth-century England|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press}}
*{{Citation|last=Schofield|first=Robert E.|title=The Lunar Society of Birmingham; A Bicentenary Appraisal|journal=[[Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London]]|volume=21|issue=2|date=December 1966|pages=144–161|jstor=531065|issn=0035-9149|doi=10.1098/rsnr.1966.0015|s2cid=145397408}}
*{{Citation|last=Uglow|first=Jenny|author-link=Jenny Uglow|year=2002|title=The Lunar Men: Five Friends Whose Curiosity Changed the World|location=London|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=0-374-19440-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/lunarmenfivefrie00uglo}}
*{{Citation|last=Uglow|first=Jenny|date=October 2008|contribution=Lunar Society of Birmingham (act. c.1765–c.1800)|contribution-url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/theme/59220|title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|edition=Online|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com|access-date=17 January 2009}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
* {{Cite web
| url = http://jquarter.members.beeb.net/morelunar.htm
| title = More about ... the Lunar Society
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080207075746/http://jquarter.members.beeb.net/morelunar.htm
| archive-date = 7 February 2008
}}
*[http://www.erasmusdarwin.org Erasmus Darwin House, Lichfield]
*[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/292/5514/55 Article in Science]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060514205345/http://www.birminghamstories.co.uk/story_page.php?id=11&type=fo&page=1&now=0 The Lunar Men who shaped the future] (from the Birmingham Stories website)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20131214001443/http://www.bmag.org.uk/soho-house Soho House]
*[http://www.lunarsociety.org.uk The modern Lunar Society]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060308154827/http://www.revolutionaryplayers.org.uk/home.stm Revolutionary Players website]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20030605.shtml BBC Radio 4 ''In Our Time'' discussion]
*[http://www.thelunarsociety.it The Lunar Society Italia]
*[http://www.thelunatickssociety.com.au The Lunaticks Society of Newcastle]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Lunar Society of Birmingham| ]]
[[Category:Clubs and societies in the West Midlands (county)]]
[[Category:History of Birmingham, West Midlands]]
[[Category:Industrial Revolution in England]]
[[Category:Dining clubs]]
[[Category:1765 establishments in England]]
[[Category:1813 disestablishments in England]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1765]]
[[Category:Organizations disestablished in 1813]]