View source for Meditation

{{Short description|Practice of mindfulness}}
{{About|the induction of specific modes or states of consciousness}}
{{distinguish|mediation|medication}}
{{use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
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| image5 = 犀角達摩像-Buddhist monk Bodhidharma (Chinese- Damo) MET DP253234.jpg
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| footer = Various depictions of meditation (clockwise starting at the top left): the [[Hindu]] [[Swami Vivekananda]], the [[Buddhist]] monk [[Hsuan Hua]], [[Taoist]] [[Baduanjin qigong]], [[Siddhar]] [[Agastyar]],  [[Chan Buddhism|Chan monk]] [[Bodhidharma]], and social reformer [[Narayana Guru]]
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'''Meditation''' is a practice in which an individual uses a technique to train attention and awareness and detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking,"{{refn|group=note|name=shapiro82discursive}} achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state,{{sfn|Walsh|Shapiro|2006|pp=228–229}}{{sfn|Cahn|Polich|2006|p=180}}{{sfn|Jevning|Wallace|Beidebach|1992|p=415}}{{sfn|Goleman|1988|p=107}}<ref group=web name="MW"/><ref group=web name="Oxford"/> while not judging the meditation process itself.{{refn|group=note|name=bond09logic}}
Techniques are broadly classified into focused (or concentrative) and open monitoring methods. Focused methods involve attention to specific objects like breath or [[mantra]]s, while open monitoring includes mindfulness and awareness of mental events.
Meditation is practiced in numerous religious traditions, though it is also practised independently from any religious or spiritual influences for its health benefits. The earliest records of meditation (''[[Dhyana in Hinduism|dhyana]]'') are found in the [[Upanishads]], and meditation plays a salient role in the contemplative repertoire of [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Dhavamony|first=Mariasusai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DD0w_IMFA8gC&q=meditation+hinduism&pg=PA243|title=Classical Hinduism|publisher=Università Gregoriana Editrice|year=1982|isbn=978-88-7652-482-0|page=243|language=en|access-date=2020-10-27|archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095221/https://books.google.com/books?id=DD0w_IMFA8gC&q=meditation+hinduism&pg=PA243|url-status=live}}</ref> Meditation-like techniques are also known in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, in the context of remembrance of and prayer and devotion to God.
Asian meditative techniques have spread to other cultures where they have found application in non-spiritual contexts, such as business and health. Meditation may significantly reduce stress, fear, anxiety, depression, and pain,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hölzel|first1=Britta K.|last2=Lazar|first2=Sara W.|last3=Gard|first3=Tim|last4=Schuman-Olivier|first4=Zev|last5=Vago|first5=David R.|last6=Ott|first6=Ulrich|date=November 2011|title=How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action From a Conceptual and Neural Perspective|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science|volume=6|issue=6|pages=537–559|doi=10.1177/1745691611419671|issn=1745-6916|pmid=26168376|s2cid=2218023}}</ref> and enhance peace, [[perception]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hackspirit.com/dalai-lama-reveals-practice-meditation-properly/|title=The Dalai Lama explains how to practice meditation properly|date=3 May 2017|access-date=8 May 2018|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415013407/https://hackspirit.com/dalai-lama-reveals-practice-meditation-properly/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[self-concept]], and [[well-being]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm|title=Meditation: In Depth|website=NCCIH|access-date=2018-05-01|archive-date=2018-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704052047/https://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="goyal">{{cite journal |pmc=4142584 |year=2014 |last1=Goyal |first1=M. |title=Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |journal=JAMA Internal Medicine |volume=174|issue=3 |pages=357–368 |last2=Singh |first2=S. |last3=Sibinga |first3=E. M. |last4=Gould |first4=N. F. |last5=Rowland-Seymour|first5=A.|last6=Sharma |first6=R.|last7=Berger |first7=Z. |last8=Sleicher |first8=D. |last9=Maron |first9=D. D. |last10=Shihab |first10=H. M. |last11=Ranasinghe |first11=P. D. |last12=Linn|first12=S. |last13=Saha |first13=S. |last14=Bass |first14=E. B. |last15=Haythornthwaite |first15=J. A. |doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018 |pmid=24395196|issn = 2168-6106}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0022167815594556 |title=Calm Abiding |journal=Journal of Humanistic Psychology |volume=57 |page=98 |year=2016 |last1=Shaner |first1=Lynne |last2=Kelly |first2=Lisa |last3=Rockwell |first3=Donna |last4=Curtis |first4=Devorah |s2cid=148410605 }}</ref> Research is ongoing to better understand the [[effects of meditation]] on health ([[psychology|psychological]], [[neurology|neurological]], and [[cardiovascular]]) and other areas.
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==Etymology==
The English ''meditation'' is derived from [[Old French]] ''meditacioun'', in turn from [[Latin]] ''[[:wikt:meditatio|meditatio]]'' from a verb ''[[:wikt:meditor|meditari]]'', meaning "to think, contemplate, devise, ponder".<ref>''An universal etymological English dictionary'' 1773, London, by Nathan Bailey {{ISBN|1-002-37787-0}}.</ref><ref name="oel">{{cite web | title=Meditation | publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper | url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/meditation#etymonline_v_12520 | date=2019 | access-date=2 February 2019 | archive-date=2 February 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202153620/https://www.etymonline.com/word/meditation#etymonline_v_12520 | url-status=live }}</ref> In the [[Catholic]] tradition, the use of the term ''meditatio'' as part of a formal, stepwise process of meditation goes back to at least the 12th-century monk [[Guigo II]],<ref name=oel/><ref>''The Oblate Life'' by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 {{ISBN|0-8146-3176-2}} p. 115</ref> before which the Greek word ''[[theoria]]'' was used for the same purpose.
Apart from its historical usage, the term ''meditation'' was introduced as a translation for Eastern [[spiritual practice]]s, referred to as ''dhyāna'' in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]], which comes from the [[Sanskrit]] root ''dhyai'', meaning to contemplate or meditate.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sampaio|first1=Cynthia Vieira Sanches|last2=Lima|first2=Manuela Garcia|last3=Ladeia|first3=Ana Marice|date=April 2017|title=Meditation, Health and Scientific Investigations: Review of the Literature|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10943-016-0211-1|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|language=en|volume=56|issue=2|pages=411–427|doi=10.1007/s10943-016-0211-1|pmid=26915053|s2cid=20088045|issn=0022-4197|access-date=2021-11-16|archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095240/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10943-016-0211-1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=feurstein06>{{cite journal |author-link=Georg Feuerstein |last=Feuerstein |first=Georg |url=http://www.santosha.com/moksha/meditation1.html |title=Yoga and Meditation (Dhyana) |journal=Moksha Journal |issue=1 |year=2006 |oclc=21878732 |access-date=2010-06-27 |archive-date=2018-07-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708200025/http://www.santosha.com/moksha/meditation1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>The verb root "dhyai" is listed as referring to "contemplate, meditate on" and "dhyāna" is listed as referring to "meditation; religious contemplation" on page 134 of {{Cite book |title=A practical Sanskrit dictionary with transliteration, accentuation and etymological analysis throughout |last=Macdonell |first=Arthur Anthony |author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell |date=1971 |orig-date=1929 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=London }}</ref>
The term "meditation" in English may also refer to practices from Islamic [[Sufism]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=The healing power of sufi meditation |last1=Mirahmadi |first1=Sayyid Nurjan |first2=Muhammad Nazim Adil al-Haqqani |last2=Naqshbandi |first3=Muhammad Hisham |last3=Kabbani |first4=Hedieh |last4=Mirahmadi |date=2005 |publisher=Naqshbandi Haqqani Sufi Order of America |location=Fenton, MI |isbn=978-1-930409-26-2 |url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip057/2005001975.html |access-date=2018-01-29 |archive-date=2007-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211061344/http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip057/2005001975.html |url-status=live }}</ref> or other traditions such as Jewish [[Kabbalah]] and Christian [[Hesychasm]].{{sfn|Goleman|1988}}
==Definitions==
===Difficulties in defining meditation===
====No universally accepted definition for meditation====
Meditation has proven difficult to define as it covers a wide range of dissimilar practices in different traditions and cultures.{{refn|group=note|In 1971, [[Claudio Naranjo]] noted that "The word 'meditation' has been used to designate a variety of practices that differ enough from one another so that we may find trouble defining what ''meditation'' is."{{sfn|Naranjo|Ornstein|1972|p=6}} A 2009 study noted a "persistent lack of consensus in the [[literature]]" and a "seeming intractability of defining meditation".{{sfn|Bond|Ospina |Hooton|Bialy |2009|p=135}}}} In popular usage, the word "meditation" and the phrase "meditative practice" are often used imprecisely to designate practices found across many cultures.{{sfn|Goleman|1988}}<ref name=carroll05>{{cite journal |last1=Carroll |first1=Mary |title=Divine Therapy: Teaching Reflective and Meditative Practices |journal=Teaching Theology and Religion |date=October 2005 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=232–238 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9647.2005.00249.x }}</ref> These can include almost anything that is claimed to train the attention of mind or to teach calmness or compassion.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511816789.020 |chapter=Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness |year=2007 |last1=Lutz |first1=Antoine |last2=Dunne |first2=John D. |last3=Davidson |first3=Richard J. |pages=499–552 |isbn=978-0-511-81678-9 |editor3-first=Evan |editor3-last=Thompson |editor2-first=Morris |editor2-last=Moscovitch |editor1-first=Philip David |editor1-last=Zelazo }}</ref> There remains no definition of necessary and sufficient criteria for meditation that has achieved widespread acceptance within the modern [[scientific community]].
====Separation of technique from tradition====
Some of the difficulty in precisely defining meditation has been in recognizing the particularities of the many various [[tradition]]s;<ref name="intro to consciousness">Lutz, Dunne and Davidson, "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction" in ''The Cambridge handbook of consciousness'' by Philip David Zelazo, Morris Moscovitch, Evan Thompson, 2007 {{ISBN|0-521-85743-0}} pp. 499–551 [http://compassion.stanford.edu/pdf/Dunne_Ch%2019%20Lutz%20Dunne%20Davidson-1.pdf (proof copy)] (NB: pagination of published was 499–551 proof was 497–550). {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303102034/http://compassion.stanford.edu/pdf/Dunne_Ch%2019%20Lutz%20Dunne%20Davidson-1.pdf |date=3 March 2012 }}</ref> and theories and practice can differ within a tradition.<ref name="Dunne @ Stanford">{{cite web|title=John Dunne's speech |url=http://ccare.stanford.edu/node/21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120171057/http://ccare.stanford.edu/node/21 |archive-date=20 November 2012 }}</ref> Taylor noted that even within a [[faith]] such as "Hindu" or "Buddhist", schools and individual teachers may teach distinct types of meditation.{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=2}}
Ornstein noted that "Most techniques of meditation do not exist as solitary practices but are only artificially separable from an entire system of practice and belief."{{sfn|Naranjo|Ornstein|p=143|1972}} For instance, while monks meditate as part of their everyday lives, they also engage in the codified rules and live together in monasteries in specific cultural settings that go along with their meditative practices.
===Dictionary definitions===
Dictionaries give both the original [[Latin]] meaning of "think[ing] deeply about (something)", as well as the popular usages of "focusing one's mind for a period of time",<ref group=web name="Oxford"/> "the act of giving your attention to only one thing, either as a religious activity or as a way of becoming calm and relaxed",<ref group=web >{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/meditation |title=meditation – Meaning |publisher=Cambridge English Dictionary |access-date=2017-04-16 |archive-date=2017-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416222504/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/meditation |url-status=live }}</ref> and "to engage in mental exercise (such as concentrating on one's breathing or repetition of a [[mantra]]) for the purpose of reaching a heightened level of spiritual awareness."<ref group=web name="MW"/>
===Scholarly definitions===
In modern [[Psychology|psychological]] research, meditation has been defined and characterized in various ways. Many of these emphasize the role of attention{{sfn|Goleman|1988}}{{sfn|Walsh|Shapiro|2006}}{{sfn|Cahn|Polich|2006}}{{sfn|Jevning|Wallace|Beidebach|1992}} and characterize the practice of meditation as attempts to detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking,"{{refn|group=note|name=shapiro82discursive|An influential definition by {{harvtxt|Shapiro|1982}} states that "''meditation refers to a family of techniques which have in common a conscious attempt to focus attention in a nonanalytical way and an attempt not to dwell on discursive, ruminating thought''" (p. 6, italics in original). The term "discursive thought" has long been used in Western philosophy, and is often viewed as a synonym to logical thought.<ref>{{cite book|title=Reading neoplatonism: Non-discursive thinking in the texts of plotinus, proclus, and damascius|last=Rappe|first=Sara|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge; New York|isbn=978-0-521-65158-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t1dNkABrLWkC}}</ref>}} not judging the meditation-process itself ("logical relaxation"),{{refn|group=note|name=bond09logic|{{harvtxt|Bond|Ospina|Hooton|Bialy|2009}} report that 7 expert scholars who had studied different traditions of meditation agreed that an "essential" component of meditation "Involves logic relaxation: not 'to intend' to analyze the possible psychophysical effects, not 'to intend' to judge the possible results, not 'to intend' to create any type of expectation regarding the process" (p. 134, Table 4). In their final consideration, all 7 experts regarded this feature as an "essential" component of meditation; none of them regarded it as merely "important but not essential" (p. 234, Table 4). (This same result is presented in Table B1 in {{harvnb|Ospina|Bond|Karkhaneh|Tjosvold|2007|p=281}}). This does not mean that all meditation seeks to take a person beyond ''all'' thought processes, only those processes that are sometimes referred to as "discursive" or "logical" (see {{harvnb|Shapiro|1982}}/1984; {{harvnb|Bond|Ospina|Hooton|Bialy|2009|p=}}; Appendix B, pp. 279–82 in {{harvtxt|Ospina|Bond|Karkhaneh|Tjosvold|2007}}).}} to achieve a deeper, more devout, or more relaxed state.
Bond et al. (2009) identified criteria for defining a practice as meditation "for use in a comprehensive systematic review of the therapeutic use of meditation", using "a 5-round [[Delphi method|Delphi study]] with a panel of 7 experts in meditation research" who were also trained in diverse but empirically highly studied (Eastern-derived or clinical<!---cite review noting almost all research has examined eastern-derived or clinical practices--->) forms of meditation{{refn|group=note|"members were chosen on the basis of their publication record of research on the therapeutic use of meditation, their knowledge of and training in traditional or clinically developed meditation techniques, and their affiliation with universities and research centers. Each member had specific expertise and training in at least one of the following meditation practices: [[kundalini yoga]], [[Transcendental Meditation]], relaxation response, [[mindfulness-based stress reduction]], and [[vipassana]] meditation" ({{harvnb|Bond|Ospina|Hooton|Bialy|2009|p=131}}); their views were combined using "the [[Delphi method|Delphi technique]] ... a method of eliciting and refining group judgments to address complex problems with a high level of uncertainty" ({{harvnb|Bond|Ospina|Hooton|Bialy|2009|p=131}}).}}:
{{blockquote|three main criteria ... as essential to any meditation practice: the use of a defined technique, logic relaxation,{{refn|group=note|name=bond09logic}} and a self-induced state/mode.
Other criteria deemed important <nowiki>[but not essential]</nowiki> involve a state of psychophysical relaxation, the use of a self-focus skill or anchor, the presence of a state of suspension of logical thought processes, a religious/spiritual/philosophical context, or a state of mental silence.{{sfn|Bond|Ospina|Hooton|Bialy|2009|p=135}}
... It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by '[[family resemblance]]s' ... or by the related [[Prototype (linguistics)|'prototype' model of concepts]]."{{sfn|Bond|Ospina|Hooton|Bialy|2009|loc=p. 135: "It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by '[[family resemblance]]s' ([[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], 1968) or by the related [[Prototype (linguistics)|'prototype' model of concepts]] ([[Eleanor Rosch|Rosch]], 1973; Rosch & Mervin, 1975)."}} }}
Several other definitions of meditation have been used by influential modern reviews of research on meditation across multiple traditions:<!---INCLUDE ONLY PROMINENT REVIEWS, WHEN IN DOUBT USE TALK PAGE--->{{refn|group=note|Regarding influential reviews encompassing multiple methods of meditation: {{harvtxt|Walsh|Shapiro|2006}}, {{harvtxt|Cahn|Polich|2006}}, and {{harvtxt|Jevning|Wallace|Beidebach|1992}}, are cited >80 times in [[PsycINFO]]. Number of citations in [[PsycINFO]]: 254 for Walsh & Shapiro, 2006 (26 August 2018); 561 for Cahn & Polich, 2006 (26 August 2018); 83 for Jevning et al. (1992) (26 August 2018). Goleman's [[The Varieties of the Meditative Experience|book]] has 33 editions listed in WorldCat: 17 editions as ''The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience''<ref>worldcat.org: Daniel Goleman, [https://www.worldcat.org/title/meditative-mind-the-varieties-of-meditative-experience-daniel-goleman/oclc/868744343/editions?editionsView=true The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906052535/https://www.worldcat.org/title/meditative-mind-the-varieties-of-meditative-experience-daniel-goleman/oclc/868744343/editions?editionsView=true |date=2018-09-06 }}</ref> and 16 editions as ''The varieties of meditative experience''.<ref>worldcat.org: Daniel Goleman, [https://www.worldcat.org/title/varieties-of-the-meditative-experience/oclc/636007220/editions?editionsView=true The varieties of meditative experience] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906052507/https://www.worldcat.org/title/varieties-of-the-meditative-experience/oclc/636007220/editions?editionsView=true |date=2018-09-06 }}.</ref>
Citation and edition counts are as of August 2018 and September 2018 respectively.}}
* Walsh & Shapiro (2006): "Meditation refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and awareness in order to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and thereby foster general mental well-being and development and/or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration"{{sfn|Walsh|Shapiro|2006|pp=228–229}}
* Cahn & Polich (2006): "''Meditation'' is used to describe practices that self-regulate the body and mind, thereby affecting mental events by engaging a specific attentional set.... regulation of attention is the central commonality across the many divergent methods"{{sfn|Cahn|Polich|2006|p=180}}
* Jevning et al. (1992): "We define meditation... as a stylized mental technique... repetitively practiced for the purpose of attaining a subjective experience that is frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness, often characterized as blissful"{{sfn|Jevning|Wallace|Beidebach|1992|p=415}}
* Goleman (1988): "the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in... every meditation system"{{sfn|Goleman|1988|p=107}}
===Classifications===
====Focused and open methods====
In the West, meditation techniques have often been classified in two broad categories, which in actual practice are often combined: focused (or concentrative) meditation and open monitoring (or mindfulness) meditation:<ref name="lutz08">{{cite journal|last1=Lutz|first1=Antoine|last2=Slagter|first2=Heleen A.|last3=Dunne|first3=John D.|last4=Davidson|first4=Richard J.|date=April 2008|title=Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=12|issue=4|pages=163–69|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005|pmc=2693206|pmid=18329323|quote=The term 'meditation' refers to a broad variety of practices...In order to narrow the explanandum to a more tractable scope, this article uses Buddhist contemplative techniques and their clinical secular derivatives as a paradigmatic framework (see e.g., 9,10 or 7,9 for reviews including other types of techniques, such as Yoga and Transcendental Meditation). Among the wide range of practices within the Buddhist tradition, we will further narrow this review to two common styles of meditation, FA and OM (see box 1–box 2), that are often combined, whether in a single session or over the course of practitioner's training. These styles are found with some variation in several meditation traditions, including Zen, Vipassanā and Tibetan Buddhism (e.g. 7,15,16)....The first style, FA meditation, entails voluntary focusing attention on a chosen object in a sustained fashion. The second style, OM meditation, involves non-reactively monitoring the content of experience from moment to moment, primarily as a means to recognize the nature of emotional and cognitive patterns.}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Direction of mental attention... A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-called ''concentrative meditation''), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-called ''mindfulness meditation''), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness.{{sfn|Bond|Ospina|Hooton|Bialy|2009|ps=none|loc=p. 130: "The differences and similarities among these techniques is often explained in the Western meditation literature in terms of the direction of mental attention (Koshikawa & Ichii, 1996; Naranjo, 1971; Orenstein, 1971): A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-called ''concentrative meditation''), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-called ''mindfulness meditation''), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness (Orenstein, 1971)."}} }}Focused methods include [[Anapanasati|paying attention to the breath]], to an idea or feeling (such as ''[[mettā]]'' – loving-kindness), to a ''[[kōan]]'', or to a ''mantra'' (such as in [[Transcendental Meditation|transcendental meditation]]), and single point meditation.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcnJAAAAQBAJ&q=bhagavad+gita |title=The Bhagavad Gita: (Classics of Indian Spirituality) |first=Eknath |last=Easwaran |year=2018 |publisher=Nilgiri Press |isbn=978-1-58638-019-9 |access-date=2020-10-27 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095221/https://books.google.com/books?id=bcnJAAAAQBAJ&q=bhagavad+gita |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lamayeshe.com/article/developing-single-pointed-concentration|title=Developing Single-pointed Concentration|last=lywa|date=2 April 2015|quote=Single-pointed concentration ([[samadhi]]) is a meditative power that is useful in either of these two types of meditation. However, in order to develop samadhi itself we must cultivate principally concentration meditation. In terms of practice, this means that we must choose an object of concentration and then meditate single-pointedly on it every day until the power of samadhi is attained.|access-date=8 May 2018|archive-date=16 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816155540/http://www.lamayeshe.com/article/developing-single-pointed-concentration|url-status=live}}</ref> Open monitoring methods include [[mindfulness]], ''[[shikantaza]]'' and other [[awareness]] states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meditation-research.org.uk/2013/07/advanced-tibetan-buddhist-meditation-practice-raises-body-temperature-part-2/|title=Advanced Tibetan Buddhist meditation practice raises body temperature – Part 2|last=Malinowski|first=Peter|website=meditation-research.org.uk|date=19 July 2013|access-date=8 May 2018|archive-date=22 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422054041/http://meditation-research.org.uk/2013/07/advanced-tibetan-buddhist-meditation-practice-raises-body-temperature-part-2/|url-status=live}}</ref>
====Other possible typologies====
Another [[Typology (disambiguation)|typology]] divides meditation approaches into concentrative, generative, receptive and reflective practices:{{sfn|Gangadharan|Hemamalini|2021|p=70}}{{sfn|Aguirre|2018|p=18-20}}
* concentrative: focused attention, including breath meditation, TM, and visualizations;
* generative: developing qualities like loving kindness and compassion;
* receptive: open monitoring;
* reflective: systematic investigation, [[contemplation]].
The Buddhist tradition often divides meditative practice into ''[[Samatha-vipassana|samatha]]'', or calm abiding,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://terebess.hu/english/oxherd27a.html|title=Deepening Calm-Abiding – The Nine Stages of Abiding|website=terebess.hu|access-date=2018-05-08|archive-date=2018-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508191727/https://terebess.hu/english/oxherd27a.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://tricycle.org/magazine/calm-abiding/|title=Calm Abiding|first=Ogyen Trinley|last=Dorje|date=24 December 2011 |access-date=2018-05-08|archive-date=2018-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508185212/https://tricycle.org/magazine/calm-abiding/|url-status=live}}</ref> and ''[[vipassana]]'', insight. [[Anapanasati|Mindfulness of breathing]], a form of focused attention, calms down the mind; this calmed mind can then investigate the nature of reality,<ref name="berkeley.edu">{{cite web|url=https://ggia.berkeley.edu/practice/mindful_breathing#data-tab-how|title=Mindful Breathing (Greater Good in Action)|website=ggia.berkeley.edu|access-date=2018-05-08|archive-date=2018-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508185713/https://ggia.berkeley.edu/practice/mindful_breathing#data-tab-how|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shonin |first1=Edo |last2=Van Gordon |first2=William |title=Experiencing the Universal Breath: a Guided Meditation |journal=Mindfulness |date=October 2016 |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=1243–1245 |doi=10.1007/s12671-016-0570-4 |s2cid=147845968 }}</ref>{{sfn|Perez-De-Albeniz|Holmes|2000|p=}} by monitoring the fleeting and ever-changing constituents of experience, by reflective investigation, or by "turning back the radiance," focusing awareness on awareness itself and discerning the true nature of mind as awareness itself.
Matko and Sedlmeier (2019) "call into question the common division into 'focused attention' and 'open-monitoring' practices." They argue for "two orthogonal dimensions along which meditation techniques could be classified," namely "activation" and "amount of body orientation," proposing seven clusters of techniques: "mindful observation, body-centered meditation, visual concentration, contemplation, affect-centered meditation, mantra meditation, and meditation with movement."{{sfn|Matko|Sedlmeier|2019}}
Jonathan Shear argues that transcendental meditation is an "automatic self-transcending" technique, different from focused attention and open monitoring. In this kind of practice, "there is no attempt to sustain any particular condition at all. Practices of this kind, once started, are reported to automatically 'transcend' their own activity and disappear, to be started up again later if appropriate."{{refn|group=note|According to Shear, "Focused Attention, Open Monitoring and Automatic Self-Transcending were likely to be associated with (γ and β)13, θ, and α1 EEG bands, respectively."<ref name="Travis, F. 2010"/>}} Yet, Shear also states that "automatic self-transcending" also applies to the way other techniques such as from Zen and Qigong are practiced by experienced meditators "once they had become effortless and automatic through years of practice."<ref name="Travis, F. 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Travis |first1=Fred |last2=Shear |first2=Jonathan |title=Focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending: Categories to organize meditations from Vedic, Buddhist and Chinese traditions |journal=Consciousness and Cognition |date=December 2010 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=1110–1118 |doi=10.1016/j.concog.2010.01.007 |pmid=20167507 |s2cid=11036572 |url=https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=phil_pubs |access-date=2021-08-05 |archive-date=2021-10-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027001509/https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=phil_pubs |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Technique==
===Posture===
[[File:1590-MT-au-Peru-2011-Consciousness-Based-Education.JPG|thumbnail|right|Young children practicing meditation in a [[Peru]]vian school]]
{{Main|Meditative postures}}
[[Asana]]s or body postures such as ''padmasana'' [[Lotus position|(full-lotus]], [[Ardha Padmasana|half-lotus]]), cross-legged sitting, ''[[seiza]]'', and [[kneeling]] positions are popular [[meditative postures]] in Hinduism, Buddhism and [[Jainism]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mallinson |first1=James |author1-link=James Mallinson (author) |last2=Singleton |first2=Mark |author2-link=Mark Singleton (yoga scholar) | title=Roots of Yoga |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-241-25304-5 |oclc=928480104 |pages=86–87 |title-link=Roots of Yoga}}</ref> although other postures such as sitting, supine (lying), and standing are also used. Meditation is also sometimes done while walking, known as ''[[kinhin]]'', while doing a simple task mindfully, known as [[Samu (Zen)|''samu'']], or while lying down, known as ''[[shavasana]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mindworks.org/blog/meditation-positions-lying-down/ |title=Meditation (savasana) |date=14 August 2017 |access-date=23 February 2020 |archive-date=23 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223165233/https://mindworks.org/blog/meditation-positions-lying-down/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ng |first1=Teng-Kuan |title=Pedestrian Dharma: Slowness and Seeing in Tsai Ming-Liang's Walker |journal=Religions |date=2018 |volume=9 |issue=7 |page=200 |doi=10.3390/rel9070200|doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Frequency===
The [[Transcendental Meditation]] technique recommends practice of 20 minutes twice per day.<ref name="huffingtonpost.co.uk">{{cite news |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/business-meditation-executives-meditate_n_3528731 |title=The Daily Habit Of These Outrageously Successful People |date=5 July 2013 |work=[[Huffington Post]] |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415013359/https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/business-meditation-executives-meditate_n_3528731 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some techniques suggest less time,<ref name="berkeley.edu"/> especially when starting meditation,<ref>[[Mindfulness#Meditation method]]</ref> and [[Richard Davidson]] has quoted research saying benefits can be achieved with a practice of only 8 minutes per day.<ref name="abcnews1">{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/neuroscientist-richie-davidson-dalai-lama-gave-total-wake/story?id=40859233|title=Neuroscientist Says Dalai Lama Gave Him 'a Total Wake-Up Call'|date=27 July 2016|website=ABC News|access-date=8 May 2018|archive-date=28 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928235706/https://abcnews.go.com/Health/neuroscientist-richie-davidson-dalai-lama-gave-total-wake/story?id=40859233|url-status=live}}</ref> Research shows improvement in meditation time with simple oral and video training.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Strait|first1=Julia Englund|last2=Strait|first2=Gerald Gill|last3=McClain|first3=Maryellen Brunson|last4=Casillas|first4=Laurel|last5=Streich|first5=Kristin|last6=Harper|first6=Kristina|last7=Gomez|first7=Jocelyn|date=2020-01-27|title=Classroom Mindfulness Education Effects on Meditation Frequency, Stress, and Self-Regulation|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0098628320901386 |journal=Teaching of Psychology|volume=47|issue=2|pages=162–168|language=en |doi=10.1177/0098628320901386 |s2cid=213924577 |access-date=2020-11-09 |archive-date=2021-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418053200/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0098628320901386|url-status=live}}</ref> Some meditators practice for much longer,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://time.com/4672373/yuval-noah-harari-homo-deus-interview/|title=How Humankind Could Become Totally Useless|website=[[Time magazine]]|access-date=17 March 2018|archive-date=20 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320004202/https://time.com/4672373/yuval-noah-harari-homo-deus-interview/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=20670413 |pmc=2919439 |year=2010 |last1=Kaul |first1=P. |title=Meditation acutely improves psychomotor vigilance, and may decrease sleep need |journal=Behavioral and Brain Functions |volume=6 |page=47 |last2=Passafiume |first2=J |last3=Sargent |first3=C.R. |last4=O'Hara |first4=B.F. |doi=10.1186/1744-9081-6-47 |doi-access=free }}</ref> particularly when on a course or [[spiritual retreat|retreat]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.giri.dhamma.org/qanda|title=Questions & Answers – Dhamma Giri – Vipassana International Academy|website=www.giri.dhamma.org|access-date=2018-05-01|archive-date=2019-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624062750/http://www.giri.dhamma.org/qanda}}</ref> Some meditators find practice best in [[Brahmamuhurta|the hours before dawn]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/brahmamuhurta-the-best-time-for-meditation/articleshow/4659848.cms|title=Brahmamuhurta: The best time for meditation|newspaper=Times of India|access-date=2018-05-01|archive-date=2018-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502011957/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/brahmamuhurta-the-best-time-for-meditation/articleshow/4659848.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Supporting aids===
====Use of prayer beads====
Some religions have traditions of using [[prayer beads]] as tools in devotional meditation.<ref name=Binz3 >'' Mysteries of the Rosary'' by Stephen J. Binz 2005 {{ISBN|1-58595-519-1}} p. 3</ref><ref name=Sach >'' The everything Buddhism book'' by Jacky Sach 2003 {{ISBN|978-1-58062-884-6}} p. 175</ref><ref>For a general overview, see {{cite book | last1=Henry | first1=Gray | last2=Marriott | first2=Susannah | title=Beads of faith: pathways to meditation and spirituality using rosaries, prayer beads, and sacred words | publisher=Fons Vitae |location=Louisville, KY | date=2008 | isbn=978-1-887752-95-4 | oclc=179839679}}</ref> Most prayer beads and [[Rosary based prayers|Christian rosaries]] consist of pearls or beads linked together by a thread.<ref name=Binz3 /><ref name=Sach /> The Roman Catholic rosary is a string of beads containing five sets with ten small beads. Eastern and Oriental Orthodox have traditions of using [[prayer rope]]s called Comboschini or Meqetaria as an aid to prayerful meditation. The Hindu ''[[japa mala]]'' has 108 beads. The figure 108 in itself having spiritual significance as the energy of the sounds equivalates to [[Om]],<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=DerSarkissian |first=Carol |date=15 February 2024 |title=What Are Mala Beads? |url=https://www.webmd.com/balance/what-are-mala-beads |access-date=31 May 2024 |website=WebMd}}</ref> as well as those used in [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna tradition]], and [[Jainism]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-09-29|title=Chanting Hare Krishna on Japa Beads|url=https://krishna.org/chanting-hare-krishna-on-beads/|access-date=2020-07-08|website=Krishna.org – Real Krishna Consciousness|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620091318/https://krishna.org/chanting-hare-krishna-on-beads/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Vishnu >{{cite book | author=Vishnu Devananda | first=Swami | title=Meditation and mantras | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi | date=1995 | isbn=81-208-1615-3 | oclc=50030094 |pages=82–83}}</ref> [[Buddhist prayer beads]] also have 108 beads, but hold a different meaning. In Buddhism, there are 108 human passions that impede enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arimura |first=R |title=A Case Study of the Evangelization of Japan |url=https://www.redalyc.org/journal/369/36972034008/html/ |journal=Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas |date=October 2021 |volume=XLIII |issue=119 |pages=209–247 |doi=10.22201/iie.18703062e.2021.119.2761 |via=Redalyc|doi-access=free }}</ref> Each bead is counted once as a person recites a [[mantra]] until the person has gone all the way around the mala.<ref name=Vishnu /> The Muslim ''[[misbaha]]'' has 99 beads. There is also quite a variance when it comes to materials used for beads. Beads made from seeds of [[rudraksha]] trees are considered sacred by devotees of [[Shiva]], while followers of [[Vishnu]] revere the wood that comes from the '''''[[Tulasi|Tulsi]]''''' plant, also known as Holy Basil.<ref>{{cite book | last=Simoons | first=Frederick J. | title=Plants of life, plants of death | publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison, Wis. | date=1998 | isbn=0-585-17620-5 | oclc=45733876 |pages=7–40}}</ref>
====Striking the meditator====
The Buddhist literature has many stories of [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|Enlightenment]] being attained through disciples being struck by their masters. T. Griffith Foulk recounts how the [[Keisaku|encouragement stick]] was an integral part of the [[Zen]] practice when he trained:
{{Blockquote| In the Rinzai monastery where I trained in the mid-1970s, according to an unspoken etiquette, monks who were sitting earnestly and well were shown respect by being hit vigorously and often; those known as laggards were ignored by the hall monitor or given little taps if they requested to be hit. Nobody asked about the 'meaning' of the stick, nobody explained, and nobody ever complained about its use.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://tricycle.org/magazine/encouragement-stick-7-views/ |last=Foulk |first=T. Griffith |title=The Encouragement Stick: 7 Views |journal=Tricycle |issue=Winter |year=1998 |access-date=6 May 2020 |archive-date=16 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216131425/https://tricycle.org/magazine/encouragement-stick-7-views/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
====Using a narrative====
Neuroscientist and long-time meditator [[Richard Davidson]] has expressed the view that having a narrative can help the maintenance of daily practice. For instance, he himself [[Prostration (Buddhism)|prostrates]] to the teachings, and meditates "not primarily for my benefit, but for the benefit of others".<ref name="abcnews1"/>
==== Psychedelics ====
Studies suggest the potential of [[Psychedelic drug|psychedelics]], such as [[psilocybin]] and [[N,N-Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], to enhance meditative training.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meling |first=Daniel |last2=Egger |first2=Klemens |last3=Aicher |first3=Helena D |last4=Jareño Redondo |first4=Javier |last5=Mueller |first5=Jovin |last6=Dornbierer |first6=Joëlle |last7=Temperli |first7=Elijah |last8=Vasella |first8=Emilia A |last9=Caflisch |first9=Luzia |last10=Pfeiffer |first10=David J |last11=Schlomberg |first11=Jonas TT |last12=Smallridge |first12=John W |last13=Dornbierer |first13=Dario A |last14=Scheidegger |first14=Milan |date=2024-09-27 |title=Meditating on psychedelics. A randomized placebo-controlled study of DMT and harmine in a mindfulness retreat |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/02698811241282637 |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |language=en |doi=10.1177/02698811241282637 |issn=0269-8811|pmc=11487865 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singer |first=Berit |last2=Meling |first2=Daniel |last3=Hirsch-Hoffmann |first3=Matthias |last4=Michels |first4=Lars |last5=Kometer |first5=Michael |last6=Smigielski |first6=Lukasz |last7=Dornbierer |first7=Dario |last8=Seifritz |first8=Erich |last9=Vollenweider |first9=Franz X. |last10=Scheidegger |first10=Milan |date=2024-03-26 |title=Psilocybin enhances insightfulness in meditation: a perspective on the global topology of brain imaging during meditation |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-55726-x |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=7211 |doi=10.1038/s41598-024-55726-x |issn=2045-2322|pmc=10966054 }}</ref>
==Meditation traditions==
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Man Meditating in a Garden Setting.jpg|thumb|upright|''Man meditating in a garden setting'' (19th century)]]
===Origins===
The history of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it was practiced.{{sfn|Everly|Lating|2002|p=199–202}} Rossano suggested that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element of many methods of meditation, may have contributed to the latest phases of human biological evolution.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rossano |first1=Matt J. |title=Did Meditating Make Us Human? |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |date=February 2007 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=47–58 |doi=10.1017/S0959774307000054 |s2cid=44185634 }}</ref> Some of the earliest references to meditation, as well as proto-[[Samkhya]], are found in the [[Upanishads]] of India.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dhavamony|first=Mariasusai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DD0w_IMFA8gC&q=meditation+hinduism&pg=PA243|title=Classical Hinduism|publisher=Università Gregoriana Editrice|year=1982|isbn=978-88-7652-482-0|pages=243–244|language=en|access-date=2020-10-27|archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095221/https://books.google.com/books?id=DD0w_IMFA8gC&q=meditation+hinduism&pg=PA243|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Lusthaus|2018}} According to Wynne, the earliest clear references to meditation are in the middle Upanishads and the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' (including the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'').<ref>Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 51. The earliest reference is actually in the Mokshadharma, which dates to the early Buddhist period.</ref><ref>The Katha Upanishad describes yoga, including meditation. On meditation in this and other post-Buddhist Hindu literature, see {{cite book |first=Randall |last=Collins |title=The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2000 |page=199}}</ref> According to [[Gavin Flood]], the earlier ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'' is describing meditation when it states that "Having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]) within oneself" (BU 4.4.23).<ref name="Flood">{{Cite book| last=Flood | first=Gavin |author-link=Gavin Flood | year=1996 | title=An Introduction to Hinduism| publisher=Cambridge University Press | pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/94 94]–95 |location=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-43878-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo| url-access=registration }}</ref>
===Indian religions===
==== Hinduism ====
{{Main|Hindu meditation}}
{{See also|Yoga}}
[[File:Patanjali Statue.jpg|thumb|A statue of [[Patanjali|Patañjali]] practicing [[Dhyana in Hinduism (Self-knowledge)|dhyana]] in the [[Padmaasana|Padma-asana]] at [[Patanjali Yogpeeth]]]]
There are many schools and styles of meditation within [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Flood" /> In pre-modern and traditional [[Hinduism]], ''Yoga'' and ''Dhyana'' are practised to recognize 'pure awareness', or 'pure consciousness', undisturbed by the workings of the mind, as one's eternal self. In [[Advaita Vedanta]] ''[[jivatman]]'', individual self, is recognized as illusory, and in Reality identical with the omnipresent and [[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dual]] [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]-[[Brahman]]. In the [[Yoga (philosophy)|dualistic Yoga school]] and [[Samkhya]], the Self is called [[Purusha]], a pure consciousness undisturbed by [[Prakriti]], 'nature'. Depending on the tradition, the liberative event is named [[moksha]], vimukti or [[kaivalya]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Human Development: Kaivalya |url=http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/development/12338690 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527025554/http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/development/12338690 |archive-date=27 May 2023 |access-date=2023-05-26 |website=encyclopedia.uia.org}}</ref>
One of the most influential texts of classical Hindu Yoga is [[Patañjali]]'s [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga sutras]] (c. 400 CE), a text associated with Yoga and Samkhya and influenced by Buddhism,{{refn|group=note|According to {{harvnb|Larson|2008|pp=43–45}}, from Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of ''nirodhasamadhi'' the Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness. However, unlike Buddhism, which avoids stating whether self and soul exist, Yoga is physicalist and realist, like Samkhya, believing that each individual has a self and soul.{{sfn|Larson|2008|p=43-45}} [[Karel Werner]] writes, "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the ''Yoga Sutras'' that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the [[Pāli Canon]] and even more so from the [[Sarvāstivāda]] [[Abhidharma]] and from [[Sautrāntika]]."<ref>[[Karel Werner]] (1994), ''The Yogi and the Mystic.'' Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-0272-5}}, page 26</ref> See also D. Wujastyk (2018), ''Some Problematic Yoga Sutras and their Buddhist Background'', in: P. Maas et al., ''Yoga in Transformation. Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on a Global Phenomenon'', Vienna University Press; and Pradeep P. Gokhale (2020), ''The Yogasūtra of Patañjali: A New Introduction to the Buddhist Roots of the Yoga System'', Routledge.}} which outlines [[Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)|eight limbs]] leading to [[kaivalya]] ("aloneness") or inner awareness. The first four, known as the "outer limbs," include ethical discipline ([[yamas]]), rules ([[niyamas]]), physical postures ([[āsanas]]), and breath control ([[prāṇāyama]]). The fifth, withdrawal from the senses ([[pratyāhāra]]), transitions into the "inner limbs" that are one-pointedness of mind ([[dhāraṇā]]), meditation ([[Dhyāna in Hinduism|dhyāna]]), and finally [[samādhi]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ram |first=Bhava |title=The 8 Limbs of Yoga: Pathway to Liberation |publisher=Deep Yoga |year=2009 |page=170 |language=English}}</ref>
Later developments in Hindu meditation include the compilation of [[Hatha Yoga]] (forceful yoga) compendiums like the [[Hatha Yoga Pradipika]], the development of [[Bhakti yoga]] as a major form of meditation, and [[Tantra]]. Another important Hindu yoga text is the [[Yoga Yajnavalkya]], which makes use of [[Hatha Yoga]] and Vedanta Philosophy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ZGrAgAAQBAJ |title=The "Yoga Sutra of Patanjali": A Biography |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691143774 |publication-date=2014 |pages=xiii–xvi, 49}}</ref>
===== Mantra Meditation =====
The [[Bhagavata Purana]] emphasizes that mantra meditation is a key practice for achieving liberation; practitioners can achieve a direct vision of the divine. The text integrates both Vedic and tantric elements, where mantras are not only seen as sacred sounds but as embodiment of the deity. This approach reflects a shift from the impersonal meditation on the sound-form of Brahman ([[Om]]) in the Upanishads to a personal, devotional focus on [[Krishna]] in the Bhagavata Purana.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holdrege |first=Barbara A. |title=Bhakti and embodiment: fashioning divine bodies and devotional bodies in Kṛṣṇa bhakti |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-67070-8 |series=Routledge Hindu studies series |location=London; New York |pages=272–273}}</ref>
==== Jainism ====
[[File:Lord Mahavira Omniscience.jpg|thumb|Lord [[Mahavir]] attaining omniscience in ''shukla dhyana'', the highest level of meditation]]
{{Main|Jain meditation}}
[[Jainism]] has three elements called the ''[[Ratnatraya]]'' ("Three Jewels"): right perception and faith, right knowledge and right conduct.<ref name="Ratna traya">{{Cite book |first1=Acharya |last1=Mahapragya |title=Jain Yog |publisher=Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh |chapter=Foreword |year=2004}}</ref> Meditation in Jainism aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure consciousness, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (''gyata-drashta''). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized into ''Dharma dhyana'' and ''Shukla dhyana''. ''Dharma dhyana'' is discriminating knowledge (bheda-vijñāna) of the tattvas (truths or fundamental principles), while ''shukla dhyana'' is meditation proper.
Jainism uses meditation techniques such as ''pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, and savīrya-dhyāna''. In ''padāstha dhyāna,'' one focuses on a ''[[mantra]],''<ref name="HN4U"/> a combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. Jain followers practice mantra regularly by chanting loudly or silently in mind.<ref name="HN4U"/>
The meditation technique of [[contemplation]] includes ''agnya vichāya'', in which one contemplates on seven facts&nbsp;– life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of ''[[karma]]s'', and the final accomplishment of liberation. In ''apaya vichāya'', one contemplates on the incorrect insights one indulges, which eventually develops right insight. In ''vipaka vichāya'', one reflects on the eight causes or basic types of ''karma''. In ''sansathan vichāya'', one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.<ref name="HN4U">{{Cite book |first1=Rudi |last1=Jansma |first2=Sneh Rani Jain |last2=Key |title=Introduction To Jainism |publisher=Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur, India |year=2006 |chapter=Yoga and Meditation |chapter-url=http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=66251 |access-date=2009-09-14 |archive-date=2019-12-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213225205/http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=66251 |url-status=live }}</ref>
====Buddhism====
[[File:BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bodhidharma]] practicing [[zazen]]]]
{{Main|Buddhist meditation}}
[[Buddhism|Buddhists]] pursue meditation as part of the path toward [[Bodhi|awakening]] and [[nirvana]].{{refn|group=note|For instance, {{harvtxt|Kamalashila|2003|p=4}}, states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation that has [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] as its ''ultimate'' aim." Likewise, {{harvtxt|Bodhi|1999}} writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, [[Nirvana|Nibbana]]...." A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by:{{sfn|Fischer-Schreiber|Ehrhard|Diener|1991|p=142}} "'''Meditation'''&nbsp;– general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'" {{harvtxt|Kamalashila|2003}} further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4).}} The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of [[Buddhism]] are ''[[Bhavana|bhāvanā]]'' ("development"), and the core practices of body contemplations ([[Patikulamanasikara|repulsiveness]] and [[Maraṇasati|cemetery contemplations]]) and ''[[anapanasati]]'' ([[mindfulness]] of in-and-out breathing){{refn|group=note|The [[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]] word ''bhāvanā'' literally means "development" as in "mental development." For the association of this term with "meditation," see {{harvtxt|Epstein|1995|p=105}}; and {{harvtxt|Fischer-Schreiber|Ehrhard|Diener|1991|p=20}}. As an example from a well-known discourse of the [[Pali Canon]], in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" (''Maha-Rahulovada Sutta'', [[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 62), Ven. [[Sariputta]] tells Ven. [[Rahula]] (in Pali, based on [http://www.tipitaka.org/romn/cscd/s0202m.mul1.xml VRI, n.d.)]: ''{{IAST|ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi.}}'' {{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.062.than.html |title=Maha-Rahulovada Sutta: The Greater Exhortation to Rahula (MN 62) |author=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |author-link=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |year=2006 |access-date=16 February 2011 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201104736/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.062.than.html |url-status=live }} translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [''{{IAST|bhāvana}}''] of [[anapanasati|mindfulness of in-&-out breathing]]." (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu, 2006, end note}} culminating in ''jhāna''/''[[Dhyāna in Buddhism|dhyāna]]'' or ''[[samādhi]]''.{{refn|group=note|See, for example, {{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html |title=One Tool Among Many: The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice |author=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |author-link=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |year=1997 |access-date=16 February 2011 |archive-date=12 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412055344/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html |url-status=live }}; as well as {{harvtxt|Kapleau|1989|p=385}} for the derivation of the word "zen" from [[Sanskrit]] "dhyāna". [[Pāli Text Society]] Secretary Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of [[śramaṇa|wandering ascetics]] contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:
: There is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as "altered states of consciousness". In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed "meditations" ([Skt.:] ''dhyāna'' / [Pali:] ''jhāna'') or "concentrations" (''[[samādhi]]''); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world. ({{harvnb|Gethin|1998|p=10}}) }}
While most classical and contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school-specific,{{refn|group=note|Examples of contemporary school-specific classics include:
* from the Theravada tradition, {{harvtxt|Thera|1996}}.
* from the Zen tradition, {{harvtxt|Kapleau|1989}}.}} the root meditative practices of various body recollections and [[Anapanasati|breath meditation]] have been preserved and transmitted in almost all [[schools of Buddhism|Buddhist traditions]], through [[Buddhist texts]] like the ''[[Satipatthana Sutta]]'' and the [[Dhyana sutras]], and through oral teacher-student transmissions. These ancient practices are supplemented with various distinct interpretations of, and developments in, these practices.
The [[Theravāda]] tradition stresses the development of ''[[Samatha-vipassana|samatha]]'' and ''vipassana'', postulating over fifty methods for developing mindfulness based on the ''Satipatthana Sutta'',{{refn|group=note|{{harvtxt|Goldstein|2003}} writes that, in regard to the [[Satipatthana Sutta]], "there are more than fifty different practices outlined in this Sutta. The meditations that derive from these foundations of mindfulness are called ''vipassana''..., and in one form or another&nbsp;– and by whatever name&nbsp;– are found in all the major Buddhist traditions" (p. 92).}} and forty for developing concentration based on the [[Visuddhimagga]].
The [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan tradition]] incorporated [[Sarvastivada]] and Tantric practices, wedded with [[Madhyamaka]] philosophy, and developed thousands of visualization meditations.{{refn|group=note|Regarding Tibetan visualizations, {{harvtxt|Kamalashila|2003}}, writes: "The Tara meditation ... is one example out of thousands of subjects for visualization meditation, each one arising out of some meditator's visionary experience of enlightened qualities, seen in the form of [[Buddhahood|Buddhas]] and [[Bodhisattva]]s" (p. 227).}}
{{anchor|No thought}}The [[Zen]] tradition incorporated mindfulness and breath-meditation via the Dhyana sutras, which are based on the Sarvastivada-tradition. The practice of sitting meditation, known as [[zazen]], is a central part of Zen Buddhism. Downplaying the "petty complexities" of satipatthana and the body-recollections{{sfn|Sharf|2015|p=475}}{{sfn|McRae|1986|p=116}} (but maintaining the awareness of immanent death), the early Chan-tradition developed the notions or practices of ''wu nian'' ("no thought, no fixation on thought, such as one's own views, experiences, and knowledge"){{sfn|Yu|2021|p=157}}{{sfn|Lai|Cheng|2008|p=351}} and ''fēi sīliàng'' (非思量, Japanese: ''hishiryō'', "nonthinking");{{sfn|Suzuki|2014|p=112}} and ''kanxin'' ("observing the mind"){{sfn|Schaik|2018|p=70, 93}} and ''shou-i pu i'' (守一不移, "maintaining the one without wavering,"{{sfn|McRae|1986|p=143}} turning the attention from the objects of experience, to the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which is equated with [[Buddha-nature]].{{sfn|Sharf|2014|p=939}}
The [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]] introduced Buddhist meditation to other Asian countries, reaching China in the 2nd century CE,<ref>{{cite book |author=Heinrich Dumoulin |year=2005 |title=Zen Buddhism: A History. Vol. 1: India and China |page=64}}</ref> and Japan in the 6th century CE.<ref>{{cite book |title=Zen Buddhism: A History, Vol. 2: Japan |author=Heinrich Dumoulin |translator1=James W. Heisig |translator2=Paul F. Knitter |year=2005 |isbn=0-941532-90-9 |page=5|publisher=World Wisdom }}</ref> In the modern era, Buddhist meditation techniques have become popular in the wider world, due to the influence of [[Buddhist modernism]] on Asian Buddhism, and [[Buddhism in the West|western lay interest]] in [[Zen]] and the [[Vipassana movement]], with many non-Buddhists taking-up meditative practices. The modernized concept of mindfulness (based on the Buddhist term ''[[Sati (Buddhism)|sati]]'') and related meditative practices have in turn led to [[Mindfulness#Therapy programs|mindfulness based therapies]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 5, 2021|title=How to Use Guided Meditation for Calm and Mindfulness|url=https://www.unitedwecare.com/guided-meditation-for-calm-mindfulness/|website=United We Care|access-date=May 26, 2021|archive-date=May 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526194508/https://www.unitedwecare.com/guided-meditation-for-calm-mindfulness/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=====Dhyana=====
[[Dhyāna in Buddhism|Dhyana]], while often presented as a form of focused attention or concentration, as in Buddhagosa's Theravada classic the ''[[Visuddhimagga]]'' ("Path of purification", 5th c. CE), according to a number of contemporary scholars and scholar-practitioners, it is actually a description of the development of perfected equanimity and mindfulness, apparently induced by satipatthana, an open monitoring of the breath, without trying to regulate it. The same description, in a different formula, can be found in the [[bojjhanga]], the "seven factors of awakening," and may therefore refer to the core program of early Buddhist ''bhavana''.<ref>Gethin, ''The Buddhist Path to Awakening''</ref> According to Vetter, dhyana seems to be a natural development from the sense-restraint and moral constrictions prescribed by the Buddhist tradition.<ref>Vetter, ''The meditative practices of early Buddhism''</ref>{{sfn|Polak|2011}}
=====Samatha and vipassana=====
The Buddha identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice or ''bhavana'', namely ''[[samatha]]'' ("calm," "serenity"  "tranquility") and ''[[vipassana]]'' (insight). As the developing tradition started to emphasize the value of liberating insight, and ''dhyana'' came to be understood as concentration,{{sfn|Bronkhorst|1993|p=131}}{{sfn|Vetter|1988|pp=xxi–xxxvii}} ''[[Samatha-vipassana|samatha]]'' and ''[[vipassana]]'' were understood as two distinct meditative techniques. In this understanding, ''[[Samatha-vipassana|samatha]]'' steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind, while ''[[Samatha-vipassana|vipassana]]'' enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five [[Skandha|aggregates]]).{{refn|group=note|These definitions of ''samatha'' and ''vipassana'' are based on the "Four Kinds of Persons Sutta" ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on {{harvtxt|Bodhi|2005|loc=pp. 269–70, 440 ''n''. 13}}. See also {{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.094.than.html |title=Samadhi Sutta: Concentration (Tranquillity and Insight) (AN 4.94) |author=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |author-link=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |year=1998d |access-date=16 February 2011 |archive-date=13 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013172229/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.094.than.html |url-status=live }}.}}
According to this understanding, which is central to Theravada orthodoxy but also plays a role in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to weaken the obscuring [[Five Hindrances|hindrances]] and bring the mind to a collected, pliant, and still state (''[[samadhi]]''). This quality of mind then supports the development of insight and wisdom ([[prajñā (Buddhism)|Prajñā]]) which is the quality of mind that can "clearly see" (''vi-passana'') the nature of phenomena. What exactly is to be seen varies within the Buddhist traditions. In Theravada, all phenomena are to be seen as [[anicca|impermanent]], [[dukkha|suffering]], [[anatta|not-self]] and [[shunyata|empty]]. When this happens, one develops [[Nonattachment (philosophy)|dispassion]] (''viraga'') for all phenomena, including all negative qualities and hindrances and lets them go. It is through the release of the hindrances and ending of craving through the meditative development of insight that one gains liberation.<ref>See, for instance, AN 2.30 in {{harvtxt|Bodhi|2005|pp=267–68}}, and {{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an02/an02.030.than.html |title=Vijja-bhagiya Sutta: A Share in Clear Knowing (AN 2.30) |author=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |author-link=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |year=1998e |access-date=2011-02-16 |archive-date=2013-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619063012/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an02/an02.030.than.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
====Sikhism====
{{Main|Nām Japō}}
In [[Sikhism]], [[Simran (Sanskrit word)|''simran'']] (meditation) and good deeds are both necessary to achieve the devotee's spiritual goals;<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Suresh |title=Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Sikhism |year=2004 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-961-4 |page=7}}</ref> without good deeds meditation is futile. When [[Sikhs]] meditate, they aim to feel God's presence and emerge in the divine light.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ranjan |first=Abhiruchi |date=2019 |title=Ravidassia Religiosity in the Modern Era: Perspectives in Theory and from the Field |journal=Sociological Bulletin |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=274–289 |doi=10.1177/0038022919876403 |jstor=48564546 |issn=0038-0229}}</ref> It is only God's [[hukam|divine will]] or order that allows a devotee to desire to begin to meditate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Duggal |first=Kartar |title=The Prescribed Sikh Prayers (Nitnem) |year=1980 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-377-9 |page=20}}</ref> [[Nām Japō|''Nām japnā'']] involves focusing one's attention on the names or great attributes of God.<ref>{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Nirbhai |title=Philosophy of Sikhism: Reality and Its Manifestations |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyofsikh0000nirb |url-access=registration |year=1990 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distribution |page=[https://archive.org/details/philosophyofsikh0000nirb/page/105 105]}}</ref>
=== Taoism ===
{{Main|Taoist meditation}}
[[File:性命圭旨 中心圖.png|thumb|Centering the Mind 中心圖, 1615 ''[[Xingming guizhi]]'']]
[[File:Stage1.gif|thumb|upright| "Gathering the Light", Taoist meditation from ''[[The Secret of the Golden Flower]]'']]
Taoist meditation has developed techniques including concentration, visualization, ''[[qi]]'' cultivation, [[contemplation]], and [[mindfulness]] meditations in its long history. Traditional Daoist meditative practices influenced Buddhism creating the unique meditative practices of [[Chinese Buddhism]]  that then spread through the rest of east Asia from around the 5th century.Traditional [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese medicine]] and the [[Chinese martial arts]] were influenced and influences of Taoist meditation.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}
[[Livia Kohn]] distinguishes three basic types of Taoist meditation: "concentrative", "insight", and "visualization".<ref>Kohn, Livia (2008), "Meditation and visualization," in ''The Encyclopedia of Taoism'', ed. by Fabrizio Pregadio, p. 118.</ref> ''Ding'' [[wikt:定|定]] (literally means "decide; settle; stabilize") refers to "deep concentration", "intent contemplation", or "perfect absorption". ''Guan'' [[wikt:觀|觀]] (lit. "watch; observe; view") meditation seeks to merge and attain unity with the Dao. It was developed by [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) Taoist masters based upon the ''[[Tiantai]]'' Buddhist practice of ''[[Vipassanā]]'' "insight" or "wisdom" meditation. ''Cun'' [[wikt:存|存]] (lit. "exist; be present; survive") has a sense of "to cause to exist; to make present" in the meditation techniques popularized by the Taoist [[Shangqing School|Shangqing]] and [[Lingbao School]]s. A meditator visualizes or actualizes solar and lunar essences, lights, and deities within their body, which supposedly results in health and longevity, even ''[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]'' 仙/仚/僊, "immortality".{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}
The ''[[Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]'' essay (late 4th century BCE) ''[[Neiye]]'' "Inward training" is the oldest received writing on the subject of ''[[qi]]'' cultivation and breath-control meditation techniques.<ref name='Cambridge'>{{Cite book | last1=Harper | first1=Donald | first2=Michael | last2=Loewe | first3=Edward L. | last3=Shaughnessy | title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC | publisher=Cambridge University Press | date=2007 | orig-date=First published in 1999 | location=Cambridge | page=880 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&q=cambridge++history+of+ancient+china | isbn=978-0-521-47030-8 | access-date=2020-10-27 | archive-date=2023-03-17 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095145/https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&q=cambridge++history+of+ancient+china | url-status=live }}</ref> For instance, "When you enlarge your mind and let go of it, when you relax your vital breath and expand it, when your body is calm and unmoving: And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances. ... This is called "revolving the vital breath": Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly."<ref>Roth, Harold D. (1999), ''Original Tao: Inward Training (''Nei-yeh'') and the Foundations of Taoist Mysticism'', Columbia University Press, p. 92.</ref>
The Taoist ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' (c. 3rd century BCE) records ''[[zuowang]]'' or "sitting forgetting" meditation. [[Confucius]] asked his disciple [[Yan Hui (disciple of Confucius)|Yan Hui]] to explain what "sit and forget" means: "I slough off my limbs and trunk, dim my intelligence, depart from my form, leave knowledge behind, and become identical with the Transformational Thoroughfare."<ref>Mair, Victor H., tr. (1994), ''Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu'', Bantam Books, p. 64.</ref>
Taoist meditation practices are central to [[Chinese martial arts]] (and some [[Japanese martial arts]]), especially the ''qi''-related ''[[neijia]]'' "internal martial arts". Some well-known examples are ''[[daoyin]]'' ("guiding and pulling"), [[qigong]] ("life-energy exercises"), ''[[neigong]]'' ("internal exercises"), ''[[neidan]]'' ("internal alchemy"), and [[tai chi]] ("great ultimate boxing"), which is thought of as moving meditation. One common explanation contrasts "movement in stillness" referring to energetic visualization of ''qi'' circulation in qigong and ''[[zuochan]]'' ("seated meditation"),{{sfn|Perez-De-Albeniz|Holmes|2000|p=}} versus "stillness in movement" referring to a state of meditative calm in [[tai chi]] forms. Also the unification or middle road forms such as ''Wuxingheqidao'' that seeks the unification of internal alchemical forms with more external forms.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}`
===Abrahamic religions===
====Judaism====
{{Main|Jewish meditation}}
Judaism has made use of meditative practices for thousands of years.<ref name=Verman1 >''The history and varieties of Jewish meditation'' by Mark Verman 1997 {{ISBN|978-1-56821-522-8}} p. 1</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jacobs |first=L. |year=1976 |title=Jewish Mystical Testimonies |place=Jerusalem |publisher=Keter Publishing House Jerusalem}}</ref> For instance, in the [[Torah]], the patriarch [[Isaac]] is described as going ''"לשוח"'' (''lasuach'') in the field&nbsp;– a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 24:63).{{sfn|Kaplan|1978|p=101}} Similarly, there are indications throughout the [[Tanakh]] (the Hebrew [[Bible]]) that the [[Old Testament prophets|prophets]] meditated.<ref name=Verman45 >''The history and varieties of Jewish meditation'' by Mark Verman 1997 {{ISBN|978-1-56821-522-8}} p. 45</ref> In the [[Old Testament]], there are two [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] words for meditation: ''hāgâ'' ({{langx|he|הגה}}), ''to sigh'' or ''murmur'', but also ''to meditate'', and ''sîḥâ'' ({{langx|he|שיחה}}),  ''to muse'', or ''rehearse in one's mind''.<ref name="Kaplan, A. 1985">{{cite book |last=Kaplan |first=A. |year=1985 |title=Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide |publisher=New York Schocken Books }}</ref>
Classical Jewish texts espouse a wide range of meditative practices, often associated with the cultivation of ''[[kavanah]]'' or intention. The first layer of [[Halakha|rabbinic law]], the [[Mishnah]], describes ancient sages "waiting" for an hour before their prayers, "in order to direct their hearts to the Omnipresent One" ([[Mishnah]] [[Berakhot (tractate)|Berakhot]] 5:1). Other early [[rabbinic texts]] include instructions for visualizing the Divine Presence (B. [[Talmud]] [[Sanhedrin (tractate)|Sanhedrin]] 22a) and breathing with conscious gratitude for every breath ([[Genesis Rabba]] 14:9).<ref>Buxbaum, Y. (1990) ''Jewish Spiritual Practices'', New York, Rowman and Littlefield, pp. 108-10, 423-35.</ref>
One of the best-known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of the [[Merkabah]], from the root /R-K-B/ meaning "chariot" (of God).<ref name="Kaplan, A. 1985"/> Some meditative traditions have been encouraged in [[Kabbalah]], and some Jews have described Kabbalah as an inherently meditative field of study.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Scholem |first1=Gershom Gerhard |title=Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism |date=1961 |publisher=Schocken Books |isbn=978-0-8052-1042-2 |page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kD2y4wMOlAoC&pg=PA34 |access-date=2018-05-09 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095145/https://books.google.com/books?id=kD2y4wMOlAoC&pg=PA34 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Kaplan|1982}}<ref>Matt, D.C. (1996) ''The Essential Kabbalah: The Heart of Jewish Mysticism'', San Francisco, HarperCollins.</ref> Kabbalistic meditation often involves the mental visualization of the supernal realms. [[Aryeh Kaplan]] has argued that the ultimate purpose of Kabbalistic meditation is to understand and cleave to the Divine.<ref name="Kaplan, A. 1985"/>
Meditation has been of interest to a wide variety of modern Jews. In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called ''"[[hitbodedut]]"'' (''התבודדות'', alternatively transliterated as "hisbodedus"), and is explained in [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]], [[Hasidic]], and [[Mussar Movement|Mussar]] writings, especially the Hasidic method of Rabbi [[Nachman of Breslav]]. The word derives from the Hebrew word "boded" (בודד), meaning the state of being alone.{{sfn|Kaplan|1978|loc=op cit p. 2}} Another Hasidic system is the [[Habad]] method of "hisbonenus", related to the [[Sephirah]] of "Binah", Hebrew for understanding.{{sfn|Kaplan|1982|loc=op cit, p. 13}} This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself understand a mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings. The [[Musar Movement]], founded by Rabbi Israel Salanter in the middle of the nineteenth-century, emphasized meditative practices of [[introspection]] and [[Mental image|visualization]] that could help to improve moral character.<ref>Claussen, Geoffrey. [https://www.academia.edu/1502958/The_Practice_of_Musar "The Practice of Musar"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902005723/http://www.academia.edu/1502958/The_Practice_of_Musar |date=2013-09-02 }}. Conservative Judaism 63, no. 2 (2012): 3–26. Retrieved 10 June 2014</ref> Conservative rabbi [[Alan Lew]] has emphasized meditation playing an important role in the process of [[Teshuvah|''teshuvah'' (repentance)]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2006/09/15/september-15-2006-rabbi-alan-lew/3733/|title=Rabbi Alan Lew|date=2006-09-15|website=Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly, PBS|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-09|archive-date=2019-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728150811/https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2006/09/15/september-15-2006-rabbi-alan-lew/3733/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_2BA8b7eUEUC|title=Be Still and Get Going: A Jewish Meditation Practice for Real Life|last=Lew|first=Alan|date=2007-07-31|publisher=Little, Brown|isbn=978-0-316-02591-1|language=en|access-date=2019-08-09|archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095151/https://books.google.com/books?id=_2BA8b7eUEUC|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Jewish Buddhist]]s have adopted Buddhist styles of meditation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Michaelson |first1=Jay |title=Judaism, Meditation and The B-Word |url=https://forward.com/culture/3652/judaism-meditation-and-the-b-word/ |work=The Forward |date=10 June 2005 |access-date=9 May 2018 |archive-date=10 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510115414/https://forward.com/culture/3652/judaism-meditation-and-the-b-word/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
====Christianity====
[[File:Padre Pio.jpg|thumb|upright|Saint [[Pio of Pietrelcina]] stated: "Through the study of books one seeks God; by meditation one finds Him."<ref>''The Rosary: A Path Into Prayer'' by Liz Kelly 2004 {{ISBN|0-8294-2024-X}} pp. 79, 86</ref>]]
{{Main|Christian meditation}}
[[Christian meditation]] is a term for a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of [[God]].<ref>''Christian Meditation for Beginners'' by Thomas Zanzig, Marilyn Kielbasa 2000, {{ISBN|0-88489-361-8}} p. 7</ref> In the [[Roman Empire]], by 20 BCE [[Philo of Alexandria]] had written on some form of "spiritual exercises" involving attention (prosoche) and concentration<ref>Hadot, Pierre; Arnold I. Davidson (1995) ''Philosophy as a way of life'' {{ISBN|0-631-18033-8}} pp. 83–84</ref> and by the 3rd century [[Plotinus]] had developed meditative techniques. The word meditation comes from the Latin word ''meditatum'', which means to "concentrate" or "to ponder". Monk [[Guigo II]] introduced this terminology for the first time in the 12th century AD. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. a [[biblical]] scene involving [[Jesus]] and the [[Virgin Mary]]) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God.<ref>'' An introduction to Christian spirituality'' by F. Antonisamy, 2000 {{ISBN|81-7109-429-5}} pp. 76–77</ref> Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three-stage characterization of prayer: it then involves more reflection than first level vocal [[prayer]], but is more structured than the multiple layers of [[contemplation]] in Christianity.<ref>''Simple Ways to Pray'' by Emilie Griffin 2005 {{ISBN|0-7425-5084-2}} p. 134</ref>
Between the 10th and 14th centuries, [[hesychasm]] was developed, particularly on [[Mount Athos]] in Greece, and involves the repetition of the [[Jesus prayer]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20101021081733/http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html Archived] from [http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html the original] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729005209/http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html |date=29 July 2010 }} on 11 February 2014.</ref> Interactions with Indians or the [[Sufis]] may have influenced the [[Eastern Christian]] meditation approach to hesychasm, but this is unproven.<ref>''An introduction to the Christian Orthodox churches'' by John Binns 2002 {{ISBN|0-521-66738-0}} p. 128</ref>
[[Western Christian]] meditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian meditation progressed from the 6th century practice of Bible reading among [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictine]] monks called [[Lectio Divina]], i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a "ladder" were defined by the monk [[Guigo II]] in the 12th century with the Latin terms ''lectio'', ''meditatio'', ''oratio'', and ''contemplatio'' (i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian meditation was further developed by saints such as [[Ignatius of Loyola]] and [[Teresa of Avila]] in the 16th century.<ref>''Christian Spirituality: A Historical Sketch'' by George Lane 2005 {{ISBN|0-8294-2081-9}} p. 20</ref><ref>''Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition'' by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 {{ISBN|0-8091-3660-0}} p. 38</ref><ref>''The Oblate Life'' by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 {{ISBN|0-8146-3176-2}} p. 109</ref><ref>''After Augustine: the meditative reader and the text'' by [[Brian Stock (historian)|Brian Stock]] 2001 {{ISBN|0-8122-3602-5}} p. 105</ref>
On 28 April 2021, [[Pope Francis]], in an address to the General Audience, said that meditation is a need for everyone.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |date=2021-04-28 |title=Pope at Audience: Meditating is a way of encountering Jesus - Vatican News |url=https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2021-04/pope-francis-general-audience-meditation-prayer.html |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=www.vaticannews.va |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219161435/https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2021-04/pope-francis-general-audience-meditation-prayer.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=kathleenaleteia |date=2021-04-28 |title=Meditation is more than a self-help trend, explains Pope |url=https://aleteia.org/2021/04/28/meditation-is-more-than-a-self-help-trend-explains-pope/ |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=Aleteia — Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219161435/https://aleteia.org/2021/04/28/meditation-is-more-than-a-self-help-trend-explains-pope/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He noted that the term "meditation" has had many meanings throughout history, and that "the ancients used to say that the organ of prayer is the heart."<ref name=":4" />
In Catholic Christianity, the [[Rosary]] is a devotion for the meditation of the mysteries of Jesus and Mary.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fatima.org/it/essentials/whatucando/potetefare.asp |title=Home |access-date=2017-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601223011/http://www.fatima.org/it/essentials/whatucando/potetefare.asp |archive-date=2017-06-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theholyrosary.org/|title=The Holy Rosary|website=www.theholyrosary.org|access-date=2017-06-18|archive-date=2020-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122090242/http://www.theholyrosary.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> "The gentle repetition of its prayers makes it an excellent means to moving into deeper meditation. It gives us an opportunity to open ourselves to God's word, to refine our interior gaze by turning our minds to the life of Christ. The first principle is that meditation is learned through practice. Many people who practice rosary meditation begin very simply and gradually develop a more sophisticated meditation. The meditator learns to hear an interior voice, the voice of God.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.loyolapress.com/our-catholic-faith/prayer/personal-prayer-life/different-ways-to-pray/the-rosary-as-a-tool-for-meditation-by-liz-kelly|title=The Rosary as a Tool for Meditation by Liz Kelly|website=www.loyolapress.com|access-date=2017-06-18|archive-date=2017-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706182921/http://www.loyolapress.com/our-catholic-faith/prayer/personal-prayer-life/different-ways-to-pray/the-rosary-as-a-tool-for-meditation-by-liz-kelly|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, the [[chotki]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] denomination, the [[Wreath of Christ]] of the [[Lutheran]] faith, and the [[Anglican prayer beads]] of the [[Anglican|Episcopalian]] tradition are used for Christian prayer and meditation.<ref name="Dhiman2020">{{cite book |last1=Dhiman |first1=Satinder K. |title=The Routledge Companion to Mindfulness at Work |date=8 September 2020 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-429-53486-7 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Winston2008">{{cite book |last1=Winston |first1=Kimberly |title=Bead One, Pray Too |date=1 March 2008 |publisher=[[Church Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8192-2092-9 |language=English}}</ref>
According to [[Edmund P. Clowney]], Christian meditation contrasts with Eastern forms of meditation as radically as the portrayal of [[God the Father]] in the Bible contrasts with depictions of [[Krishna]] or [[Brahman]] in Indian teachings.<ref>''Christian Meditation'' by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 {{ISBN|1-57383-227-8}} p. 12</ref> Unlike some Eastern styles, most styles of Christian meditation do not rely on the repeated use of [[mantra]]s, and yet are also intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion.<ref>''Christian Meditation'' by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 {{ISBN|1-57383-227-8}} pp. 12–13</ref><ref>''The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3'' by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2003 {{ISBN|90-04-12654-6}} p. 488</ref> In ''[[Aspects of Christian meditation]]'', the [[Catholic Church]] warned of potential incompatibilities in mixing Christian and Eastern styles of meditation.<ref>[http://www.ewtn.com/library/curia/cdfmed.htm EWTN: Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502022624/http://www.ewtn.com/library/curia/cdfmed.htm |date=2010-05-02 }} ''Letter on certain aspects of Christian meditation'' (in English), 15 October 1989]</ref> In 2003, in ''[[A Christian reflection on the New Age]]'' the [[Holy See|Vatican]] announced that the "Church avoids any concept that is close to those of the [[New Age]]".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2003/feb/08/local/me-relignewage8/2 |title=Los Angeles Times, February 8, 2003, ''New Age Beliefs Aren't Christian, Vatican Finds'' |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=1 July 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120701141606/http://articles.latimes.com/2003/feb/08/local/me-relignewage8/2 |archive-date=1 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2722743.stm|title=Vatican sounds New Age alert|date=4 February 2003|via=news.bbc.co.uk|access-date=1 July 2010|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025115902/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2722743.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interelg_doc_20030203_press-conf-new-age_en.html|title=Prersentation of Holy See's Document on New Age|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=2020-03-15|archive-date=2007-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809113335/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interelg_doc_20030203_press-conf-new-age_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
====Islam====
[[File:Whirling dervishes, Rumi Fest 2007.jpg|thumb|Whirling dervishes]]
{{Main|Muraqabah}}
{{See also|Sufism|Sama (Sufism)|Dhikr#Sufi view}}
''[[Dhikr]]'' (''zikr'') is a type of meditation within Islam, meaning remembering and mentioning God, which involves the repetition of the 99 Names of God since the 8th or 9th century.<ref name="Prayer page 147-149">''Prayer: a history'' by Philip Zaleski, Carol Zaleski 2005 {{ISBN|0-618-15288-1}} pp. 147–49</ref><ref name="Education' page 63">''Global Encyclopaedia of Education'' by Rama Sankar Yadav & B.N. Mandal 2007 {{ISBN|978-81-8220-227-6}} p. 63</ref> It is interpreted in different meditative techniques in Sufism or Islamic mysticism.<ref name="Prayer page 147-149"/><ref name="Education' page 63"/> This became one of the essential elements of Sufism as it was systematized traditionally. It is juxtaposed with ''fikr'' (thinking) which leads to knowledge.<ref>''Sainthood and revelatory discourse'' by David Emmanuel Singh 2003 {{ISBN|81-7214-728-7}} p. 154</ref> By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.<ref name="Spiritual Psychology' page 109">''Spiritual Psychology'' by Akbar Husain 2006 {{ISBN|81-8220-095-4}} p. 109</ref>
Sufism uses a meditative procedure like Buddhist [[samadhi (Buddhism)|concentration]], involving high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, ''[[muraqabah]]'' takes the form of ''tamarkoz'', "concentration" in [[Persian language|Persian]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0533316489224010 |title=Book Reviews |journal=Group Analysis |volume=22 |issue=4 |page=434 |year=2016 |last1=Dwivedi |first1=Kedar Nath |s2cid=220434155 }}</ref>
''Tafakkur'' or ''tadabbur'' in Sufism literally means ''reflection upon the [[universe]]'': this is considered to permit access to a form of [[cognitive]] and [[emotion]]al development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the [[infinity|infinite]]. Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of one's submission to God.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Khalifa | first=Rashad | title=Quran: The Final Testament | publisher=Universal Unity | year=2001 | page=536 | isbn=978-1-881893-05-9 }}</ref>
[[Dervish]]es of certain Sufi orders practice [[Sufi whirling|whirling]], a form of physically active meditation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holmes |first1=David S. |title=Meditation and Somatic Arousal Reduction |journal=American Psychologist |date=January 1984 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.39.1.1 |pmid=6142668 |url=http://www.appstate.edu/~bromanfulksj/Holmes%20-%20Meditation%20and%20Somatic%20Arousal%20Reduction.pdf |access-date=2 July 2020 |archive-date=22 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922081339/http://www.appstate.edu/~bromanfulksj/Holmes%20-%20Meditation%20and%20Somatic%20Arousal%20Reduction.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
====Baháʼí Faith====
In the teachings of the [[Baháʼí Faith]], which derives from an Islamic context but is universalist in orientation, meditation is a primary tool for spiritual development,<ref name="bahai-meditation">{{cite web | title=Meditation | access-date=2020-12-16 | url=https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/life-spirit/devotion/meditation | publisher=Baháʼí International Community | year=2015 | archive-date=2020-11-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112033221/https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/life-spirit/devotion/meditation | url-status=live }}</ref> involving reflection on the words of God.<ref name="Smith-meditation">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Smith |first=Peter |encyclopedia=A concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith |title=Meditation |year=2000 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-85168-184-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/243 243–44] |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/243 }}</ref> While prayer and meditation are linked, where meditation happens generally in a prayerful attitude, prayer is seen specifically as turning toward God,<ref name="Smith-prayer">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Smith |first=Peter |encyclopedia=A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title=Prayer |year=2000 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-85168-184-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/274 274] |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/274 }}</ref> and meditation is seen as a communion with one's self where one focuses on the divine.<ref name="Smith-meditation"/>
In [[Baháʼí teachings]] the purpose of meditation is to strengthen one's understanding of the words of God, and to make one's soul more susceptible to their potentially transformative power,<ref name="Smith-meditation"/> more receptive to the need for both prayer and meditation to bring about and maintain a spiritual communion with God.<ref>Hatcher, William S. (1982). ''[https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_bw18_spirituality The Concept of Spirituality] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415020445/https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_bw18_spirituality |date=2021-04-15 }}''. Bahá'í Studies, volume 11. Association for Bahá'í Studies. Ottawa.</ref>
[[Bahá'u'lláh]], the founder of the religion, never specified any particular form of meditation, and thus each person is free to choose their own form.<ref name="bahai-meditation" /> However, he did state that Baháʼís should read a passage of the [[Baháʼí literature|Baháʼí writings]] twice a day, once in the morning, and once in the evening, and meditate on it. He also encouraged people to reflect on one's actions and worth at the end of each day.<ref name="Smith-meditation"/> During the [[Nineteen Day Fast]], a period of the year during which Baháʼís adhere to a sunrise-to-sunset fast, they meditate and pray to reinvigorate their spiritual forces.<ref name="directives">{{Cite book |first=Shoghi |last=Effendi |author-link=Shoghi Effendi |year=1973 |title=Directives from The Guardian |publisher=Hawaii Baháʼí Publishing Trust |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/DG/dg-71.html#pg28 |page=28 |access-date=2011-07-01 |archive-date=2008-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706191445/http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/DG/dg-71.html#pg28 |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Modern spirituality===
[[File:Jawlensky Meditation 1290065.jpg|thumb|upright|''Meditation''. [[Alexej von Jawlensky]], 1918]]
====Modern dissemination in the West====
Meditation has spread in the West since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of Asian-derived practices to the West. In addition, interest in some Western-based meditative practices has been revived,<ref name=reininger98>{{Cite book |title=Centering prayer in daily life and ministry |editor=Gustave Reininger |year=1997 |publisher=Continuum |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8264-1041-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xEhaEDm7jsIC&pg=PT1 |access-date=2020-05-07 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095158/https://books.google.com/books?id=xEhaEDm7jsIC&pg=PT1 |url-status=live }}</ref> and these have been disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries.<ref name=contempout>The organization [http://www.contemplativeoutreach.org/site/PageServer?pagename=community_chapters_international Contemplative Outreach] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103193809/http://www.contemplativeoutreach.org/site/PageServer?pagename=community_chapters_international |date=2011-11-03 }}, which teaches Christian [[Centering Prayer]], has chapters in non-Western locations in Malaysia, Singapore, and South Korea (accessed 5 July 2010)</ref>
Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity",{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=3}} and such ideas "came pouring in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s."{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=3}} The following decades saw further spread of these ideas to America:
{{blockquote|The [[World Parliament of Religions]], held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, [[Swami Vivekananda]] [...] [founded] various [[Vedanta]] ashrams [...] [[Anagarika Dharmapala]] lectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904; [[Abdul Baha]] [...] [toured] the US teaching the principles of [[Baháʼí Faith|Bahai]] {{sic}}, and [[Soyen Shaku]] toured in 1907 teaching Zen.{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=4}}}}
[[File:Meditating in Madison Square Park.jpg|thumb|right|Meditating in [[Madison Square Park]], [[New York City]]]]
More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. The rise of communist political power in Asia led to many Asian spiritual teachers taking refuge in Western countries, oftentimes as refugees.{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=7}} In addition to spiritual forms of meditation, secular forms of meditation have taken root. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self-improvement.{{sfn|Everly|Lating|2002|p=200}}<ref>''Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion'' by David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan 2009 ISBN page 559</ref>
The 2012 US National Health Interview Survey of 34,525 subjects found that 8% of US adults used meditation,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nccih.nih.gov/research/statistics/NHIS/2012/mind-body/meditation |title=8.0% of U.S. adults (18 million) used Meditation |website=NCCIH |date=2014-11-11 |access-date=2018-01-14 |archive-date=2018-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114191159/https://nccih.nih.gov/research/statistics/NHIS/2012/mind-body/meditation |url-status=live }}</ref> with lifetime and 12-month prevalence of meditation use of 5.2% and 4.1% respectively.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cramer |first1=Holger |last2=Hall |first2=Helen |last3=Leach |first3=Matthew |last4=Frawley |first4=Jane |last5=Zhang |first5=Yan |last6=Leung |first6=Brenda |last7=Adams |first7=Jon |last8=Lauche |first8=Romy |year=2016 |title=Prevalence, patterns, and predictors of meditation use among US adults: A nationally representative survey |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |page=36760 |bibcode=2016NatSR...636760C |doi=10.1038/srep36760 |pmid=27829670 |pmc=5103185}}</ref> Meditation use among workers was 10% (up from 8% in 2002).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kachan |first1=Diana |last2=Olano |first2=Henry |last3=Tannenbaum |first3=Stacey L. |last4=Annane |first4=Debra W. |last5=Mehta |first5=Ashwin |last6=Arheart |first6=Kristopher L. |last7=Fleming |first7=Lora E. |last8=Yang |first8=Xuan |last9=McClure |first9=Laura A. |first10=David J. |last10=Lee |date=5 January 2017 |title=Prevalence of Mindfulness Practices in the US Workforce: National Health Interview Survey |journal=Preventing Chronic Disease |volume=14 |page=E01 |doi=10.5888/pcd14.160034 |pmid=28055821 |pmc=5217767}}</ref>
Mantra meditation, with the use of a ''japa mala'' and especially with focus on the [[Hare Krishna maha-mantra]], is a central practice of the [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] faith tradition and the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]], also known as the Hare Krishna movement. Other popular [[New Religious Movements]] include the [[Ramakrishna Mission]], [[Vedanta Society]], [[Divine Light Mission]], [[Chinmaya Mission]], [[Rajneesh|Osho]], [[Sahaja Yoga]], [[Transcendental Meditation]], [[Kalki Bhagavan|Oneness University]], [[Brahma Kumaris]], [[Vihangam Yoga]] and [[Heartfulness Meditation|Heartfulness Meditation (Sahaj Marg)]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}
====New Age====
{{Esotericism}}
[[New Age]] meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, [[mysticism]], [[yoga]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the [[counterculture of the 1960s|social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s]], when many of the [[baby boomers|youth of the day]] rebelled against traditional religion as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethical guidance.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899555-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503045854/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899555-1,00.html|archive-date=3 May 2007|title=''Time Magazine'', "Youth: The Hippies" Jul. 7, 1967}}</ref> New Age meditation as practised by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object.<ref>{{Cite book | first=George | last=Barnia | title=The Index of Leading Spiritual Indicators | publisher=Word Publishing | location=Dallas, Texas | year=1996 | url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/newage.htm | access-date=2008-10-15 | archive-date=2011-01-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104203727/http://www.religioustolerance.org/newage.htm | url-status=live }}</ref> New Age meditation evolved into a range of purposes and practices, from serenity and balance to access to other realms of consciousness to the concentration of energy in group meditation to the supreme goal of ''samadhi'', as in the ancient yogic practice of meditation.<ref>{{Cite book | first=John | last=Lash | title=The Seeker's Handbook: The Complete Guide to Spiritual Pathfinding | publisher=Harmony Books | location=New York | year=1990 | page=320 | isbn=978-0-517-57797-4}}</ref>
====Guided meditation====
{{further|Yoga nidra}}
Guided meditation is a form of meditation which uses a number of different techniques to achieve or enhance the meditative state. It may simply be meditation done under the guidance of a trained practitioner or teacher, or it may be through the use of imagery, music, and other techniques.<ref>Complementary, Alternative, or Integrative Health: What's In a Name? US Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. National Institutes of Health. NIH Publication No. D347. Retrieved 31 July 2015.</ref> The session can be either in person, via media<ref>'''Sources''':
*Stein, T. R., Olivo, E. L., Grand, S. H., Namerow, P. B., Costa, J., and Oz, M. C., A pilot study to assess the effects of a guided imagery audiotape intervention on psychological outcomes in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Holistic Nursing Practice, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2010, pp213-222.
*Morris, C., The use of self-service technologies in stress management: A pilot project. Master of Social Work Clinical Research Papers. Saint Catherine University, St. Paul, MN, 2012.
*Carter, E., Pre-packaged guided imagery for stress reduction: Initial results. Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Health, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2006, pp27-39.</ref> comprising music or verbal instruction, or a combination of both.<ref>Rose J. P. and Weis, J., Sound meditation in oncological rehabilitation: a pilot study of a receptive music therapy group using the monochord. Forschende Komplementarmedizin, Vol. 15, No. 6, 2006, pp335-343.</ref><ref>Grocke, D., and Wigram, T., Receptive methods in music therapy: Techniques and clinical applications for music therapy clinicians, educators, and students. London, England: Jessica Kingsley, 2007.</ref> The most common form is a combination of [[meditation music]] and [[Music therapy|receptive music therapy]], [[guided imagery]], relaxation, mindfulness, and [[Writing therapy|journaling]].<ref name="Astin, J.A. 2003, pp131">Astin, J.A., Shapiro, S.L., Eisenberg, D. M., and Forys, M.A., Mind-body medicine: State of the science, implications for practice. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, Vol. 16:, 2003, pp131–147.</ref><ref>Newham, P., Guided Meditation: Principles and Practice. London; Tigers Eye, 2005.</ref><ref>Newham, P., Music, and Meditation: The Therapeutics of Sound. London: Tigers Eye: 2014.</ref>
Because of the different combinations used under the one term, it can be difficult to attribute positive or negative outcomes to any of the various techniques. Furthermore, the term is frequently used interchangeably with "guided imagery" and sometimes with "creative visualization" in [[popular psychology]] and [[self-help]] literature. It is less commonly used in [[Scholarly method|scholarly]] and [[Scientific method|scientific]] publications. Consequently, guided meditation cannot be understood as a single technique but rather multiple techniques that are integral to its practice.<ref name="Astin, J.A. 2003, pp131"/><ref>Post-White J. 2002. Clinical indication for use of imagery in oncology practice. In Voice Massage, Scripts for Guided Imagery, Edwards D.M (Ed.). Oncology Nursing Society: Pittsburgh, PA.</ref><ref>Wallace KG. 1997. Analysis of recent literature concerning relaxation and imagery interventions for cancer pain. Cancer Nursing 20: 79–87.</ref><ref>Luebert K, Dahme B, Hasenbring M. 2001. The effectiveness of relaxation training in reducing treatment-related symptoms and improving emotional adjustment in acute non-surgical cancer treatment: A meta-analytical review. Psycho-Oncology, Vol. 10: pp490–502.</ref>
Guided meditation as an aggregate or synthesis of techniques includes [[meditation music]], [[Music therapy|receptive music therapy]], [[guided imagery]], [[Relaxation technique|relaxation]], meditative praxis, and self-reflective [[Writing therapy|journaling]], all of which have been shown to have [[Therapy|therapeutic]] benefits when employed as an adjunct to primary strategies.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}} Benefits include lower levels of [[Stress (psychological)|stress]],<ref>'''Sources''':
*Unger, C. A., Busse, D., & Yim, I. S., The effect of guided relaxation on cortisol and affect: Stress reactivity as a moderator. Journal of Health Psychology, 2015, 1359105315595118.
*Weigensberg M.J., Lane C.J., Winners O., Wright T., Nguyen-Rodriguez S., Goran M.I., Spruijt-Metz, D. Acute effects of stress-reduction Interactive Guided Imagery (SM) on salivary cortisol in overweight Latino adolescents. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2003, pp297-303.
*Varvogli, L., and Darviri, C., Stress Management Techniques: evidence-based procedures that reduce stress and promote health. Health Science Journal, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2011 pp74-89.
*Carter, E., Pre-packaged guided imagery for stress reduction: Initial results. Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Health, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2006, pp27-39.
*Wynd C. A., Relaxation imagery used for stress reduction in the prevention of smoking relapse. Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2006, pp294-302.
*Lin, M. F., Hsu, M. C., Chang, H. J., Hsu, Y. Y., Chou, M. H., and Crawford, P., Pivotal moments and changes in the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music for patients with depression. Journal of Clinical Nursing, Vol. 19, Nos. 7‐8, 2010, pp1139-1148.
*Roffe, L., Schmidt, K., and Ernst, E., A systematic review of guided imagery as an adjuvant cancer therapy. Psycho-oncology, Vol. 14, No. 8, 2005, pp607-617.
*Holden-Lund C., Effects of relaxation with guided imagery on surgical stress and wound healing. Research in Nursing and Health, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2007, pp235-244.
*Stein, T. R., Olivo, E. L., Grand, S. H., Namerow, P. B., Costa, J., and Oz, M. C., A pilot study to assess the effects of a guided imagery audiotape intervention on psychological outcomes in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Holistic Nursing Practice, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2010, pp213-222.
*Sahler O.J., Hunter, B.C., Liesveld J.L., The effect of using music therapy with relaxation imagery in the management of patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation: a pilot feasibility study. Alternative Therapies, Vol. 9, No. 6, 2003, pp70- 74.
*Kent, D., "Zenventures: Unwind your Imagination with Guided Meditation". Masters Thesis. Buffalo State University, New York, 2014.</ref> reducing [[Asthma |asthmatic episodes]],<ref>Epstein G.N., Halper J.P., Barrett E.A., Birdsall, C., McGee, M., Baron K.P., Lowenstein S., A pilot study of mind-body changes in adults with asthma who practice mental imagery. alternative therapies. Volume 10, July/August 2004, pp66-71.</ref> physical [[Pain management|pain]],<ref>'''Sources''':
*Menzies V., Taylor A.G., Bourguignon C., Effects of guided imagery on outcomes of pain, functional status, and self-efficacy in persons diagnosed with fibromyalgia. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2006, pp23-30.
*Kwekkeboom, K. L., Kneip, J., and Pearson, L., A pilot study to predict success with guided imagery for cancer pain. Pain Management Nursing, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2003, pp112-123.
*Antall G.F., Kresevic D. The use of guided imagery to manage pain in an elderly orthopedic population. Orthopaedic Nursing, Vol. 23, No. 5, September/October 2004, pp335-340</ref> [[insomnia]],<ref>'''Sources''':
* Ong, J. C., Manber, R., Segal, Z., Xia, Y., Shapiro, S., and Wyatt, J. K., A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation for chronic insomnia. Sleep, Vol. 37, No. 9, 2014, p1553.
* Singh, A., and Modi, R., Meditation and positive mental health. Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2012, p273.
* Molen, Y., Santos, G., Carvalho, L., Prado, L., and Prado, G., Pre-sleep worry decreases by adding reading and guided imagery to insomnia treatment. Sleep Medicine, Vol. 14, 2013, e210-e211.</ref> episodic anger,<ref>Awalt, R. M., Reilly, P. M., and Shopshire, M. S., The angry patient: an intervention for managing anger in substance abuse treatment. Journal of psychoactive drugs, Vol. 29, No. 4, 1997, 353-358.</ref> [[Cognitive distortion|negative or irrational thinking]],<ref>'''Sources''':
* Lang, T. J., Blackwell, S. E., Harmer, C., Davison, P., & Holmes, E. A., Cognitive bias modification using mental imagery for depression: Developing a novel computerized intervention to change negative thinking styles. European Journal of Personality, Vol. 26, 2012, pp145–157.
* Teasdale, J. D., Emotion and two kinds of meaning: Cognitive therapy and applied cognitive science. Behaviour Research and Therapy, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1993, pp339-354.
* Birnbaum, L., & Birnbaum, A., In search of inner wisdom: guided mindfulness meditation in the context of suicide. The Scientific World Journal, Vol. 4, 2004, pp216-227.</ref> and [[anxiety]], as well as improving [[Coping (psychology)|coping skills]],<ref>'''Sources''':
*Manyande, A., Berg, S., Gettins, D., Stanford, S. C., Mazhero, S., Marks, D. F., and Salmon, P., Preoperative rehearsal of active coping imagery influences subjective and hormonal responses to abdominal surgery. Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol. 57, No. 2, 1995, pp177-182.
*Hockenberry, M. H., Guided imagery as a coping measure for children with cancer. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1989, pp29-29.</ref> focus,<ref>'''Sources''':
*Esplen, M. J. and Hodnett, E., A Pilot Study Investigating Student Musicians' Experiences of Guided Imagery as a Technique to Manage Performance Anxiety. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, Vol. 14, No. 3, 1999, pp127-132.
*Feltz, D. L., and Riessinger, C. A., Effects of in vivo emotive imagery and performance feedback on self-efficacy and muscular endurance. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1990, pp132-143.
*Sanders, C. W., Sadoski, M., Bramson, R., Wiprud, R., and Van Walsum, K., Comparing the effects of physical practice and mental imagery rehearsal on learning basic surgical skills by medical students. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology, Vol. 191, No. 5, 2004, pp1811-1814.</ref> and a general feeling of [[well-being]].<ref>Hanh, Thich Nhat. The blooming of a lotus: Guided meditation for achieving the miracle of mindfulness. Beacon Press, 2009.</ref><ref>LeónPizarro C., Gich I., Barthe E., Rovirosa A., Farrús B., Casas F., Verger E., Biete A., Craven Bartle J., Sierra J., Arcusa A., A randomized trial of the effect of training in relaxation and guided imagery techniques in improving psychological and quality-of-life indices for gynecologic and breast brachytherapy patients. Psycho-oncology, Vol. 16, No. 11, 2007, pp971-979.</ref>
== Effects ==
{{Main|Effects of meditation}}
Research on the processes and [[effects of meditation]] is a subfield of [[Neurology|neurological]] research.<ref name=goyal/> Modern scientific techniques, such as [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] and [[electroencephalography]], were used to observe neurological responses during meditation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Kieran C.R. |last2=Nijeboer |first2=Savannah |last3=Dixon |first3=Matthew L. |last4=Floman |first4=James L. |last5=Ellamil |first5=Melissa |last6=Rumak |first6=Samuel P. |last7=Sedlmeier |first7=Peter |last8=Christoff |first8=Kalina |title=Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |volume=43 |pages=48–73 |year=2014 |pmid=24705269 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016 |s2cid=207090878 }}</ref>  Concerns have been raised on the quality of meditation research,<ref name=goyal/><ref name="VanDam">{{cite journal |last1=Van Dam |first1=Nicholas T. |last2=van Vugt |first2=Marieke K. |last3=Vago |first3=David R. |last4=Schmalzl |first4=Laura |last5=Saron |first5=Clifford D. |last6=Olendzki |first6=Andrew |last7=Meissner |first7=Ted |last8=Lazar |first8=Sara W. |last9=Kerr |first9=Catherine E. |last10=Gorchov |first10=Jolie |last11=Fox |first11=Kieran C. R. |last12=Field |first12=Brent A. |last13=Britton |first13=Willoughby B. |last14=Brefczynski-Lewis |first14=Julie A. |last15=Meyer |first15=David E. |title=Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |date=January 2018 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=36–61 |doi=10.1177/1745691617709589 |pmid=29016274 |pmc=5758421 }}</ref><ref name="stetka">{{cite journal |last1=Stetka |first1=Bret |title=Where's the Proof that Mindfulness Really Works? |journal=Scientific American Mind |date=7 December 2017 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=20–23 |doi=10.1038/scientificamericanmind0118-20 }}</ref> including the particular characteristics of individuals who tend to participate.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reiterated Concerns and Further Challenges for Mindfulness and Meditation Research: A Reply to Davidson and Dahl |first1=Nicholas T. |last1=Van Dam |first2=Marieke K. |last2=van Vugt |first3=David R. |last3=Vago |first4=Laura |last4=Schmalzl |first5=Clifford D. |last5=Saron |first6=Andrew |last6=Olendzki |first7=Ted |last7=Meissner |first8=Sara W. |last8=Lazar |first9=Jolie |last9=Gorchov |first10=Kieran C.R. |last10=Fox |first11=Brent A. |last11=Field |first12=Willoughby B. |last12=Britton |first13=Julie A. |last13=Brefczynski-Lewis |first14=David E. |last14=Meyer |date=10 October 2017 |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=66–69 |doi=10.1177/1745691617727529 |pmid=29016240 |pmc=5817993}}</ref>
Meditation lowers heart rate, oxygen consumption, breathing frequency, [[stress hormone]]s, [[Lactic acid|lactate]] levels, and [[sympathetic nervous system]] activity (associated with the [[fight-or-flight response]]), along with a modest decline in blood pressure.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Holen, Are |author1-link=Are Holen |editor1-last=Eifring |editor1-first=Halvor |title=Asian Traditions of Meditation |date=2016 |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press|University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |isbn=978-0-8248-7667-8 |page=233 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xvLGDwAAQBAJ&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA233 |access-date=2 July 2021 |chapter=The Science of Meditation |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095148/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Asian_Traditions_of_Meditation/xvLGDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA233&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Barušs |first1=Imants |title=Authentic Knowing: The Convergence of Science and Spiritual Aspiration |date=1996 |publisher=[[Purdue University Press]] |location=West Lafayette, Indiana |isbn=978-1-55753-084-4 |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ui9u6SLcoEC&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA66 |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095242/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Authentic_Knowing/-ui9u6SLcoEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA66&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> However, those who have meditated for two or three years were found to already have low blood pressure. During meditation, the oxygen consumption decrease averages 10 to 20 percent over the first three minutes. During sleep for example, oxygen consumption decreases around 8 percent over four or five hours.{{sfn|Benson|Klipper|2000|pp=66–72}} For meditators who have practiced for years, breath rate can drop to three or four breaths per minute and "brain waves slow from the usual [[beta wave|beta]] (seen in waking activity) or [[alpha wave|alpha]] (seen in normal relaxation) to much slower [[delta wave|delta]] and [[theta wave]]s".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blackmore |first1=Susan |title=Consciousness: a Very Short Introduction |date=14 September 2017 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New York, NY, United States of America |isbn=978-0-19-879473-8 |page=115 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZ83DwAAQBAJ&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA115 |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095245/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Consciousness_a_Very_Short_Introduction/kZ83DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA115&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>
Studies demonstrate that meditation has a moderate effect to reduce pain.<ref name=goyal/> There is insufficient evidence for any effect of meditation on positive mood, attention, eating habits, sleep, or body weight.<ref name=goyal/>
Luberto er all (2017), in a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of meditation on [[empathy]], [[compassion]], and [[prosocial]] behaviors, found that meditation practices had small to medium effects on self-reported and observable outcomes, concluding that such practices can "improve positive prosocial emotions and behaviors".<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/s12671-017-0841-8 | pmid=30100929 | pmc=6081743 | title=A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors | year=2017 | journal=Mindfulness | volume=9 | issue=3 | pages=708–24 | last1=Luberto | first1=Christina M. | last2=Shinday | first2=Nina | last3=Song | first3=Rhayun | last4=Philpotts | first4=Lisa L. | last5=Park | first5=Elyse R. | last6=Fricchione | first6=Gregory L. | last7=Yeh | first7=Gloria Y.}}</ref>{{Unreliable medical source|reason=I think the article is at high risk of biases: one of the main reasons is that most of the studies considered lack a placebo group|date=August 2020}} However, a meta-review published on ''[[Scientific Reports]]'' showed that the evidence is very weak and "that the effects of meditation on compassion were only significant when compared to passive control groups suggests that other forms of active interventions (like watching a nature video) might produce similar outcomes to meditation".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kreplin |first1=Ute |last2=Farias |first2=Miguel |last3=Brazil |first3=Inti A. |title=The limited prosocial effects of meditation: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Scientific Reports |date=5 February 2018 |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=2403 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-20299-z |pmid=29402955 |pmc=5799363 |bibcode=2018NatSR...8.2403K }}</ref>
=="Challenging" and adverse effects==
{{Main|Effects of meditation#Adverse effects and limits of meditation and mindfulness|l1=Adverse effects and limits of meditation and mindfulness}}
===Contemplative traditions===
Throughout East Asia the detrimental and undesirable effects of incorrect meditation and mindfulness practice are well documented due to the long varied history of cultivation in these fields. Many traditional herbal, intentional and manual treatments have been prescribed from the past to present day for what is diagnosed as ''[[zouhuorumo]]'' ({{lang-zh|走火入魔}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maciocia |first=Giovanni |title=The Psyche in Chinese Medicine, Treatment of Emotional and Mental Disharmonies with Acupuncture and Chinese Herbs |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |year=2009 |isbn=9780702047770}}</ref><ref name="Lee 421–472">{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Sing |date=1996-12-01 |title=Cultures in psychiatric nosology: The CCMD-2-R and International Classification of Mental Disorders |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00117087 |journal=Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=421–472 |doi=10.1007/BF00117087 |pmid=8989986 |issn=1573-076X}}</ref>
Meditation may induce "challenging"<ref group="web" name="nhs.Bazian" />{{sfnp|Lindahl|Fisher|Cooper|2017}}{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} and "unwanted"{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} experiences, and adverse effects to physical and mental health.<ref name="Lee 421–472"/>  Some of these experiences and effects are documented in the contemplative traditions,{{sfnp|Lindahl|Fisher|Cooper|2017}} but can be quite perplexing and burdensome when the outcomes of  meditation are expected to result in more advantageous and beneficial health outcomes than detrimental ones. By extension this problem is compounded with little or no support or explanatory framework publicly for novice or laity that is easily accessible for a practitioner to know when it is appropriate to self manage or when it is advisable to seek professional advice on the adverse symptomatology that may arise in this field of self-cultivation .{{sfnp|Lindahl|Fisher|Cooper|2017}}<ref group="web" name="nhs.Bazian" /><ref group="web" name="Ivtzan_2016_PT" /><ref group="web" name="Farias_2015_Independent" />
According to Farias et al. (2020), the most common adverse effects are in people with a history of anxiety and depression.{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}} Other adverse psychological symptoms may include narcissistic, sociopathic behaviour and depersonalization{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}} or altered sense of self or the world,{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} distorted emotions or thoughts, a mild form of psychosis including auditory and visual hallucinations. In extreme cases in patients with underlying undiagnosed or historical emotional conditions there have been instances of self-harm.{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}}{{sfnp|Goud|2022}}<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Yadav  | first1=J. | last2= Bhardwaj | first2=A. | last3= Jangid | first3=P.| last4= Singh | first4=P. | last5= Gupta | first5=R. | title= Meditation-A Slippery Slope for Psychosis: A Case Series With Review of Evidence | journal= The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume=211 | issue=8 |  year=2023 | pages=634–638  |  pmid=37505896 |doi= 10.1097/NMD.0000000000001656 |url=https://journals.lww.com/jonmd/abstract/2023/08000/meditation_a_slippery_slope_for_psychosis__a_case.12.aspx}}</ref>
According to Schlosser et al. (2019), "preliminary findings suggest that their occurrence is highly dependent on a complex interaction of contextual factors."{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} For instance, meditation-related psychosis has been linked to sleep deprivation,{{sfnp|Chan-Ob|Boonyanaruthee|1999}} preceding mental dispositions,{{sfnp|Chan-Ob|Boonyanaruthee|1999}}{{sfnp|Goud|2022}} and meditation without sufficient social support or any explanatory framework. However, according to Farias et al. (2020), "minor adverse effects have been observed in individuals with no previous history of mental health problems"{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}}){{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}}{{sfnp|Goud|2022}} Farias et al. (2020) further note that "it is also possible  that participants predisposed to heightened levels of anxiety and  depression are more likely to begin or maintain a meditation practice to manage their symptoms."{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020|p=388}}
According to Farias et al. (2020) there is a prevalence of 8.3% adverse effects, "similar to those reported for psychotherapy practice in general."{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}} Schlosser et al. (2019) reported that of 1,232 regular meditators with at least two months of meditation experience, about a quarter reported having had particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences which they thought may have been caused by their meditation practice.{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} Meditators with high levels of repetitive negative thinking and those who only engage in deconstructive meditation (vipassana/insight meditation) were more likely to report unpleasant side effects.{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}}
The appraisal of the experiences may be determined by the framework used to interpret these experiences.{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020|p=388}}{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} Schlosser et al. "found strong evidence that religious participants have lower odds of having particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences," and "found weak evidence that female participants were less likely to have unpleasant meditation-related experiences,"{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} and note the importance of "understanding when these experiences are constitutive elements of meditative practice rather than merely negative effects."{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}}
Difficult experiences encountered in meditation are mentioned in traditional sources, and some may be considered to be an expected part of the process.{{sfnp|Vörös|2016|p=69}}{{sfnp|Salguero|2023}} According to Salguero,
{{Blockquote|Problematic experiences such as strange sensations, unexplained pains, psychological instability, undesired hallucinations, sexual anomalies, uncontrollable behaviors, demonic possession, suicidality, and so forth seem to be quite well-known and well-documented across traditions.{{sfnp|Salguero|2023}}}}
The [[Visuddhimagga]] mentions various unpleasant stages, and possible "unwholesome or frightening visions" are mentioned in ''Practical Insight Meditation: Basic and Progressive Stages'', a practical manual on [[vipassanā]] meditation by [[Mahāsi Sayādaw]].{{sfnp|Vörös|2016|p=69}} Classical sources mention ''[[makyō]]'', Zen sickness ({{CJKV|c=禪病|j=禪病|p=Chánbìng|r=Zenbyō}})<ref group=web name="nhs.Bazian"/> and related difficulties, such as ''[[zouhuorumo]]'' ({{lang-zh|c=走火入魔|l=fire possession|labels=no}}), and ''mojing'' ({{lang-zh|c=魔境|l=demonic states|labels=no}}).{{sfnp|Salguero|2023}} Traditional sources also precribe cures against these experiences,{{sfnp|Salguero|2023|p=180}} for example [[Hakuin Ekaku#Zen-sickness and vital energy|Hakuin Ekaku's treatment of Zen-sickness]].{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}
===Mindfulness===
Both the soundness of the scientific foundations of mindfulness, and the desirability of its social effects, have been questioned.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Farias | first1=M | last2=Wikholm | first2=C | title=Has the science of mindfulness lost its mind? | journal=BJPsych Bulletin| volume=40 | issue=6 | year=2016 | pmid=28377813 | pages=329–332 | doi=10.1192/pb.bp.116.053686 | pmc=5353526 }}</ref><ref>''The Buddha Pill: Can Meditation Change You?'' by M. Farias and C. Wikholm, 2019 {{ISBN|978-1-78028-718-8}}</ref><ref>''Mindlessness: The Corruption of Mindfulness in a Culture of Narcissism'' by  T. Joiner, 2017 {{ISBN|0-19-020062-6}}</ref><ref>''McMindfulness: How Mindfulness Became the New Capitalist Spirituality'' by  R. Purser, 2019 {{ISBN|1-912248-31-X}}</ref> Hafenbrack et al. (2022), in a study on mindfulness with 1400 participants, found that focused-breathing meditation can dampen the relationship between transgressions and the desire to engage in reparative prosocial behaviors.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Hafenbrack | first1= A. C. | last2=LaPalme | first2=M. L. | last3=Solal | first3=I. | title=Mindfulness meditation reduces guilt and prosocial reparation | journal= Journal of Personality and Social Psychology  | volume=123 | issue=1 | year=2022 | pmid=34941333 | pages=28–54 | doi=10.1037/pspa0000298 |url= https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fpspa0000298 }}</ref> Poullin et al. (2021) found that mindfulness can increase the trait of [[selfishness]]. The study, consisting of two interrelated parts and totaling 691 participants, found that a mindfulness induction, compared to a control condition, led to decreased prosocial behavior. This effect was moderated by self-construals such that people with relatively independent self-construals became less prosocial while people with relatively interdependent self-construals became more so. In the western world where independent self-construals generally predominate (self centric orientated) meditation may thus have potentially detrimental effects.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Poulin | first1=M. J. | last2=Ministero | first2=L. M.  | last3=Gabriel | first3=S. | last4=Morrison | first4=C. D. | last5=Naidu | first5=E. | title= Minding Your Own Business? Mindfulness Decreases Prosocial Behavior for People With Independent Self-Construals | journal= Psychological Science | volume=32 | issue=11 | year=2021 | pmid= 34705576 | pages=1699–1708 | doi= 10.1177/09567976211015184 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09567976211015184}}</ref> These new findings about meditations socially problematic effects imply that it can be contraindicated to use meditation as a tool to handle acute personal conflicts or relational difficulties; in the words of Andrew Hafenbrack, one of the authors of the study, "If we 'artificially' reduce our guilt by meditating it away, we may end up with worse relationships, or even fewer relationships".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20220302-how-mindfulness-can-make-you-a-darker-person |title=How mindfulness can make you a darker person |website=bbc.com |date=2022-03-03 |access-date=2024-07-09 }}</ref>
== Secular applications ==
=== Psychotherapy ===
{{see also|Analytic psychology|Psychoanalysis}}
[[Carl Jung]] (1875–1961) was an early western explorer of eastern religious practices.<ref>C. G. Jung, "Yoga and the West" (1936), ''Collected Works'' v.11.</ref><ref>C. G. Jung, "Forward to [[D. T. Suzuki|Suzuki]]'s ''[[An Introduction to Zen Buddhism]]''", (1939), ''Collected Works'' v.11.</ref> He clearly advocated ways to increase the conscious [[awareness]] of an individual. Yet he expressed some caution concerning a westerner's direct immersion in eastern practices without some prior appreciation of the differing spiritual and cultural contexts.<ref>C. G. Jung, "The psychology of eastern meditation" (1943), ''Collected Works'' v.11.</ref><ref>[[V. Walter Odajnyk]], ''Gathering the Light. A psychology of meditation'' (Shambhala 1993), pp. 18-21.</ref> [[Erich Fromm]] (1900–1980) later explored [[spiritual practice]]s of the east.<ref>Erich Fromm, ''Zen Buddhism and psychoanalysis'' (1960).</ref>
=== Clinical ===
{{see also|Mindfulness#Applications|l1=Mindfulness applications|Mindfulness-based stress reduction|l2=Mindfulness-based stress reduction|Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy|l3=Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy|Mindfulness-based pain management|l4=Mindfulness-based pain management|}}
Since the 1970s, [[clinical psychology]] and [[psychiatry]] have developed meditation techniques for numerous psychological conditions.<ref name=Harrington2015>{{cite journal |last1=Harrington |first1=Anne |last2=Dunne |first2=John D. |title=When mindfulness is therapy: Ethical qualms, historical perspectives |journal=American Psychologist |date=2015 |volume=70 |issue=7 |pages=621–631 |doi=10.1037/a0039460 |pmid=26436312 |s2cid=43129186 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:25757884 |access-date=2017-06-03 |archive-date=2021-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220174512/https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/25757884 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mindfulness practice is employed in psychology to alleviate mental and physical conditions, such as affecting the endocrine system therefore reducing [[depression (mood)|depression]], and helping to alleviate stress, and [[anxiety]].<ref name=goyal/><ref name=Strauss>{{cite journal |last1=Strauss |first1=Clara |last2=Cavanagh |first2=Kate |last3=Oliver |first3=Annie |last4=Pettman |first4=Danelle |title=Mindfulness-Based Interventions for People Diagnosed with a Current Episode of an Anxiety or Depressive Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials |journal=PLOS ONE |date=24 April 2014 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=e96110 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0096110 |pmid=24763812 |pmc=3999148 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...996110S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Khoury2015>{{cite journal |last1=Khoury |first1=Bassam |last2=Sharma |first2=Manoj |last3=Rush |first3=Sarah E. |last4=Fournier |first4=Claude |title=Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Psychosomatic Research |date=June 2015 |volume=78 |issue=6 |pages=519–528 |doi=10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009 |pmid=25818837 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pascoe |first1=Michaela C. |last2=Thompson |first2=David R. |last3=Ski |first3=Chantal F. |date=July 2020 |title=Meditation and Endocrine Health and Wellbeing |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32037024/ |journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=469–477 |doi=10.1016/j.tem.2020.01.012 |issn=1879-3061 |pmid=32037024}}</ref> Mindfulness is also used as a form of interventional therapy in the treatment of addiction including [[drug addiction]], although the quantity and quality of evidence based research has been poor.<ref name=stetka/><ref name=Chiesa>{{cite journal |last1=Chiesa |first1=Alberto |last2=Serretti |first2=Alessandro |title=Are Mindfulness-Based Interventions Effective for Substance Use Disorders? A Systematic Review of the Evidence |journal=Substance Use & Misuse |date=16 April 2014 |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=492–512 |doi=10.3109/10826084.2013.770027 |pmid=23461667 |s2cid=34990668 }}</ref>
The US [[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]] states that ''"Meditation and mindfulness practices may have a variety of health benefits and may help people improve the quality of their lives. Recent studies have investigated if meditation or mindfulness helps people manage anxiety, stress, depression, pain, or symptoms related to withdrawal from nicotine, alcohol, or opioids."'' However, the NCCIC goes on to caution that, ''"results from the studies have been difficult to analyze and may have been interpreted too optimistically."''<ref name="NIH2">{{Cite web |title=Meditation and Mindfulness: What You Need To Know |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation-and-mindfulness-what-you-need-to-know |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=NCCIH |language=en |archive-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314064803/https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation-and-mindfulness-what-you-need-to-know |url-status=live }}</ref>
A 2014 review found that practice of mindfulness meditation for two to six months by people undergoing long-term [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] or medical therapy could produce moderate improvements in pain management, [[anxiety]], [[depression (mood)|depression]].<ref name="Goyal">{{cite journal |last1=Goyal |first1=Madhav |last2=Singh |first2=Sonal |last3=Sibinga |first3=Erica M. S. |last4=Gould |first4=Neda F. |last5=Rowland-Seymour |first5=Anastasia |last6=Sharma |first6=Ritu |last7=Berger |first7=Zackary |last8=Sleicher |first8=Dana |last9=Maron |first9=David D. |last10=Shihab |first10=Hasan M. |last11=Ranasinghe |first11=Padmini D. |last12=Linn |first12=Shauna |last13=Saha |first13=Shonali |last14=Bass |first14=Eric B. |last15=Haythornthwaite |first15=Jennifer A. |title=Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |journal=JAMA Internal Medicine |date=1 March 2014 |volume=174 |issue=3 |pages=357–368 |doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018 |pmid=24395196 |pmc=4142584 }}</ref> In 2017, the [[American Heart Association]] issued a scientific statement that meditation may be a reasonable [[Adjuvant therapy|adjunct]] practice and intervention to help reduce the risk of [[cardiovascular disease]]s, with the qualification that meditation needs to be better defined in higher-quality [[clinical research]] of these disorders.<ref name="Levine">{{cite journal |last1=Levine |first1=Glenn N. |last2=Lange |first2=Richard A. |last3=Bairey-Merz |first3=C. Noel |last4=Davidson |first4=Richard J. |last5=Jamerson |first5=Kenneth |last6=Mehta |first6=Puja K. |last7=Michos |first7=Erin D. |last8=Norris |first8=Keith |last9=Ray |first9=Indranill Basu |last10=Saban |first10=Karen L. |last11=Shah |first11=Tina |last12=Stein |first12=Richard |last13=Smith |first13=Sidney C. |author14=American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology |author15=Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing |author16=Council on Hypertension |title=Meditation and Cardiovascular Risk Reduction: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association |journal=Journal of the American Heart Association |date=11 October 2017 |volume=6 |issue=10 |doi=10.1161/JAHA.117.002218 |pmid=28963100 |pmc=5721815 }}</ref> Recent findings have also found evidence of meditation affecting migraines in adults. Mindfulness meditation may allow for a decrease in migraine episodes, and a drop in migraine medication usage.'''<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wells|first1=Rebecca Erwin|last2=Beuthin|first2=Justin|last3=Granetzke|first3=Laura|date=February 2019|title=Complementary and Integrative Medicine for Episodic Migraine: an Update of Evidence from the Last 3 Years|journal=Current Pain and Headache Reports|language=en|volume=23|issue=2|page=10|doi=10.1007/s11916-019-0750-8|pmid=30790138|pmc=6559232|issn=1531-3433}}</ref>'''
Early low-quality and low- quantity evidence indicates that the mechanism of meditation may help with [[irritable bowel syndrome]],<ref name="nih">{{cite web|url=http://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm|title=Meditation: In depth|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health|date=1 April 2016|access-date=22 August 2019|archive-date=3 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003213551/https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto"/> [[insomnia]],<ref name=nih/> [[dementia|cognitive decline]] in the elderly,<ref name="Gard">{{cite journal |last1=Gard |first1=Tim |last2=Hölzel |first2=Britta K. |last3=Lazar |first3=Sara W. |title=The potential effects of meditation on age-related cognitive decline: a systematic review: Effects of meditation on cognition in aging |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |date=January 2014 |volume=1307 |issue=1 |pages=89–103 |doi=10.1111/nyas.12348 |pmid=24571182 |pmc=4024457| bibcode=2014NYASA1307...89G }}</ref> and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]].<ref name="Gallegos">{{cite journal |last1=Gallegos |first1=Autumn M. |last2=Crean |first2=Hugh F. |last3=Pigeon |first3=Wilfred R. |last4=Heffner |first4=Kathi L. |title=Meditation and yoga for posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |date=December 2017 |volume=58 |pages=115–124 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.004 |pmid=29100863 |pmc=5939561 }}</ref><ref name="Bisson Roberts Andrew Cooper p.">{{cite journal |last1=Bisson |first1=Jonathan I |last2=Roberts |first2=Neil P |last3=Andrew |first3=Martin |last4=Cooper |first4=Rosalind |last5=Lewis |first5=Catrin |title=Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=13 December 2013 |volume=2013 |issue=12 |pages=CD003388 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003388.pub4 |pmid=24338345 |pmc=6991463 }}</ref> Sitting in silence, body scan meditation and concentrating on breathing was shown in a 2016 review to moderately decrease symptoms of [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] and depression in war veterans and creating resilience to stresses in active service.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Colgan |first1=Dana Dharmakaya |last2=Christopher |first2=Michael |last3=Michael |first3=Paul |last4=Wahbeh |first4=Helané |date=2016-04-01 |title=The Body Scan and Mindful Breathing Among Veterans with PTSD: Type of Intervention Moderates the Relationship Between Changes in Mindfulness and Post-treatment Depression |journal=Mindfulness |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=372–383 |doi=10.1007/s12671-015-0453-0 |issn=1868-8535 |pmc=7451147 |pmid=32863982}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brewer |first=Judson |date=2014 |title=Mindfulness in the Military |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14040501 |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=171 |issue=8 |pages=803–806 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14040501 |pmid=25082484 |issn=0002-953X}}</ref> Researchers have found that participating in mindfulness meditation can aid insomnia patients by improving sleep quality and total wake time.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last1=Gong|first1=Hong|last2=Ni|first2=Chen-Xu|last3=Liu|first3=Yun-Zi|last4=Zhang|first4=Yi|last5=Su|first5=Wen-Jun|last6=Lian|first6=Yong-Jie|last7=Peng|first7=Wei|last8=Jiang|first8=Chun-Lei|date=October 2016|title=Mindfulness meditation for insomnia: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022399916303579|journal=Journal of Psychosomatic Research|language=en|volume=89|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.07.016|pmid=27663102|access-date=2021-10-15|archive-date=2022-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121113727/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022399916303579|url-status=live}}</ref> Mindfulness meditation is a supportive therapy that aides in the treatment for patients diagnosed with  insomnia.<ref name=":03" />
=== In the workplace ===
A 2010 review of the literature on [[spirituality]] and performance in organizations found an increase in corporate meditation programs.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10551-009-0251-5 |title=Spirituality and Performance in Organizations: A Literature Review |journal=Journal of Business Ethics |volume=94 |page=89 |year=2009 |last1=Karakas |first1=Fahri |citeseerx=10.1.1.466.9171 |s2cid=145612370 }}</ref>
As of 2016 around a quarter of U.S. employers were using stress reduction initiatives.<ref name=":0">{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/d9cb7940-ebea-11e1-985a-00144feab49a |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/d9cb7940-ebea-11e1-985a-00144feab49a |archive-date=2022-12-10 |url-access=subscription|title=The mind business|website=Financial Times| date=24 August 2012 |access-date=2016-11-21}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://hbr.org/2015/12/why-google-target-and-general-mills-are-investing-in-mindfulness|title=Why Google, Target, and General Mills Are Investing in Mindfulness|newspaper=Harvard Business Review|access-date=2016-11-21|archive-date=2016-11-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121235452/https://hbr.org/2015/12/why-google-target-and-general-mills-are-investing-in-mindfulness|url-status=live}}</ref> The goal was to help reduce stress and improve reactions to stress. Aetna now offers its program to its customers. [[Google]] also implements mindfulness, offering more than a dozen meditation courses, with the most prominent one, "Search Inside Yourself", having been implemented since 2007.<ref name=":1" /> [[General Mills]] offers the Mindful Leadership Program Series, a course which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, yoga and dialogue with the intention of developing the mind's capacity to pay attention.<ref name=":1" />
Many military organizations around the world have found meditation and mindfulness practice can support a range of benefits related to combat, including support for mental health, mental clarity, focus and stress control.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Richtel |first=Matt |date=5 April 2019 |title=The Latest in Military Strategy: Mindfulness |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/05/health/military-mindfulness-training.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204221019/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/05/health/military-mindfulness-training.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== In school ===
A review of 15 peer-reviewed studies of youth meditation in schools indicated transcendental meditation a moderate effect on wellbeing and a small effect on social competence. Insufficient research has been done on the effect of meditation on academic achievement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Waters |first1=Lea |last2=Barsky |first2=Adam |last3=Ridd |first3=Amanda |last4=Allen |first4=Kelly |date=2015-03-01 |title=Contemplative Education: A Systematic, Evidence-Based Review of the effect of Meditation Interventions in Schools |journal=Educational Psychology Review |language=en |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=103–134 |doi=10.1007/s10648-014-9258-2 |s2cid=254473829 |issn=1573-336X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Evidence has also shown possible improvement to stress, cognitive performance in school taught meditation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Šouláková |first1=Barbora |last2=Kasal |first2=Alexandr |last3=Butzer |first3=Bethany |last4=Winkler |first4=Petr |date=2019-06-01 |title=Meta-Review on the Effectiveness of Classroom-Based Psychological Interventions Aimed at Improving Student Mental Health and Well-Being, and Preventing Mental Illness |journal=The Journal of Primary Prevention |language=en |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=255–278 |doi=10.1007/s10935-019-00552-5 |pmid=31140100 |s2cid=167218809 |issn=1573-6547}}</ref>
Positive effects on emotion regulation, stress and anxiety can also be seen in students in university and nursing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Van Gordon |first1=William |last2=Shonin |first2=Edo |last3=Sumich |first3=Alex |last4=Sundin |first4=Eva C. |last5=Griffiths |first5=Mark D. |date=2014-08-01 |title=Meditation Awareness Training (MAT) for Psychological Well-Being in a Sub-Clinical Sample of University Students: A Controlled Pilot Study |journal=Mindfulness |language=en |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=381–391 |doi=10.1007/s12671-012-0191-5 |s2cid=255785448 |issn=1868-8535}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Torné-Ruiz |first1=Alba |last2=Reguant |first2=Mercedes |last3=Roca |first3=Judith |date=2023-01-01 |title=Mindfulness for stress and anxiety management in nursing students in a clinical simulation: A quasi-experimental study |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471595322002475 |journal=Nurse Education in Practice |language=en |volume=66 |page=103533 |doi=10.1016/j.nepr.2022.103533 |pmid=36516640 |s2cid=254389266 |issn=1471-5953 |hdl=10459.1/84982 |hdl-access=free |access-date=16 April 2023 |archive-date=16 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416012419/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471595322002475 |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Relaxation response and biofeedback===
[[Herbert Benson]] of [[Harvard Medical School]] conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines, including the [[Transcendental Meditation technique]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. In 1975, Benson published a book titled ''[[The Relaxation Response]]'' where he outlined his own version of meditation for relaxation.{{sfn|Benson|Klipper|2000}} Also in the 1970s, the American psychologist Patricia Carrington developed a similar technique called Clinically Standardized Meditation (CSM).<ref>{{cite book |title=Freedom in meditation |publisher=[[Anchor Books|Anchor Press]] |date=1977 |author=Patricia Carrington |isbn=978-0-385-11392-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/freedominmeditat0000carr }}</ref> In Norway, another sound-based method called [[Acem Meditation]] developed a psychology of meditation and has been the subject of several scientific studies.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Lagopoulos | first1=Jim | last2=Xu | first2=Jian | last3=Rasmussen | first3=Inge-Andre | last4=Vik | first4=Alexandra | last5=Malhi | first5=Gin S. | last6=Eliassen | first6=Carl Fredrik | last7=Arntsen | first7=Ingrid Edith | last8=Sæther | first8=Jardar G | last9=Saether | first9=JG | last10=Hollup | first10=Stig Arvid | last11=Holen | first11=Are | last12=Davanger | first12=Svend | last13=Ellingsen | first13=Øyvind | year=2009| title=Increased Theta and Alpha EEG Activity During Nondirective Meditation | journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine | volume=15 | issue=11| pages=1187–92| doi=10.1089/acm.2009.0113 | pmid=19922249 }}</ref>
[[Biofeedback]] has been used by many researchers since the 1950s in an effort to enter deeper states of mind.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Rubin | first1=Jeffrey B. | year=2001 | title=A New View of Meditation | journal=Journal of Religion and Health | volume=40 | issue=1| pages=121–28 | doi=10.1023/a:1012542524848| s2cid=32980899 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brandmeyer|first1=Tracy|last2=Delorme|first2=Arnaud|date=2013|title=Meditation and neurofeedback|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=4|page=688|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00688|pmid=24109463|pmc=3791377|issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Altered state of consciousness]]
* [[Autogenic training]]
* [[Ego death]]
* [[Flow (psychology)|Flow]]
* [[Satipatthana|Four foundations of mindfulness]]
* [[Hypnosis]]
* [[Immanence]]
* [[Mechanisms of mindfulness meditation]]
* [[Mushin (mental state)]]
* [[Narrative identity]]
* [[Psychology of religion]]
* [[Sensory deprivation]]
* [[Tukdam]]
{{Div col end}}
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|35em}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Sources==
{{full citations needed|date=March 2024}}
'''Printed sources'''
{{refbegin|40em}}
<!-- A -->
* {{Citation | last =Aguirre | first =Blaise  |year =2018 | title =Mindfulness and Meditation: Your Questions Answered | publisher =ABC-CLIO}}
<!-- B -->
* {{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Herbert |first2=Miriam Z. |last2=Klipper |year=2000 |orig-date=1972 |title=The Relaxation Response. |publisher=Harper |isbn=0-380-81595-8}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bond |first1=Kenneth |last2=Ospina |first2=Maria B. |last3=Hooton |first3=Nicola |last4=Bialy |first4=Liza |last5=Dryden |first5=Donna M. |last6=Buscemi |first6=Nina |last7=Shannahoff-Khalsa |first7=David |last8=Dusek |first8=Jeffrey |last9=Carlson |first9=Linda E. |title=Defining a complex intervention: The development of demarcation criteria for 'meditation' |journal=Psychology of Religion and Spirituality |date=2009 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=129–137 |doi=10.1037/a0015736 }}<!-- {{sfn |Bond |Ospina |Hooton |Bialy |2009 |p=}} --> <small>(NB: {{harvtxt|Bond|Ospina|Hooton|Bialy|2009}} has substantial overlap with the full report by {{harvtxt|Ospina|Bond|Karkhaneh|Tjosvold|2007}}, listed below. Overlap includes the first 6 authors of this paper, and the equivalence of Table 3 on p.&nbsp;134 in this paper with Table B1 on p.&nbsp;281 in the full report)</small>
* {{cite book |first=Bhikkhu |last=Bodhi |author-link=Bhikkhu Bodhi |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/waytoend.html |title=The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering |year=1999 |access-date=4 July 2006 |archive-date=28 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828222920/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/waytoend.html |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation | last =Bodhi | first =Bhikkhu | year =2005 | title=In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon | publisher =Simon and Schuster}}
* {{Citation | last =Bronkhorst | first =Johannes | author-link = Johannes Bronkhorst | year =1993 | title=The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publ.}}<!-- {{sfn |Bronkhurst|1993 |p=}} -->
<!-- C -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Cahn |first1=B. Rael |last2=Polich |first2=John |title=Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies |journal=Psychological Bulletin |date=2006 |volume=132 |issue=2 |pages=180–211 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180 |pmid=16536641 |s2cid=2151810 }}<!-- {{sfn |Cahn|Polich|2006 |p=}} -->
* {{cite journal | last1=Chan-Ob | first1=T | last2=Boonyanaruthee | first2=V | year=1999 | title=Meditation in association with psychosis | journal =Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand | publisher =Chotmaihet Thangphaet | volume=82 | issue=9 | issn=0125-2208 | pmid=10561951 | pages=925–30 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12739139}}
<!-- E -->
* {{Citation | last1 =Everly | first1 =George S. | last2 =Lating | first2 =Jeffrey M. | year =2002 | title =A clinical guide to the treatment of human stress response | publisher =Springer Science & Business Media | isbn =0-306-46620-1}}<!-- {{sfn|Everly|Lating|2002|p=}} -->
* {{cite book |first=Mark |last=Epstein |title=Thought without a Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective |publisher=Basic Books |year=1995}}
<!-- F -->
* {{cite journal | last1= Farias  | first1=M. | last2= Maraldi | first2=E. | last3= Wallenkampf | first3=K. C.| last4= Lucchetti | first4=G. | year=2020 | title= Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review. | journal= Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica | volume=142 | issue=5| pages=374–393  |  pmid=32820538 |doi= 10.1111/acps.13225 |url= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.13225}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Fischer-Schreiber |editor-first=Ingrid |editor-first2=Franz-Karl |editor-last2=Ehrhard |editor-first3=Michael S. |editor-last3=Diener |title=The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen |publisher=Shambhala Publications |year=1991}}<!-- {{sfn|Fischer-Schreiber|Ehrhard|Diener|1991|p=}} -->
<!-- G -->
* {{Citation | last1 =Gangadharan | first1 =Shobana | last2 =Hemamalini | first2 =M. | year =2021 | title =Community Health Nursing: Framework for Practice: Vol 2-E-Book | publisher =Elsevier Health Sciences}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gethin |first1=Rupert |title=The foundations of Buddhism |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-289223-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Goldstein |first1=Joseph |title=One Dharma: the emerging Western Buddhism |year=2003 |publisher=Harper Collins |location=New York |isbn=0-06-251701-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goleman |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Goleman |year=1988 |title=The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience |publisher=Tarcher |location=New York |isbn=978-0-87477-833-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/meditativemind00dani }}<!-- {{sfn |Goleman|1988 |p=}} -->
* {{cite journal | last1=Goud | first1=S. S. | year=2022 | title=A Double-Edged Sword-A Case Report of Psychosis Associated with Excessive Unguided Meditation.  | journal= Case Reports in Psychiatry | volume=2022 | issue=2661824| pmid=36316997 | pmc= 9617715 | doi=10.1155/2022/2661824 | doi-access=free }}
<!-- J -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Jevning |first1=R. |last2=Wallace |first2=R.K. |last3=Beidebach |first3=M. |title=The physiology of meditation: A review. A wakeful hypometabolic integrated response |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |date=September 1992 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=415–424 |doi=10.1016/s0149-7634(05)80210-6 |pmid=1528528 |s2cid=2650109 }}
<!-- K -->
* {{Citation | last =Kamalashila | year =2003 | title =Meditation: The Buddhist art of tranquility and insight | publisher =Birmingham: Windhorse Publications}}
* {{cite book |last=Kaplan |first=A. |year=1978 |title=Meditation and the Bible |place=Maine |publisher=Samuel Weiser}}
* {{cite book |last=Kaplan |first=A. |year=1982 |title=Meditation and Kabbalah |place=Maine |publisher=Samuel Weiser}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kapleau |first1=Phillip |title=The three pillars of Zen: teaching, practice, and enlightenment |year=1989 |publisher=Anchor Books |location=New York |isbn=0-385-26093-8 |edition=25th anniversary}}
<!-- L -->
* {{Citation | last1 =Lai  |first1 =Whalen | last2 =Cheng | first2 =Yu-yin | year =2008 | chapter =Chinese Buddhist Philosophy from Han through Tang | editor-last1 =Mou | editor-first1=Bo | title =The Routledge History of Chinese Philosophy | publisher =Routledge}}
* {{cite book |last =Larson |first=Gerald James |author-link=Gerald James Larson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6pURGdBBmIC |title=The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India's philosophy of meditation |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-208-3349-4}}
* {{cite journal | last1 =Lindahl | first1 =J.R. | last2 =Fisher | first2 =N.E. | last3 =Cooper | first3 =D.J. | year =2017 | title =The varieties of contemplative experience: A mixed-methods study of meditation-related challenges in Western Buddhists | journal =PLOS ONE | volume =12 | issue =5 | pages =e0176239 | doi =10.1371/journal.pone.0176239 | doi-access =free | pmid =28542181 | pmc =5443484 | bibcode =2017PLoSO..1276239L }}
* {{Citation | last =Lusthaus  |first =Dan | year =2018 | title =Samkhya | publisher =acmuller.net, Resources for East Asian Language and Thought, Musashino University}}<!-- {{sfn|Lusthaus|2018|p=}} -->
<!-- M -->
* {{Citation | last1 =Matko | first1= Karin | last2 =Sedlmeier | first2 =Peter | title =What Is Meditation? Proposing an Empirically Derived Classification System | journal =Front. Psychol. |date=15 October 2019 | volume= 10 |issue=Sec. Cognition | page= 2276 | doi =10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02276| pmid= 31681085 | pmc= 6803504 | doi-access= free }}
* {{Citation | last =McRae | first =John | year =1986 | title =The Northern School and the Formation of Early Chʻan Buddhism | publisher =University of Hawaii Press}}
<!-- N -->
* {{Cite book |last1=Naranjo |first1=Claudio |title=On the psychology of meditation |last2=Ornstein |first2=Robert E. |publisher=The Viking Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-670-52506-5 |series=A Viking compass book |location=New York |lccn=76149720 |orig-date=1971}}
<!-- O -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Ospina |first1=MB |last2=Bond |first2=K |last3=Karkhaneh |first3=M |last4=Tjosvold |first4=L |last5=Vandermeer |first5=B |last6=Liang |first6=Y |last7=Bialy |first7=L |last8=Hooton |first8=N |last9=Buscemi |first9=N |last10=Dryden |first10=DM |last11=Klassen |first11=TP |title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evidence Report/Technology Assessment |date=June 2007 |issue=155 |pages=1–263 |pmid=17764203 |pmc=4780968 }}<!-- {{sfn|Ospina|Bond|Karkhaneh|Tjosvold|2007|p=}} -->
<!-- P -->
* {{cite journal | last1=Perez-De-Albeniz | first1=Alberto | last2=Holmes | first2=Jeremy | year=2000 | title=Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy | journal=International Journal of Psychotherapy | volume=5 | issue=1| pages=49–58 | doi=10.1080/13569080050020263}}<!-- {{sfn|Perez-De-Albeniz|Holmes|2000|p=}} -->
* {{Citation | last =Polak | first = Grzegorz | year =2011 | title =Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology | publisher =UMCS}}
<!-- S -->
* {{cite journal | last1 =Salguero | first1 =C. Pierce | year =2023 | title ="Meditation Sickness" in Medieval Chinese Buddhism and the Contemporary West |journal=Journal of Buddhist Ethics |access-date=14 February 2024 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=169–211 |issn=1076-9005 |url=https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2023/08/Salguero-Finalized-ms-for-publication47.pdf |archive-date=2024-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603231854/https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2023/08/Salguero-Finalized-ms-for-publication47.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation | last =Schaik | first =Sam van | year =2018 | title =The spirit of Zen | publisher =Yale University Press}}
* {{Cite journal | last1 =Schlosser | first1 =Marco | last2 =Sparby |first2=Terje |last3=Vörös |first3=Sebastjan |last4=Jones |first4=Rebecca |last5=Marchant |first5=Natalie L. | date =2019 | title=Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=e0216643 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0216643 |pmid=31071152 |pmc=6508707 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1416643S |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Shapiro |first1=D. H. |year=1982|title=Overview: Clinical and physiological comparison of meditation with other self-control strategies |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=139 |issue=3 |pages=267–74|doi=10.1176/ajp.139.3.267 |pmid=7036760   }} Reprinted as chapter 1 (pp.&nbsp;5–10) in {{cite book |last1=Shapiro |first1=Deane H. |first2=Roger N. |last2=Walsh |author-link2=Roger Walsh |year=1984 |title=Meditation, classic and contemporary perspectives |publisher=Aldine |location=New York |isbn=978-0-202-25136-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9sv49ZHqWUC |access-date=2016-10-14 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095244/https://books.google.com/books?id=w9sv49ZHqWUC |url-status=live |ref=none}} (the book was republished in 2008: {{ISBN|978-0-202-36244-1|0-202-36244-2}})
* {{Citation |last=Sharf |first=Robert |year=2014 |title=Mindfulness and Mindlessness in Early Chan |journal=Philosophy East & West |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=933–964 |doi=10.1353/pew.2014.0074 |s2cid=144208166 }}
* {{Citation | last =Sharf | first =Robert H. | year =2015 | title =Is mindfulness Buddhist? (and why it matters) | journal =Transcultural Psychiatry | volume =52 | issue =4 | pages =470–484 | doi =10.1177/1363461514557561 | pmid =25361692 | s2cid =18518975 | url =https://www.academia.edu/26441098 | access-date =2022-09-07 | archive-date =2023-03-17 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095150/https://www.academia.edu/26441098 | url-status =live }}
* {{Citation | last =Suzuki | first =D.T. | year =2014 | title =Selected Works of D.T. Suzuki, Volume I: Zen | publisher =University of California Press}}
<!-- T -->
* {{Cite journal | last1 =Taylor | first1 =Eugene | year =1999 |title=Introduction |editor1-first=Michael |editor1-last=Murphy |editor2-first=Steven |editor2-last=Donovan |editor3-first=Eugene |editor3-last=Taylor |journal=The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996 |pages=1–32 |url=http://library.noetic.org/library/publication-bibliographies/physical-and-psychological-effects-meditation |access-date=2016-10-13 |archive-date=2016-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013224102/http://library.noetic.org/library/publication-bibliographies/physical-and-psychological-effects-meditation |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book|last=Thera|first=Nyanaponika|author-link=Nyanaponika Thera|year=1996|title=The Heart of Buddhist Meditation: A Handbook of Mental Training based on the Buddha's Way of Mindfulness|location=York Beach, ME|publisher= Samuel Weiser|isbn=0-87728-073-8}}
<!-- V -->
* {{Citation | last =Vetter | first =Tilmann | year =1988 | title =The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism | publisher =BRILL}}
* {{cite journal | last1 =Vörös | first1 =Sebastjan | year =2016 | title =Sitting with the Demons – Mindfulness, Suffering, and Existential Transformation | journal =Asian Studies |doi=10.4312/as.2016.4.2.59-83 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=59–83 |doi-access=free}}
<!-- W -->
* {{cite journal |last1=Walsh |first1=Roger |last2=Shapiro |first2=Shauna L. |title=The meeting of meditative disciplines and western psychology: A mutually enriching dialogue |journal=American Psychologist |date=2006 |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=227–239 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227 |pmid=16594839 |s2cid=3015768 |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/7885t0n6 }}<!-- {{sfn|Walsh|Shapiro|2006|p=}} -->
<!-- Y -->
* {{cite journal | last1= Yadav  | first1=J. | last2= Bhardwaj | first2=A. | last3= Jangid | first3=P.| last4= Singh | first4=P. | last5= Gupta | first5=R. | title= Meditation-A Slippery Slope for Psychosis: A Case Series With Review of Evidence | journal= The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume=211 | issue=8 |  year=2023 | pages=634–638  |  pmid=37505896 |doi= 10.1097/NMD.0000000000001656 |url=https://journals.lww.com/jonmd/abstract/2023/08000/meditation_a_slippery_slope_for_psychosis__a_case.12.aspx}}
* {{Citation | last =Yu | first =Jimmy | year =2021 | title =Reimagining Chan Buddhism: Sheng Yen and the Creation of the Dharma Drum Lineage of Chan | publisher =Routledge}}
{{refend}}
'''Web sources'''
{{reflist|group=web|refs=
<!-- F -->
<!-- "Farias_2015_Independent" -->
<ref group=web name="Farias_2015_Independent">{{cite news | author =Miguel Farias | title =Meditation is touted as a cure for mental instability but can it actually be bad for you? | date =2015 | url =https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/features/meditation-is-touted-as-a-cure-for-mental-instability-but-can-it-actually-be-bad-for-you-10268291.html?amp |website =www.independent.co.uk | access-date =2018-05-08 | archive-date =2018-05-08 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20180508185621/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/features/meditation-is-touted-as-a-cure-for-mental-instability-but-can-it-actually-be-bad-for-you-10268291.html?amp |url-status=live }}</ref>
<!-- I -->
<!--  -->
<ref group=web name="Ivtzan_2016_PT">{{cite web | author =Itai Ivtzan | date =2016 | title =Dangers of Meditation | website =Psychology Today | url =https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mindfulness-wellbeing/201603/dangers-meditation | access-date =2018-05-07 |archive-date =2023-03-17 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095215/https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mindfulness-wellbeing/201603/dangers-meditation |url-status =live }}</ref>
<!-- "MW" -->
<ref group=web name="MW">{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/meditate |title=Definition of meditate |publisher=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |date=18 December 2017 |access-date=25 December 2017 |archive-date=24 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224220520/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/meditate |url-status=live }}</ref>
<!-- N -->
<-- "nhs.Bazian" -->
<ref group=web name="nhs.Bazian">{{cite web | author =unknown | date =2017-05-26 | title=Does meditation carry a risk of harmful side effects?| website =nhs.uk | access-date =2018-05-07 | url =https://www.nhs.uk/news/lifestyle-and-exercise/does-meditation-carry-a-risk-of-harmful-side-effects/ | archive-date =2021-01-03 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20210103073652/https://www.nhs.uk/news/lifestyle-and-exercise/does-meditation-carry-a-risk-of-harmful-side-effects/ }}</ref>
<!-- "Oxford" -->
<ref group=web name="Oxford">{{cite web |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/meditate|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926015939/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/meditate|archive-date=26 September 2016|title=meditate |website=Oxford Dictionaries – English}}</ref>
}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite book |last=Austin |first=James H. |title=Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness |place=Cambridge |publisher=MIT Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-262-51109-6 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Brahm |first=Ajahn |author-link=Ajahn Brahm |title=Mindfulness Bliss and Beyond |year=2006 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-86171-275-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Craven |first1=John L. |title=Meditation and Psychotherapy |journal=The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry |date=October 1989 |volume=34 |issue=7 |pages=648–653 |doi=10.1177/070674378903400705 |pmid=2680046 |s2cid=27930160 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book | last1=Hanson | first1=Rick | last2=Mendius | first2=Richard | year=2009 | title=Buddha's Brain: The Practical Neuroscience of Happiness, Love, and Wisdom | publisher=New Harbinger Publications | isbn=978-1-57224-695-9 | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781572246959 |url-access=registration |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Hart |first=William |title=Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation |year=1987 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0-06-063724-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Jiddu Krishnamurti |last=Krishnamurti |first=Jiddu |title=This Light in Oneself: True Meditation |year=1999 |publisher=[[Shambhala Publications]] |isbn=1-57062-442-9 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kutz |first1=I |last2=Borysenko |first2=JZ |last3=Benson |first3=H |title=Meditation and psychotherapy: a rationale for the integration of dynamic psychotherapy, the relaxation response, and mindfulness meditation |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |date=January 1985 |volume=142 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1176/ajp.142.1.1 |pmid=3881049 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book | last=Larson | first=Gerald James | author-link=Gerald James Larson | title=Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning | publisher=Motilal Banarasidass | year=1998 | location=London | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih2aGLp4d1gC | isbn=81-208-0503-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Levin |first=Michal |title=Meditation, Path to the Deepest Self |publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7894-8333-1 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lutz |first1=A. |last2=Greischar |first2=L. L. |last3=Rawlings |first3=N. B. |last4=Ricard |first4=M. |last5=Davidson |first5=R. J. |title=Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=16 November 2004 |volume=101 |issue=46 |pages=16369–16373 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0407401101 |pmid=15534199 |pmc=526201 | bibcode=2004PNAS..10116369L|doi-access=free |ref=none}}
<!-- note "Paramahamsa Sri Nithyananda" and other permutations have been previously deleted, and deleted again, watchout for nithyananda's spammers-->
* {{cite journal |last1=Shapiro |first1=Deane H. |title=Adverse effects of meditation: a preliminary investigation of long-term meditators |journal=International Journal of Psychosomatics |date=1992 |volume=39 |issue=1–4 |pages=62–7 |pmid=1428622 |s2cid=52203383 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=[[Sogyal Rinpoche]] |title=[[The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying]] |year=1994 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-06-250834-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book | editor-last=Tart | editor-first=Charles T. | editor-link=Charles Tart | title=Altered states of consciousness: a book of readings |location=New York |publisher=Wiley | date=1969 | isbn=978-0-471-84560-7 | oclc=5476 |ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.livescience.com/7306-brain-scans-reveal-meditation-works.html |last=Wenner |first=Melinda |title=Brain Scans Reveal Why Meditation Works |website=LiveScience.com |date=30 June 2007 |access-date=2 August 2022 |archive-date=14 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014222314/https://www.livescience.com/7306-brain-scans-reveal-meditation-works.html |url-status=live |ref=none}}
{{refend}}
{{Meditation}}
{{New Age Movement}}
{{Religion topics}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Meditation| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Concepts in the philosophy of mind]]
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[[Category:History of psychology]]
[[Category:Mind–body interventions]]
[[Category:New Age practices]]
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[[Category:Religion articles needing expert attention]]
[[Category:Religious practices]]
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