View source for Monk

{{short description|Member of a monastic religious order}}
{{other uses|Monk (disambiguation)|Monks (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-pc}}
[[File:Christus carthusian.jpg|thumb|Portrait depicting a [[Carthusians|Carthusian]] monk in the Roman Catholic Church (1446)]]
[[File:Buddhist alms in Si Phan Don.jpg|thumb|Buddhist monks collecting alms]]
A '''monk''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ʌ|ŋ|k}}; from {{langx|el|μοναχός}}, ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via [[Latin]] {{lang|la|monachus}})<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmonaxo%2Fs |title=μοναχός |last=Liddell |first=Henry George |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |work=A Greek-English Lexicon}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Monk, n.1 |website=OED Online |edition=3rd |date=March 2018 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/121259}}</ref> is a man who is a member of a religious order and lives in a [[monastery]].<ref>{{cite web |title=monk noun (1) |work=Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/monk |access-date=2020-08-17}}</ref> A monk usually lives his life in [[prayer]] and [[contemplation]]. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many religions and in philosophy across numerous cultures.
The Greek word for "monk" may be applied to or women. In English, however, "monk" is applied mainly to men, while ''[[nun]]'' is typically used for female monastics.
Although the term ''monachos'' is of [[Christianity|Christian]] origin, in the English language ''monk'' tends to be used loosely also for both male and female ascetics from other religious or philosophical backgrounds.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} However, being generic, it is not interchangeable with terms that denote particular kinds of monk, such as [[cenobite]], [[hermit]], [[anchorite]], [[Hesychasm|hesychast]], or solitary.
Traditions of [[Christian monasticism]] exist in major Christian denominations, with [[religious order]]s being present in Catholicism, Lutheranism, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Reformed Christianity (Calvinism), Anglicanism and Methodism. Indian religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, also have monastic traditions as well.
==Buddhism==
{{more citations needed|section|date=July 2019}}
{{Main|Bhikkhu}}
{{peoplepalicanon}}
[[File:Monks in Wat Phra Singh - Chiang Mai.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Buddhist monks in [[Thailand]]]]
In [[Theravada]] Buddhism, ''[[bhikkhu]]'' is the term for monk. Their disciplinary code is called the ''[[patimokkha]]'', which is part of the larger ''[[Vinaya]]''. They live lives of [[mendicancy]], and go on a morning almsround ([[Pali]]: ''pindapata'') every day. The local people give food for the monks to eat, though the monks are not permitted to positively ask for anything. The monks live in monasteries, and have an important function in traditional Asian society. Young boys can be ordained as [[samanera]]s. Both bhikkhus and samaneras eat only in the morning, and are not supposed to lead a luxurious life. Their rules forbid the use of money, although this rule is nowadays not kept by all monks. The monks are part of the ''[[Sangha (Buddhism)|Sangha]]'', the third of the [[Triple Gem]] of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Dhamma]], Sangha.
In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, the term 'Sangha' strictly speaking refers to those who have achieved certain levels of understanding. They are therefore called 'community of the excellent ones' ({{langx|bo|mchog kyi tshogs}}); however, these in turn need not be monks (i.e., hold such [[religious vows|vows]]). Several Mahayana orders accept female practitioners as monks, instead of using the normal title of "nun", and they are considered equal to male ascetics in all respects.
[[File:Monk resting outside Thag-Thok Gompa, Ladakh.jpg|thumb|Monk resting in [[Ladakh]]]]
The [[Bhikkhus]] are only allowed 4 items ''(other than their robes)'': a razor, a sewing needle, an alms bowl and a water strainer.{{citation needed|reason=Not found on Bhikkhu main page or this one|date=December 2015}}
In [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism, monkhood is part of the system of 'vows of individual liberation'; these vows are taken in order to develop one's own personal ethical discipline. The monks and nuns form the (ordinary) ''sangha''. As for the Vajrayana vows of individual liberation, there are four steps: A lay person may take the 5 vows called 'approaching virtue' (in Tibetan <nowiki>'</nowiki>''genyen''<nowiki>'</nowiki> < ''dge snyan''>). The next step is to enter the monastic way of life (Tib. ''rabjung'') which includes wearing monk's or nun's [[robes]]. After that, one can become a 'novice' (Pali ''[[samanera]]'', Tib. ''getshül''); the last and final step is to take all vows of the 'fully ordained monk' (''gelong''). This term 'gelong' (Tib. < ''dge long''>, in the female form ''gelongma'') is the translation of Skt. ''bikshu'' (for women ''bikshuni'') which is the equivalent of the Pali term ''[[bhikkhuni]]''; ''[[bhikkhu]]'' is the word used in Theravada Buddhism (Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand).
[[File:Chinese Buddhist Monks Ceremony Hangzhou.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.3|Buddhist monks performing ceremony in Hangzhou, China]]
[[China|Chinese]] Buddhist monks have been traditionally and stereotypically linked with the practice of the [[Chinese martial arts]] or ''Kung fu'', and monks are frequently important characters in [[martial arts film]]s. This association is focused around the [[Shaolin Monastery]]. The Buddhist monk [[Bodhidharma]], traditionally credited as the founder of [[Zen]] Buddhism in China, is also claimed to have introduced [[Kalaripayattu]] (which later evolved into Kung Fu) to the country. This latter claim has however been a source of much controversy (see [[Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection]]). One more feature about the Chinese Buddhist monks is that they practice the burning marks on their scalp, finger or part of the skin on their anterior side of the forearm with incense as a sign of ordination.
In [[Thailand]] and [[Burma]], it is common for boys to spend some time living as a monk in a monastery. Most stay for only a few years and then leave, but a number continue on in the ascetic life for the rest of their lives.
In [[Mongolia]] during the 1920s, there were about 110,000 monks, including children, who made up about one-third of the male population,<ref>"[http://countrystudies.us/mongolia/47.htm Mongolia – Buddhism]". [[Library of Congress Country Studies]].</ref> many of whom were killed in the purges of [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan|Choibalsan]].
==Christianity==
===Western Christianity===
{{Main|Christian monasticism#Western Christian orders in the modern era}}
====Catholicism====
[[File:Sodoma - Life of St Benedict, Scene 4 - The Monk Romanus Dresses Benedict (detail) - WGA21567.jpg|thumb|Investiture of Saint Benedict, scene from the fresco cycle on the life of St. Benedict in Monte Oliveto Maggiore]]
Within [[Catholicism]], a monk is a member of a [[Religious order (Catholic)|religious order]] who lives a communal life in a [[monastery]] under a monastic rule of life. [[Benedict of Nursia]], (480-543 or 547 AD) is considered to be the originator of western monasticism. Benedict's [[Rule of Saint Benedict|rule]],<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10487b.htm Thurston, Herbert. "Monk." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 12 March 2023 {{PD-notice}}</ref> is the foundation for the [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictines]] and all of its reform groups such as the [[Cistercians]] and the [[Trappists]]. Benedict founded the great [[Monte Cassino]] in 529.
[[File:Cloisters of Moissac Abbey.jpg|thumb|left|The [[cloister]]s of [[Moissac Abbey]] in France]]
Benedict pointed out in his rule stability, conversion of life and obedience as promises.<ref>''Concerning the disciple of those to be received as brethren'' in ''The Rule of Saint Benedict'', LVIII</ref> Obedience calls for the monk to obey Christ, as represented by the superior person of the monastery, which is an [[abbot]] or a [[Prior (ecclesiastical)|prior]]. Conversion of life means, generally, that the monk converts himself to the way of a monk, which is death to self and to the world and life to God and to his work. A monk is to be an instrument of God's work. Stability entails that the monk commit himself to the monastery for the remainder of his life, and so, upon death, will be buried at its cemetery. The vow of stability ''(stabilitas loci)'' is unique to Benedictines.
[[File:Jan Petr Molitor - Cistercian monks, murals Cistercian Abbey Osek.jpg|thumb|Fresco of Cistercian monks at the murals the murals of the Chapter house of Osek abbey in [[Bohemia]]]]
The [[solemn vows]] in other religious orders were eventually established as vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. Poverty requires that they renounce any ownership of property or assets, except for items that were allowed to them by their superior (such as a [[religious habit|habit]], books etc.), and to live meekly, sharing whatever they might have with the poor. Chastity requires that since they were willing to dedicate their lives to God, they sacrificed the love between men and women and stay either virginal or chaste.
To become a monk, one first must be accepted by a community as a [[postulant]]. During the time of postulancy the man lives at the monastery to test his vocation, to get to know the community and the community to get to know him. If the postulant and the community agree that the postulant should become a [[novice]], he is received as such. At this time he is usually given the habit and a [[religious name]]. Both the community and the novice evaluate further whether the man is called to become a monk and he begins to participate more fully in the life of the community. As a postulant and [[novitiate|novice]], the man is free to leave the community at any time or the institute can dismiss him.<ref>CIC can. 653 §1</ref> Following the novitiate, which must last at least one canonical year (but not longer than two years) in the community of the novitiate<ref>CIC can. 648, §2,3</ref> the novice may profess first vows, if he is accepted to do so. After a few years (usually three) the monk makes [[solemn vow]]s, which are binding for life.
[[File:Chartreuse-de-la-Verne-Unterkunft.JPG|thumb|left|Monastic cell in the La Verne Charterhouse, now resettled by the [[Monastic Family of Bethlehem, of the Assumption of the Virgin and of Saint Bruno]]]]
The monastic life generally consists of prayer in the form of the [[Liturgy of the Hours]] (also known as the Divine Office, reading of the divine scriptures (''[[lectio divina]]'') and labor. Among most religious orders, monks live in simple, austere rooms called [[monastic cell|cells]] and come together daily to celebrate and to recite the Liturgy of the Hours and the [[Conventual Mass|Mass]]. Usually, the monks take their meals together in the [[refectory]]. Many communities have a period of silence lasting from evening until the next morning and some others restrict talking to only when it is necessary for the monks to perform their work and during weekly recreation.
Monks who have been or will be [[Ordination#Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Lutheran and Anglican churches|ordained]] into [[Holy Orders]] as [[Priesthood in the Catholic Church|priests]] or [[deacons]] were traditionally referred to as "choir monks". Those monks who are not ordained into Holy Orders are referred to as [[lay brothers]]. In most monastic communities today, little distinction exists between the lay brothers and the choir monks, as they all have the obligation to celebrate the entire Divine Office daily in [[Choir (architecture)|choir]]. However, historically, the roles of the two groups of monks within the monastery differed. The work of the choir monks was considered to be prayer, chanting the hours of the Divine Office, whereas the lay brothers provided for the material needs of the community by growing food, preparing meals, maintaining the monastery and the grounds. This distinction arose historically because generally those monks who could read [[Latin]] typically became choir monks, while those monks who were illiterate or could not read Latin became lay brothers. The lay brothers would instead recite at least some of the liturgical hours prayers such as the [[Lord's Prayer]] or the [[Hail Mary]]. Since the [[Second Vatican Council]], the distinction between choir monks and lay brothers has been deemphasized, as the council allowed the Liturgy of the Hours to be celebrated in the vernacular language, effectively opening participation to all of the monks.
Within western monasticism, it is important to differentiate between monks and [[friars]]. Monks generally live a contemplative life of prayer confined within a monastery while friars usually engage in an active ministry of service to the outside community. The monastic orders include all [[Benedictines]] (the [[Order of Saint Benedict]] and its later reforms including the [[Cistercians]] and the [[Trappists]]) and the [[Carthusian]]s, who live according to their own statutes. Orders of friars include the [[mendicant orders]] (primarily [[Order of Friars Minor]], [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchins]], [[Order of Preachers|Dominicans]], [[Carmelites]], and [[Augustinians]]). Although the [[canons regular]] (such as the [[Norbertines]]) and the [[clerics regular]] (such as the [[Jesuits]]) live in community, they are neither monks nor friars as they are characterized by their [[cleric|clerical state]] and not by any monastic vows.
====Lutheranism====
:''Further: [[Template:Lutheran orders|Lutheran religious orders]]''
[[File:Kloster Loccum.jpg|thumb|left|[[Loccum Abbey]] continued as a Lutheran monastery since the 16th century A.D.]]
[[Loccum Abbey]] and [[Amelungsborn Abbey]] have the longest traditions as Lutheran monasteries; after the Reformation, many monasteries and [[convent]]s were received into the Lutheran Church and continued religious life, existing to this day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medievalhistories.com/kloster-ebstorf-convent-bad-bevensen-near-luneburg/|title=Kloster Ebstorf|date=8 August 2014|publisher=Medieval Histories|language=en|access-date=20 November 2017|quote=The monastery is mentioned for the first time in 1197. It belongs to the group of so-called Lüneklöstern (monasteries of Lüne), which became Lutheran convents following the Protestant Reformation. […] It is currently one of several Lutheran convents maintained by the Monastic Chamber of Hanover (Klosterkammer Hannover), an institution of the former Kingdom of Hanover founded by its Prince-Regent, later King George IV of the United Kingdom, in 1818, in order to manage and preserve the estates of Lutheran convents.}}</ref>
Since the 19th and 20th century, there has been a renewal in the monastic life among Lutheranism. Lutheran religious orders in the Franciscan, Benedictine and other traditions exist, with some Lutheran monasteries having [[third order]]s and accepting [[oblate]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ev. Oblates of St. Benedict |url=http://www.lutheranmountaineer.org/oblates/ |publisher=Lutheran Campus Ministry at WVU |access-date=28 July 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://icdb.org/show.php?r=osb&PHPSESSID=8ed75cc0dbee7b113b0e220ce70deacd |access-date=2010-01-13 |title=Order of Saint Benedict |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726165008/http://icdb.org/show.php?r=osb&PHPSESSID=8ed75cc0dbee7b113b0e220ce70deacd |archive-date=2011-07-26}}</ref>
In American Lutheran traditions, "The Congregation of the Servants of Christ" was established at St. Augustine's House in [[Oxford, Michigan]], in 1958 when some other men joined Father [[Arthur Kreinheder]] in observing the monastic life and offices of prayer. These men and others came and went over the years. The community has always remained small; at times the only member was Father Arthur.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070604192849/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,829997,00.html The Lonely Lutheran Monk], [[Time (magazine)|TIME Magazine]] (March 1, 1963). Retrieved 13-01-10.</ref> During the 35 years of its existence over 25 men tested their vocations to monastic life by living at the house for some time, from a few months to many years, but at Father Arthur's death in 1989 only one permanent resident remained. At the beginning of 2006, there was 2 permanent professed members and 2 long-term guests. Strong ties remain with this community and their brothers in Sweden ([[Östanbäck monastery]]) and in Germany ([[Priory of St. Wigbert]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.staugustineshouse.org/|title=Staugustineshouse.org}}</ref>
There is also the [[Order of Lutheran Franciscans]], a religious community of friars and sisters within the tradition of the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]].
====Anglicanism====
{{Further|Anglican religious order}}
Monastic life in [[England]] came to an abrupt end when [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] broke from the [[Catholic Church]] and made himself the [[Supreme Governor of the Church of England|head]] of the [[Church of England]]. He initiated the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], during which all of the [[monastery|monasteries]] within [[England]] were destroyed. A large number of monks were executed. Others fled to continental [[Europe]]an monasteries where they were able to continue their monastic life.
Shortly after the beginning of the [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholic Movement]] in the Church of England, there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the monastic life. In the 1840s, the then Anglican priest and future Catholic Cardinal [[John Henry Newman]] established a community of men at [[Littlemore]] near [[Oxford]]. From then on, there have been established many communities of monks, [[friar]]s and other religious communities for men in the [[Anglican Communion]]. There are Anglican [[Benedictine]]s, [[Franciscan]]s, [[Cistercian]]s,<ref>[http://www.trushare.com/0200%20January%202012/29%20cistercian_revival_in_the_church.htm The founding of the Anglican Cistercian Association is fully reported here].</ref> and in the [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]] in the United States, [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]]. There are also uniquely Anglican monastic orders such as the [[Society of Saint John the Evangelist]] and the [[Community of the Resurrection]] at [[College of the Resurrection|Mirfield]].
Some Anglican religious communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of the monastic life among Anglicans is that most practice the so-called "mixed life". Anglican monks recite the Divine Office in choir daily, either the full eight services of the [[Breviary]] or the four offices found in the [[Book of Common Prayer]] and celebrate the [[Eucharist]] daily. Many orders take on external works such as service to the poor, giving religious retreats, or other active ministries within their immediate communities. Like Catholic monks, Anglican monks also take the monastic vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.
In the early 20th century when the [[Oxford Movement]] was at its height, the Anglican Communion had hundreds{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} of orders and communities and thousands of religious followers. However, since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in many parts of the Anglican Communion. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery composed of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct.
There are however, still several thousand Anglican monks working today in approximately 200 communities around the world. The most growth has been in the [[Melanesia]]n countries of the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. The [[Melanesian Brotherhood]], founded at [[Tabalia]], [[Guadalcanal]], in 1925 by [[Ini Kopuria]], is now the largest Anglican community in the world with over 450 brothers in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the [[Philippines]] and the [[United Kingdom]].
====Methodism====
The [[Saint Brigid of Kildare Monastery]] is a [[double monastery]] of the [[United Methodist Church]] rooted in the Benedictine tradition, being located in [[Collegeville, Minnesota]].<ref name="Lefevere">{{cite book|author=Patricia Lefevere|title=Methodist woman founds monastery|url=http://www.natcath.org/NCR_Online/archives/022103/022103v.htm|quote=St. Brigid’s oblate group has grown to 16 members since the dedication of the monastery on St. Brigid’s feast in 2000. Besides Stamps, it counts another 13 United Methodists, one Catholic and one Disciples of Christ member. The ages of group members range from 23 to 82. One-third of them are men; half are ordained. The community continues to grow.|publisher=[[National Catholic Reporter]]|access-date=27 July 2020|date=21 February 2003}}</ref> Besides monastic orders, the [[Order of Saint Luke]] is a dispersed religious order within Methodism, though being [[ecumenical]], it accepts believers of other Christian denominations.
====Reformed Christianity====
The Emmanuel Sisters is a [[convent]] of the [[Presbyterian Church in Cameroon]] that was founded by Magdaline Marie Handy.<ref name="Boyce2014"/> These nuns are engaged in prayer, teaching, and healthcare.<ref name="Boyce2014">{{cite web |last1=Boyce |first1=Sandy |title=A focus on Emmanuel Sisters, Cameroon |url=http://diakoniapresident.blogspot.com/2014/07/a-focus-on-emmanuel-sisters-cameroon.html |publisher=Diakonia |access-date=28 July 2020 |language=en |date=26 July 2014}}</ref>
===Eastern Christianity===
====Eastern Orthodox====
[[File:07Athos St Dionysius02.jpg|thumb|left|[[Dionysiou monastery|Monastery of St. Dionysius]] on [[Mount Athos]]]]
[[File:Православни монах на путу на Свету Гору.jpg|thumb|left|Orthodox monk on his way to [[Mount Athos]]]]
In [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], monasticism holds a very special and important place: "Angels are a light for monks, monks are a light for laymen" ([[John Climacus|St. John Klimakos]]). Eastern Orthodox monastics separate themselves from the [[world (theology)|world]] in order to pray unceasingly for the world. They do not, in general, have as their primary purpose the running of social services, but instead are concerned with attaining [[Theosis (Eastern Orthodox theology)|theosis]], or union with God. However, care for the poor and needy has always been an obligation of monasticism,{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}} so not all monasteries are "cloistered". The level of contact will vary from community to community. Hermits, on the other hand, have little or no contact with the outside world.
Eastern Orthodox monasticism does not have [[religious orders]] as are found in the West, nor do they have Rules in the same sense as the [[Rule of St. Benedict]]. Rather, Eastern monastics study and draw inspiration from the writings of the [[Desert Fathers]] as well as other [[Church Fathers]]; probably the most influential of which are the ''Greater Asketikon'' and ''Lesser Asketikon'' of St. Basil the Great and the ''[[Philokalia]]'', which was compiled by St. Nikodemos of the Holy Mountain and St. Makarios of Corinth. [[Hesychasm]] is of primary importance in the ascetical theology of the Eastern Orthodox Church.
[[File:Макарьево Свято-Троице-Макарьево-Желтоводский монастырь N56 05.402 E45 03.647.jpg|thumb|General view of [[Makaryev Monastery|Holy Trinity-Makaryev Monastery]], on the [[Volga River]] in [[Nizhny Novgorod Oblast]], [[Russia]]]]
[[File:Saint Petersburg portrait of a monk, near Leningrad.jpg|thumb|Monk near [[Saint Petersburg]], Soviet Union (c. 1931) by a traveler, {{Ill|DeCou, Branson|cs|Branson DeCou}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=DeCou|first=Branson|title=Saint Petersburg: portrait of a monk, near Leningrad|url=https://digitalcollections.library.ucsc.edu/concern/works/df65vc58m?locale=en|access-date=2021-11-05|website=digitalcollections.library.ucsc.edu}}</ref>]]
Most communities are self-supporting, and the monastic's daily life is usually divided into three parts: (a) communal worship in the [[Katholikon|catholicon]] (the monastery's main church); (b) hard manual labour; and (c) private prayer, spiritual study, and rest when necessary. Meals are usually taken in common in a sizable dining hall known as a [[refectory|trapeza]] (refectory), at elongated [[refectory table]]s. Food is usually simple and is eaten in silence while one of the brethren reads aloud from the spiritual writings of the [[Church Fathers|Holy Fathers]]. The monastic lifestyle takes a great deal of serious commitment. Within the cenobitic community, all monks conform to a common way of living based on the traditions of that particular monastery. In struggling to attain this conformity, the monastic comes to realize his own shortcomings and is guided by his [[starets|spiritual father]] in how to deal honestly with them. For this same reason, [[Bishop#Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran and Anglican churches|bishops]] are almost always chosen from the ranks of monks.
Eastern monasticism is found in three distinct forms: [[anchorites|anchoritic]] (a solitary living in isolation), [[cenobitic]] (a community living and worshiping together under the direct rule of an abbot or abbess), and the "middle way" between the two, known as the [[skete]] (a community of individuals living separately but in close proximity to one another, who come together only on Sundays and feast days, working and praying the rest of the time in solitude, but under the direction of an elder). One normally enters a cenobitic community first, and only after testing and spiritual growth would one go on to the skete or, for the most advanced, become a solitary anchorite. However, one is not necessarily expected to join a skete or become a solitary; most monastics remain in the cenobium the whole of their lives.
In general, Eastern Orthodox monastics have little or no contact with the outside world, including their own families. The purpose of the monastic life is union with God, the means is through leaving the world (i.e., the life of the passions). After tonsure, Eastern Orthodox monks and nuns are never permitted to cut their hair. The hair of the head and the beard remain uncut as a symbol of the vows they have taken, reminiscent of the [[Nazarite]]s from the [[Old Testament]]. The [[tonsure]] of monks is the token of a consecrated life, and symbolizes the cutting off of their self-will.
====Degrees====
{{Main|Degrees of Eastern Orthodox monasticism}}
[[File:megaloschema.svg|thumb|upright|left|The Great Schema worn by Orthodox monks and nuns of the most advanced degree]]
The process of becoming a monk is intentionally slow, as the [[vows]] taken are considered to entail a lifelong commitment to God, and are not to be entered into lightly. In Eastern Orthodox monasticism, after the completion of the novitiate there are three ranks of monasticism. There is only one [[religious habit|monastic habit]] in the Eastern Orthodox Church (with certain slight regional variations), and it is the same for both monks and nuns. Each successive grade is given a portion of the habit, the full habit being worn only by those in the highest grade, known for that reason as the "Great Schema", or "Great Habit".
The various profession rites are normally performed by the Abbot, but if the abbot has not been ordained a priest, or if the monastic community is a convent, a [[hieromonk]] will perform the service. The abbot or hieromonk who performs a tonsure must be of at least the rank he is tonsuring into. In other words, only a hieromonk who has been tonsured into the Great Schema may himself tonsure a Schemamonk. A bishop, however, may tonsure into any rank, regardless of his own.
''Novice'' ([[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]]: ''Poslushnik''), lit. "one under obedience"— Those wishing to join a monastery begin their lives as novices. After coming to the monastery and living as a guest for not less than three days, the revered abbot or abbess may bless the candidate to become a novice. There is no formal ceremony for the clothing of a novice, he or she simply receives permission to wear the clothing of a novice. In the Eastern monastic tradition, novices may or may not dress in the black [[Endorasson|inner cassock]] (Greek: ''Anterion'', ''Eisorasson''; Church Slavonic: ''Podriasnik'') and wear the soft monastic hat (Greek: ''[[Skoufos]]'', Church Slavonic: ''Skufia''), depending on the tradition of the local community, and in accordance to the abbot's directives. The inner-cassock and the ''skoufos'' are the first part of the Eastern Orthodox monastic habit. In some communities, the novice also wears the leather belt. He is also given a [[prayer rope]] and instructed in the use of the [[Jesus Prayer]]. If a novice chooses to leave during the period of the novitiate, no penalty is incurred. He may also be asked to leave at any time if his behaviour does not conform to the monastic life, or if the superior discerns that he is not called to monasticism. When the abbot or abbess deems the novice ready, he is asked if he wishes to join the monastery. Some, out of humility, will choose to remain novices all their lives. Every stage of the monastic life must be entered into voluntarily.
''Rassophore'' (Church Slavonic: ''Ryassofor''), lit. "Robe-bearer"— If the novice continues on to become a monk, he is clothed in the first degree of monasticism at a formal service known as the [[Tonsure]]. Although there are no formal [[vows]] made at this point, the candidate is normally required to affirm his commitment to persevere in the monastic life. The abbot will then perform the tonsure, cutting a small amount of hair from four spots on the head, forming a cross. He is then given the outer cassock (Greek: ''Rasson'', ''Exorasson'', or ''Mandorasson''; Church Slavonic: ''Ryassa'')—an outer robe with wide sleeves, something like the [[cowl]] used in the West, but without a hood—from which the name of ''Rassophore'' derives. He is also given a brimless hat with a veil, known as a [[klobuk]], and a leather belt is fastened around his waist. His habit is usually black (an archaic synonym for "monk" was {{langx |ru| чернец | translit = chernets | translation = black one}}; the female equivalent is {{langx |ru| черница | translit = chernitsa}}), signifying that he is now dead to the world, and he receives a new [[religious name|monastic name]]. Although the Rassophore does not make formal vows, he is still morally obligated to continue in the monastic estate for the rest of his life. Some will remain Rassophores permanently, without going on to the higher degrees.
''Stavrophore'' (Church Slavonic: ''Krestonosets''), lit. "Cross-bearer"—The next level for Eastern monastics takes place some years after the first tonsure when the abbot feels the monk has reached an appropriate level of discipline, dedication, and humility. This degree is also known as the ''Little Schema'', and is considered to be a "betrothal" to the Great Schema. At this stage, the monk makes formal vows of stability, [[chastity, obedience and poverty]]. Then he is tonsured and clothed in the habit, which in addition to that worn by the Rassophore, includes the ''paramandyas'' (Church Slavonic: ''paraman''), a piece of square cloth worn on the back, embroidered with the instruments of the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] (see picture above), and connected by ties to a wooden cross worn over the heart. The paramandyas represents the yoke of Christ. Because of this addition he is now called ''Stavrophore'', or ''Cross-bearer''. He is also given a wooden hand cross (or "profession cross"), which he should keep in his [[icon corner]], and a beeswax candle, symbolic of monastic vigilance the sacrificing of himself for God. He will be buried holding the cross, and the candle will be burned at his funeral. In the Slavic practice, the Stavrophore also wears the monastic [[Mantle (vesture)|mantle]]. The rasson (outer robe) worn by the Stavrophore is more ample than that worn by the Rassophore. The abbot increases the Stavrophore monk's prayer rule, allows a more strict personal ascetic practice, and gives the monk more responsibility.
''Great Schema'' (Greek: ''Megaloschemos'', Church Slavonic: ''Skhimnik'')—Monks whose abbot feels they have reached a high level of spiritual excellence reach the final stage, called the [[Great Schema]]. The tonsure of a Schemamonk follows the same format as the Stavrophore, and he makes the same vows and is tonsured in the same manner. But in addition to all the garments worn by the Stavrophore, he is given the ''Analavos'' (Church Slavonic: ''Analav'') which is the article of monastic vesture emblematic of the Great Schema. For this reason, the analavos itself is sometimes called the "Great Schema". The analavos comes down in the front and the back, somewhat like the [[scapular]] in Western monasticism, although the two garments are probably not related. It is often intricately embroidered with the instruments of the Passion and the [[Trisagion]] (the angelic hymn). The Greek form does not have a hood, the Slavic form has a hood and lappets on the shoulders, so that the garment forms a large cross covering the monk's shoulders, chest, and back. Another piece added is the ''Polystavrion'' or "Many Crosses", which consists of a cord with a number of small crosses plaited into it. The polystavrion forms a yoke around the monk and serves to hold the analavos in place, and reminds the monastic that he is bound to Christ and that his arms are no longer fit for worldly activities, but that he must labor only for the [[Kingdom of God|Kingdom of Heaven]]. Among the Greeks, the mantle is added at this stage. The paramandyas of the Megaloschemos is larger than that of the Stavrophore, and if he wears the klobuk, it is of a distinctive thimble shape, called a ''[[cowl|koukoulion]]'', the veil of which is usually embroidered with crosses. In some monastic traditions the Great Schema is only given to monks and nuns on their death bed, while in others they may be elevated after as little as 25 years of service.
Eastern Orthodox monks are addressed as "father" even if they are not priests; but when conversing among themselves, monks will often address one another as "Brother". Novices are always referred to as "Brother". Among the Greeks, old monks are often called ''Gheronda'', or "Elder", out of respect for their dedication. In the Slavic tradition, the title of Elder (Church Slavonic: ''[[Starets]]'') is normally reserved for those who are of an advanced spiritual life, and who serve as guides to others.
For the Eastern Orthodox, "mother" is the correct term for nuns who have been tonsured Stavrophore or higher. Novices and Rassophores are addressed as "sister". Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also called ''monachai'' (the feminine plural of ''monachos''), and their community is likewise called a monastery.
Many (but not all) Eastern Orthodox [[seminary|seminaries]] are attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation for [[ordination]] with participation in the community's life of prayer, and hopefully benefiting from the example and wise counsel of the monks. Bishops are required by the [[canon law|sacred canons]] of the Eastern Orthodox Church to be chosen from among the monastic clergy. The requirement is specifically that they be monastics, not simply celibate (see [[clerical celibacy]]). Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called [[hieromonk]]s (priest-monks); monks who have been ordained to the [[diaconate]] are called [[hierodeacon]]s (deacon-monks). A Schemamonk who is a priest is called a Hieroschemamonk. Most monks are not ordained; a community will normally only present as many candidates for ordination to the bishop as the liturgical needs of the community require.
==Hinduism==
{{Main|Matha}}
{{Main|Dashanami Sampradaya}}
Hinduism has many monastic orders, including the [[Dashanami Sampradaya]] ({{lit|Tradition of Ten Names}}) orders established by [[Adi Shankara]] as well as [[Vaishnava]] orders.
===Vaishnava===
{{Main|International Society for Krishna Consciousness}}
Madhvaacharya ([[Madhvacharya]]), the [[Dwaita]] philosopher, established ''[[ashta matha]]'' (Eight Monasteries). He appointed a monk (called ''swamiji'' or ''swamigalu'' in local parlance) for each ''matha'' or monastery who has the right to worship Madhvacharya's [[murti]] of Lord [[Krishna]] by rotation. Each matha's swamiji gets a chance to worship after fourteen years. This ritual is called ''[[Paryaya]]'' and has been used also outside his [[sampradaya]], e.g. in [[Gaudiya Vaisnava]] [[Radharamana]] [[temple]] in [[Vrindavan]].
Similar in appearance to Buddhist monks, [[brahmacharya|brahmacari]] monks from the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] ([[ISKCON]]), or [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishnas]] as they are popularly known, are the best known [[Vaishnava]] monks outside India. They are a common sight in many places around the world. Their appearance—simple [[saffron]] ''[[dhoti]]'', shaved head with ''[[sikha]]'', ''[[Tulasi]]'' neckbeads and ''[[tilaka]]'' markings—and social customs (''[[sadhana]]'') date back many thousands of years to the [[Vedic civilization|Vedic]] era with its ''[[varnasrama]]'' society. This social scheme includes both monastic and lay stages meant for various persons in various stages of life according to their characteristics (''[[Guṇa|guna]]'') and work (''[[karma]]'').
ISKCON started as a predominantly monastic group but nowadays the majority of members live as lay persons. Many of them, however, spent some time as monks. New persons joining ISKCON as full-time members (living in its centers) first undergo a three-month ''[[Bhakta]]'' training, which includes learning the basics of [[brahmacharya|brahmacari]] (monastic) life. After that they can decide if they prefer to continue as monks or as married ''[[Grihastha]]s''.
Brahmacari older than 50 years (per ISKCON rule) can become ''[[sannyasi]]''. ''[[Sannyasa]]'', a life of full dedication to spiritual pursuits, is the highest stage of life in the ''varnasrama'' society. It is permanent and one cannot give it up. A Sannyasi is given the title [[Swami]]. Older grihastha with grown-up children are traditionally expected to accept ''[[vanaprastha]]'' (celibate retired) life.
The role of monastic orders in [[India]]n and now also [[Western world|Western]] society has to some extent been adapted over the years in accordance with ever-changing social structures.
==Jainism==
{{Main|Jain monasticism}}
One of the most intense forms of Asceticism can be found in [[Jainism]], one of the world's oldest religions. Jainism encourages fasting, yoga practices, meditation in difficult postures, and other austerities.<ref>Frank William Iklé et al. "A History of Asia", page ?. Allyn and Bacon, 1964</ref> According to Jains, one's highest goal should be attaining [[Nirvana]] or [[Moksha]] (i.e., liberation from [[samsara]], the cycle of birth and rebirth). For this, a soul has to be without attachment or self-indulgence. This can be achieved only by the monks and nuns who take five great vows: of non-violence, of truth, of non-stealing, of non-possession and of celibacy.
[[File:Acharya5.jpg|thumb|[[Acharya Vidyasagar]], a possessionless and detached [[Digambara]] Jain monk]]
Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can be traced back to Vardhaman [[Mahavira]], the twenty-fourth "fordmaker" or [[Tirthankara]]. The [[Acaranga Sutra]], or Book of Good Conduct, is a sacred book within Jainism that discusses the ascetic code of conduct. Other texts that provide insight into conduct of ascetics include [[Yogaśāstra|Yogashastra]] by Acharya [[Hemachandra]] and Niyamasara by Acharya [[Kundakunda]]. Other illustrious Jain works on ascetic conduct are ''Oghanijjutti, Pindanijjutti, Cheda Sutta, and Nisiha Suttafee.''
Full Jain monk in either [[Śvetāmbara]] or [[Digambara]] tradition<ref>Anne Vallely (2002) ''Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community''. University of Toronto
Press</ref> can belong to one of these ranks:
* [[Acharya]]: leader of the order
* Upadhyaya: a learned monk, who both teaches and studies himself
* Muni: an ordinary monk
These three are mentioned is the three lines of the [[Namokar Mantra]]. In the [[Digambara]] tradition, a junior monk can be a:
* Ailak: they use one piece of cloth
* [[Kshullak]]: they may use two pieces of cloth
The [[Śvetāmbara Terapanthi]] sect has a new rank of junior monks who are called samana. The nuns are called Aryikas in [[Digambar]] tradition and Sadhvi in the [[Śvetāmbara]] tradition.
===Ascetic vows===
[[File:Mahavratas.jpg|thumb|Five [[Mahavrata]]s of Jain ascetics]]
Per the Jain vows, the monks and nuns renounce all relations and possessions. Jain ascetics practice complete non-violence. ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|Ahimsa]]'' is the first and foremost vow of a Jain ascetic. They do not hurt any living being, be it an insect or a human. They carry a special broom to sweep away any insects that may cross their path. Some Jain monks wear a cloth over the mouth to prevent accidental harm to airborne germs and insects. They also do not use electricity as it involves violence. Furthermore, they do not use any devices or machines.
As they are without possession and attachment, they travel from city to city, often crossing forests and deserts, and always barefoot. Jain ascetics do not stay in a single place for more than two months to prevent themselves from becoming attached to any location. However, during four months of monsoon (rainy season) known as chaturmaas, they continue to stay in a single place to avoid killing the life forms that thrive during the rains.
Jain monks and nuns practice complete celibacy. They do not touch or share a sitting platform with a person of opposite sex.
===Dietary practices===
Jain ascetics follow a strict vegetarian diet without root vegetables. [[Śvetāmbara]] monks do not cook food but solicit alms from householders. [[Digambara]] monks have only a single meal a day. Neither group will beg for food, but a Jain ascetic may accept a meal from a householder, provided that the latter is pure of mind and body and offers the food of his own volition and in the prescribed manner. During such an encounter, the monk remains standing and eats only a measured amount. Fasting (i.e., abstinence from food and sometimes water) is a routine feature of Jain asceticism. Fasts last for a day or longer, up to a month. Some monks avoid (or limit) medicine or hospitalization due to their careful attention to body.
===Austerities and other daily practices===
[[File:Westindischer Maler um 1400 001.jpg|thumb|White-clothed Acharya Kalaka]]
Other austerities include meditation in seated or standing posture near river banks in the cold wind, or meditation atop hills and mountains, especially at noon when the sun is at its fiercest. Such austerities are undertaken according to the physical and mental limits of the individual ascetic. Jain ascetics are (almost) completely without possessions. Some Jains (Śvetāmbara monks and nuns) own only unstitched white robes (an upper and lower garment) and a bowl used for eating and collecting alms. Male Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and carry nothing with them except a soft broom made of shed peacock feathers (pinchi) and eat from their hands. They sleep on the floor without blankets and sit on special wooden platforms.
Every day is spent either in study of scriptures or meditation or teaching to lay people. They stand aloof from worldly matters. Many Jain ascetics take a final vow of Santhara or [[Sallekhana]] (i.e., a peaceful and detached death where medicines, food, and water are abandoned). This is done when death is imminent or when a monk feels that he is unable to adhere to his vows on account of advanced age or terminal disease.
Quotes on ascetic practices from the [[Ācārāṅga Sūtra]] as [[Hermann Jacobi]] translated it:<ref>{{cite book |first=Hermann |last=Jacobi |year=1884 |url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe22/index.htm |title=Jaina Sutras, Part I |via=Sacred-texts.com}}</ref>
{{blockquote|A monk or a nun wandering from village to village should look forward for four cubits, and seeing animals they should move on by walking on his toes or heels or the sides of his feet. If there be some bypath, they should choose it, and not go straight on; then they may circumspectly wander from village to village.|Third Lecture(6)}}
{{blockquote|I shall become a Sramana who owns no house, no property, no sons, no cattle, who eats what others give him; I shall commit no sinful action; Master, I renounce to accept anything that has not been given.' Having taken such vows, (a mendicant) should not, on entering a village or scot-free town, &c., take himself, or induce others to take, or allow others to take, what has not been given.|Seventh Lecture (1)}}
==See also==
* ''[[Into Great Silence]]'' — The award-winning documentary on the [[hermit]] monks of the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Carthusian]] Order.
* [[Jangam| Jangam Monk]]
* [[Mainchín]], and [[Monahan]], names of Gaelic origin, diminutive of {{langx|ga|Manach}}, {{langx|la|Monachus}}, "a Monk".
* [[Sadhu]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Catholic|wstitle=Monk}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book|author=Chadwick, Owen|title=The Popes and European Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XrLmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA211|year=1981|publisher=Clarendon Press|pages=211–252|isbn=9780198269199}} Also [https://web.archive.org/web/20180524082313/https://www.questia.com/read/109970197/the-popes-and-european-revolution online]
==External links==
{{commons category|Monks}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110902134435/http://www.orthodox-monasteries.com/ Orthodox Monasteries] Internet Directory
* [http://www.historyfish.net/monastics/monastics.html Historyfish.net Texts and articles on Western Christian Monks, Monastics, and the Monastic Life.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090223075750/http://www.valaam.ru/en/photos/lightval/624 An Orthodox novice] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20111116224323/http://www.valaam.ru/en/photos/lightval/535/ A hieromonk], Photos from [[Valaam Monastery]], Russia
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111002191947/http://www.monachos.net/content/monasticism Monasticism Studies Area] at www.monachos.net
{{RC consecrated life}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Asceticism]]
[[Category:Religious occupations]]
[[Category:Gendered occupations]]