View source for New Testament apocrypha

{{Short description|Writings by early Christians, not included in the Biblical Canon}}
{{New Testament Apocrypha}}
The '''New Testament apocrypha''' (singular '''apocryphon''')<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kelly|first=Joseph F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2DNpDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT146|title=The World of the Early Christians|date=2017-03-15|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-8379-8|language=en|quote=There are both Old and New Testament Apocrypha [singular: Apocryphon],}}</ref> are a number of writings by [[Early Christianity|early Christians]] that give accounts of [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] and his teachings, the nature of [[God in Christianity|God]], or the teachings of his [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]] and of their lives. Some of these writings were cited as [[Bible|scripture]] by early Christians, but since the fifth century a widespread consensus has emerged limiting the New Testament to the [[Development of the New Testament canon|27 books of the modern canon]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Van Liere |first=Frans |date=2014 |title=An Introduction to the Medieval Bible |pages=68–69 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dwd-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA68|isbn=9780521865784 }}</ref><ref name=Ehrman2003>{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |author-link=Bart Ehrman |date=2003 |title=Lost Christianities: Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew |pages=230–231 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHDNe8KmMAIC&pg=PA230|isbn=9780199756681 }}</ref> Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant churches generally do not view the New Testament apocrypha as part of the Bible.<ref name=Ehrman2003/>
==Definition==
The word ''[[apocrypha]]'' means 'things put away' or 'things hidden', originating from the [[Medieval Latin]] adjective {{Lang|la|apocryphus}}, 'secret' or 'non-canonical', which in turn originated from the [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] adjective {{lang|grc|ἀπόκρυφος}} ({{transliteration|grc|apokryphos}}), 'obscure', from the verb {{lang|grc|ἀποκρύπτειν}} ({{transliteration|grc|apokryptein}}), 'to hide away'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/apocrypha|title=Apocrypha – Definition |work=merriam-webster.com|date=23 September 2024 }}</ref> {{transliteration|grc|Apokryptein}} in turn comes from the Greek prefix {{transliteration|grc|apo-}}, meaning 'away', and the Greek verb {{transliteration|grc|kryptein}}, meaning 'to hide'.<ref>{{cite web |title=apocrypha {{!}} Search Online Etymology Dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=apocrypha |website=www.etymonline.com |access-date=7 March 2021}}</ref>
The general term is usually applied to the books that were considered by the church as useful, but not divinely inspired. As such, to refer to [[Gnostic]] writings as "apocryphal" is misleading since they would not be classified in the same category by orthodox believers. Often used by the Greek Fathers was the term [[antilegomena]], or 'spoken against', although some canonical books were also spoken against, such as the [[Apocalypse of John]] in the East. Often used by scholars is the term [[pseudepigrapha]], meaning 'falsely inscribed' or 'falsely attributed', in the sense that the writings were written by an anonymous author who appended the name of an apostle to his work, such as in the [[Gospel of Peter]] or the [[1 Enoch|Ethiopic Apocalypse of Enoch]]: almost all books, in both Old and New Testaments, called "apocrypha" in the Protestant tradition are pseudepigrapha. In the Catholic and Orthodox traditions, what are called the apocrypha by Protestants include the [[deuterocanonical]] books: in the Catholic tradition, the term ''apocrypha'' is synonymous with what Protestants would call the pseudepigrapha, the latter term of which is almost exclusively used by scholars.<ref>{{cite book|last=Charlesworth|first=James H|title=Old Testament Pseudepigrapha|year=1985|publisher=Hendrickson|location=Peabody, MA|isbn=978-1-59856-489-1|page=2257}}</ref>
==History==
===Development of the New Testament canon===
{{Main article|Development of the New Testament canon}}
That some works are categorized as New Testament apocrypha is indicative of the wide range of responses to the ministry of [[Jesus]]. During the first centuries following Jesus' ministry, considerable debate was held in regards to safeguarding the authenticity of his teachings. Three key methods developed to address this survive to the present day: [[ordination]], where groups authorize individuals as reliable teachers of the message; [[creed]]s, where groups define the boundaries of interpretation of the message; and [[Biblical canon|canon]]s, which list the primary documents certain groups believe contain the message originally taught by Jesus.
The first centuries of Christianity saw substantial debate in regards to which books should be included in the canons. In general, those books that the majority regarded as the earliest books about Jesus were the ones included. Books that were not accepted into the canons are now termed ''[[apocrypha]]l''; some were vigorously suppressed and survive only as fragments, or only in mention in the writings of those condemning them. The earliest lists of canonical works of the [[New Testament]] were not quite the same as modern lists; for example, the [[Book of Revelation]] was regarded as disputed by some Christians (see [[Antilegomena]]), while the [[Shepherd of Hermas]] was considered genuine by others, and appears (after the Book of Revelation) in the [[Codex Sinaiticus]].{{cn|date=September 2022}}
The [[Syriac Peshitta]], used by all the various Syrian churches, originally did not include 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude and Revelation. This [[Biblical canon|canon]] of 22 books is the one cited by [[John Chrysostom]] (~347–407) and [[Theodoret]] (393–466) from the [[School of Antioch]].<ref name="ntcanon1">[http://www.ntcanon.org/Peshitta.shtml Peshitta]</ref> Western Syrians have added the remaining five books to their New Testament canons in modern times<ref name="ntcanon1"/> (such as the ''Lee Peshitta'' of 1823). Today, the official [[lectionary|lectionaries]] followed by the [[Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church]] and the [[East Syrian Rite|East Syriac]] [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], which is in communion with the [[Holy See]], still only present lessons from the 22 books of the original Peshitta.<ref name="ntcanon1"/>
The [[Armenian Apostolic]] church at times has included the [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]] in its biblical canon, but does not always list it with the other 27 canonical New Testament books. The church did not accept Revelation into its Bible until 1200 CE.<ref>[http://www.theologicalperspectives.com/RELIABILITY4.html Reliability] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008124635/http://www.theologicalperspectives.com/RELIABILITY4.html |date=October 8, 2007 }}</ref>
===Modern scholarship and translation===
English translations were made in the early 18th century by [[William Wake]] and by  [[Jeremiah Jones (tutor)|Jeremiah Jones]], and collected in 1820 by [[William Hone]]'s ''Apocryphal New Testament''.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = London, W. Hone| title = The apocryphal New Testament, being all the gospels, epistles, and other pieces now extant | date = 1820| url = https://archive.org/details/apocryphalnewte00wakegoog}}</ref> The series ''[[Ante-Nicene Fathers (book)|Ante-Nicene Fathers]]'', volume 8, contains translations by Alexander Walker.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf08.vii.i.html ANF08...Apocrypha of the New Testament.]</ref> New translations by [[M. R. James]] appeared in 1924, and were revised by J.K. Eliott, ''The Apocryphal New Testament'', Oxford University Press, 1991. The "standard" scholarly edition of the New Testament Apocrypha in German is that of [[Schneemelcher]],<ref>James McConkey Robinson, Christoph Heil, Jozef Verheyden, ''The Sayings Gospel Q: Collected Essays'', Leuven, Peeters 2005, p. 279 "Not only has a third, fourth, fifth, and sixth edition of the standard German work by [[Edgar Hennecke]] and Wilhelm Schneemelcher prepared under the editorship of Schneemelcher appeared, but independent editions are being produced ..."</ref> and in English its translation by Robert McLachlan Wilson.<ref>''New Testament Apocrypha'', Vol. 1: ''Gospels and Related Writings'' (1990), Vol. 2: ''Writings Relating to the Apostles Apocalypses and Related Subjects'' (1992), Westminster John Knox Press.</ref>
[[Constantin von Tischendorf]] and other scholars began to study New Testament apocrypha seriously in the 19th century and produce new translations. The texts of the [[Nag Hammadi library]] are often considered separately but the current edition of Schneemelcher also contains eleven Nag Hammadi texts.<ref>Stephen J. Patterson, James McConkey Robinson, Hans-Gebhard Bethge, ''The fifth Gospel: the Gospel of Thomas comes of age''. 1998. pg. 105. quote: "The current edition of Wilhelm Schneemelcher's standard New Testament Apocrypha contains eleven Nag Hammadi tractates."</ref>
Books that are known objectively not to have existed in antiquity are usually not considered part of the New Testament apocrypha. Among these are the [[Libellus de Nativitate Sanctae Mariae]] (also called the "Nativity of Mary") and the Latin Infancy gospel. The latter two did not exist in antiquity, and they seem to be based on the earlier Infancy gospels.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}
==Gospels==
{{Main article|Gospel|List of gospels}}
===Infancy gospels===
{{Main article|Infancy gospels}} Information about the childhood of Jesus was supplied by a number of 2nd-century and later texts, known as infancy gospels, none of which were accepted into the [[biblical canon]]. Despite this, some scholars have noted that the very number of surviving infancy manuscripts attests to their continued popularity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=William R. |title=The Catholic Church: A History |date=2009 |publisher=The Teaching Company |location=Chantilly, VA |isbn=9781598035964 |pages=Lecture 3}} </ref>
Most of these manuscripts were based on the earliest infancy gospels, namely the [[Infancy Gospel of James]] (also called the "Protoevangelium of James") and the [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]], and on their later combination into the [[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]] (also called the "Infancy Gospel of Matthew" or "Birth of Mary and Infancy of the Saviour").{{Citation needed|date=February 2020}}
The other significant early infancy gospels are the [[Syriac Infancy Gospel]], the [[History of Joseph the Carpenter]], and the [[Life of John the Baptist]].
===Jewish-Christian gospels===
{{Main article|Jewish–Christian gospels}}
The Jewish–Christian Gospels were [[gospels]] of a [[Jewish Christian]] character quoted by [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Origen]], [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]], [[Jerome]] and probably [[Didymus the Blind]].{{sfn|Elliott|2005|p=3}} Most modern scholars have concluded that there existed one gospel in Aramaic/Hebrew and at least two in Greek, although a minority argue that there were only two: one Aramaic/Hebrew and one Greek.{{sfn|Ehrman|Pleše|2011|p=199}}
None of these gospels survive today, but attempts have been made to reconstruct them from references in the [[Church Fathers]]. The reconstructed texts of the gospels are usually categorized under New Testament Apocrypha. The standard edition of [[Schneemelcher]] describes the texts of three Jewish–Christian gospels as follows:{{sfn|Vielhauer|Strecker|1991|pp=134–78}}
:1) The [[Gospel of the Ebionites]] ("GE") – 7 quotations by Epiphanius.
:2) The [[Gospel of the Hebrews]] ("GH") – 1 quotation ascribed to Cyril of Jerusalem, plus GH 2–7 quotations by Clement, Origen, and Jerome.
:3) The [[Gospel of the Nazarenes]] ("GN") – GN 1 to GN 23 are mainly from Jerome; GN 24 to GN 36 are from medieval sources.
Some scholars consider that the two last named are in fact the same source.<ref>Craig A. Evans</ref>
===Non-canonical gospels===
{{Main|Gospel#Non-canonical gospels}}
* [[Gospel of Marcion]] (mid-2nd century)
* [[Gospel of Mani]] (3rd century)
* Gospel of [[Apelles (gnostic)|Apelles]] (mid{{ndash}}late 2nd century, similar to Marcion<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Primitive Gospel |author=Dillon, E J |journal=The Contemporary Review |location=London |volume=63 |date=June 1893 |pages=857–870 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/0717538cef4eff5b/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=729}}</ref>)<ref>{{cite book |title=New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. 1: Gospels and Related Writings |year=1990 |editor1=Wilhelm Schneemelcher |editor2=R. Mcl. Wilson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TDW0PeFSvGEC&dq=%22gospel+of+Apelles%22&pg=PA399 |page=399 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0664227210 }} Section G4.</ref>
* Gospel of [[Bardesanes]] (late 2nd{{ndash}}early 3rd century)<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Robert McLachlan Wilson |editor2=Wilhelm Schneemelcher |year=2003 |title=New Testament Apocrypha, Volume 1, Revised Edition |publisher=Presbyterian Publishing Corporation |page=400 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TDW0PeFSvGEC |isbn=9780664227210}}</ref>
* [[Gospel of Basilides]] (mid-2nd century)
* [[Gospel of Thomas]] (1st century; sayings gospel)
===Passion Gospels===
{{Main article|Passion Gospels}}
A number of gospels are concerned specifically with the "[[Passion of Jesus|Passion]]" (from the Latin verb ''patior, passus sum''; "to suffer, bear, endure", from which also "patience, patient", etc.)<ref>Cassell's Latin Dictionary, Marchant, J.R.V, & Charles, Joseph F., (Eds.), Revised Edition, 1928, p.396</ref>) of Jesus:
* [[Gospel of Peter]]
* [[Gospel of Nicodemus]] (also called the "[[Acts of Pilate]]")
* Pseudo-[[Cyril of Jerusalem]], ''[[On the Life and the Passion of Christ]]''
* [[Gospel of Bartholomew]]
* ''[[Questions of Bartholomew]]''
* ''[[Book of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, by Bartholomew the Apostle]]''
Although three texts take Bartholomew's name, it may be that either the ''Questions of Bartholomew'' or the ''Resurrection of Jesus Christ'' is in fact the unknown ''Gospel of Bartholomew''.
===Harmonized gospels===
A number of texts aim to provide a single harmonization of the canonical gospels, that eliminates discordances among them by presenting a unified text derived from them to some degree. The most widely read of these was the ''[[Diatessaron]]''.
==Gnostic texts==
{{Main article|Gnostic gospels}}
{{See also|Apocryphon}}
In the modern era, many [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] texts have been uncovered, especially from the [[Nag Hammadi library]]. Some texts take the form of an expounding of the esoteric cosmology and ethics held by the Gnostics. Often this was in the form of dialogue in which Jesus expounds esoteric knowledge while his disciples raise questions concerning it. There is also a text, known as the [[Epistula Apostolorum]], which is a polemic against Gnostic esoterica, but written in a similar style as the Gnostic texts.
===Dialogues with Jesus===
*[[Apocryphon of James]] (also called the "Secret Book of [[James the Just|James]]")
*[[Book of Thomas the Contender]]
*[[Dialogue of the Saviour]]
*[[Gospel of Judas]] (also called the "Gospel of [[Judas Iscariot]]")
*[[Gospel of Mary]]
*[[Gospel of Philip]]
*[[Greek Gospel of the Egyptians]] (distinct from the [[Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians]])
*[[The Sophia of Jesus Christ]]
===General texts concerning Jesus===
*[[Coptic Apocalypse of Paul]] (distinct from the [[Apocalypse of Paul]])
*[[Gospel of Truth]]
*[[Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter]] (distinct from the [[Apocalypse of Peter]])
*[[Letter of Lentulus]]
*[[Pistis Sophia]]
*[[Second Treatise of the Great Seth]]
===Sethian texts concerning Jesus===
The [[Sethian]]s were a gnostic group who originally worshipped the biblical [[Seth]] as a [[messianic figure]], later treating Jesus as a re-incarnation of Seth. They produced numerous texts expounding their esoteric cosmology, usually in the form of visions:
*[[Apocryphon of John]] (also called the "Secret Gospel of John")
*[[Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians]] (distinct from the [[Greek Gospel of the Egyptians]])
*[[Trimorphic Protennoia]]
===Ritual diagrams===
Some of the Gnostic texts appear to consist of diagrams and instructions for use in religious rituals:
*[[Ophite Diagrams]]
*[[Books of Jeu]]
==Acts==
{{Main article|Acts of the Apostles (genre)}}
Several texts concern themselves with the subsequent lives of the apostles, usually with highly [[supernatural]] events. Almost half of these, anciently called ''The Circuits of the Apostles'' and now known by the name of their purported author, "[[Leucius Charinus]]" (supposedly a companion of John the apostle), contained the Acts of Peter, John, Andrew, Thomas, and Paul. These were judged by the [[Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople]] in the ninth century to be full of folly, self-contradiction, falsehood, and impiety. The ''Acts of Thomas'' and the ''Acts of Peter and the Twelve'' are often considered Gnostic texts. While most of the texts are believed to have been written in the 2nd century, at least two, the ''Acts of Barnabas'' and the ''Acts of Peter and Paul'' are believed to have been written as late as the 5th century.
* [[Acts of Andrew]]
* [[Acts of Barnabas]]
* [[Acts of John]]
* [[Acts of Mar Mari]]
* [[Acts of the Martyrs]]
* [[Acts of Paul]]
* [[Acts of Paul and Thecla]]
* [[Acts of Peter]]
* [[Acts of Peter and Andrew]]
* [[Acts of Peter and Paul]]
* [[Acts of Peter and the Twelve]]
* [[Acts of Philip]]
* [[Acts of Pilate]]
* [[Acts of Thomas]]
* [[Acts of Timothy]]
* [[Acts of Xanthippe, Polyxena, and Rebecca]]
* [[The Lost Chapter of the Acts of the Apostles]]
==Epistles==
{{Main article|Epistles}}
There are also non-canonical epistles (or "letters") between individuals or to Christians in general. Some of them were regarded very highly by the early church.
Those marked with a lozenge  (♦) are included in the collection known as the [[Apostolic Fathers]]:
*[[Epistle of Barnabas]] ♦
*[[First Epistle of Clement]] ♦
*[[Second Epistle of Clement]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Philadelphians]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus]] ♦
*[[Martyrdom of Polycarp]] ♦
*[[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] (an epistle in the name of Paul)
*[[Epistle to Seneca the Younger]] (an epistle in the name of Paul)
*[[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]] - accepted in the past by some in the [[Armenian Orthodox]] church.
==Apocalypses==
{{Main article|Apocalyptic literature}}
Several works frame themselves as visions, often discussing the future, afterlife, or both:
*[[Apocalypse of Paul]] (distinct from the [[Coptic Apocalypse of Paul]], also called [[Apocalypse of the Virgin]])
*[[Apocalypse of Peter]] (distinct from the [[Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter]])
*[[Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius]]
*[[Apocalypse of Thomas]] (also called the ''Revelation of Thomas'')
*[[Apocalypse of Stephen]] (also called the ''Revelation of Stephen'')
*[[First Apocalypse of James]] (also called the ''First Revelation of James'')
*[[Second Apocalypse of James]] (also called the ''Second Revelation of James'')
*[[Second Apocalypse of John]] (also called the ''[First] Apocryphal Apocalypse of John'')
*[[The Shepherd of Hermas]]  (also included in the collection known as the [[Apostolic Fathers]])
==Fate of Mary==
Several texts (over 50) consist of descriptions of the events surrounding the varied fate of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] (the mother of Jesus):
*The Home Going of Mary
*[[Dormition of the Mother of God#Narrative|The Falling Asleep of the Mother of God]]
*The [[Descent of Mary]]
==Miscellany==
These texts, due to their content or form, do not fit into the other categories:
*[[Apostolic Constitutions]] (church regulations supposedly asserted by the apostles)
*[[Book of Nepos]]
*[[Canons of the Apostles]]
*[[Cave of Treasures]] (also called ''The Treasure'')
*[[Clementine literature]]
*[[Didache]] (possibly the first written [[catechism]]) (also included in the collection known as the [[Apostolic Fathers]].)
*[[Liturgy of St James]]
*[[Penitence of Origen]]
*[[Prayer of Paul]]
*[[Sentences of Sextus]]
*[[Physiologus]]
*[[Book of the Bee]]
==Fragments==
In addition to the known apocryphal works, there are also small fragments of texts, parts of unknown (or uncertain) works. Some of the more significant fragments are:
*The [[Gospel of the Saviour]]
*The [[Naassene Fragment]]
*The [[Fayyum Fragment]]
*The [[Secret Gospel of Mark]], whose authenticity has been challenged
*The [[Oxyrhynchus Gospels]]
*The [[Egerton Gospel]]
== Lost works ==
Several texts are mentioned in many ancient sources and would probably be considered part of the apocrypha, but no known text has survived:
*[[Gospel of Eve]] (a quotation from this gospel is given by Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xxvi. 2, 3). It is possible that this is the Gospel of Perfection he alludes to in xxvi. 2. The quotation shows that this gospel was the expression of complete [[pantheism]])
*[[Gospel of the Four Heavenly Realms]]
*[[Gospel of Matthias]] (probably different from the [[Gospel of Matthew]])
*[[Gospel of Perfection]] (used by the followers of Basilides and other Gnostics. See Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' xxvi. 2)
*[[Gospel of the Seventy]]
*Gospel of Thaddaeus (This may be a synonym for the [[Gospel of Judas]]. The name Thaddeus was often used to not to confuse [[Jude the Apostle]] for [[Judas Iscariot]])
*[[Gospel of the Twelve]]
*[[Memoria Apostolorum]]
== Close candidates for canonization ==
While many of the books listed here were considered heretical (especially those belonging to the gnostic tradition—as this sect was considered heretical by [[Proto-orthodox Christianity]] of the early centuries), others were not considered particularly heretical in content, but in fact were well accepted as significant spiritual works. Those marked with a lozenge (♦) are also included in the collection known as the [[Apostolic Fathers]].
While some of the following works appear in complete Bibles from the fourth century, such as 1 Clement and The Shepherd of Hermas, showing their general popularity, they were not included when the canon was formally decided at the end of that century.
*[[Epistle of Barnabas]] ♦
*[[First Epistle of Clement]] ♦
*[[Second Epistle of Clement]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to the Philadelphians]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians]] ♦
*[[Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus]] ♦
*[[Martyrdom of Polycarp]] ♦
*[[The Shepherd of Hermas|Shepherd of Hermas]]  ♦
*[[Didache]] ♦
*[[Apocalypse of Peter]]
*[[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]]{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
==Evaluation==
=== Present day ===
Among historians of early Christianity, the books are considered invaluable, especially those that almost made it into the final canon, such as [[Shepherd of Hermas]]. [[Bart Ehrman]], for example, said:
<blockquote>The victors in the struggles to establish Christian Orthodoxy not only won their theological battles, they also rewrote the history of the conflict; later readers then naturally assumed that the victorious views had been embraced by the vast majority of Christians from the very beginning ... The practice of Christian forgery has a long and distinguished history ... the debate lasted three hundred years ... even within "orthodox" circles there was considerable debate concerning which books to include.<ref>Ehrman, ''Lost Scriptures'' pp. 2, 3</ref></blockquote>
=== Historical development towards today's canon ===
The historical debate primarily concerned whether certain works should be read in the church service or only privately. These works were widely used but not necessarily considered ''Catholic'' or 'universal.' Such works include the Didache, Shepherd of Hermas, 1 Clement, 2 Clement, the Epistle of Barnabas, and to a lesser extent the [[Apocalypse of Peter]].
Considering the generally accepted dates of authorship for all of the canonical New Testament works ({{Circa|100 CE}}), as well as the various witnesses to canonicity extant among the writings of Ignatius, Polycarp, Irenaeus, etc., the four gospels and letters of Paul were held by the gentile Christian community as scriptural, and 200 years were needed to finalize the canon; from the beginning of the 2nd Century to the mid-4th Century, no book in the final canon was ever declared spurious or heretical, except for the Revelation of John which the [[Council of Laodicea]] in 363–364 CE rejected (although it accepted all of the other 26 books in the New Testament). This was possibly due to fears of the influence of [[Montanism]] which used the book extensively to support their theology. See [[Revelation of John]] for more details.
[[Athanasius]] wrote his [[Easter letter]] in 367 CE which defined a canon of 27 books, identical to the current canon, but also listed two works that were "not in the canon but to be read:" The Shepherd of Hermas and the [[Didache]]. Nevertheless, the early church leaders in the 3rd and 4th Centuries generally distinguished between canonical works and those that were not canonical but 'useful,' or 'good for teaching,' though never relegating any of the final 27 books to the latter category. One aim with establishing the canon was to capture only those works which were held to have been written by the Apostles, or their close associates, and as the [[Muratorian fragment]] canon (ca. 150–175 CE) states concerning the Shepherd of Hermas:{{Citation needed|date=June 2014}}
<blockquote>...But Hermas wrote The Shepherd very recently, in our times, in the city of Rome, while bishop Pius, his brother, was occupying the chair of the church of the city of Rome. And therefore it ought indeed to be read; but it cannot be read publicly to the people in church either among the Prophets, whose number is complete, or among the Apostles, for it is after their time.<ref>The Muratorian Fragment : 74–76</ref></blockquote>
== Published collections ==
* {{cite book |last=Cumberlege |first=Geoffrey |orig-year=1895 |year=1926 |edition=reprint |title=The Apocrypha: translated out of the Greek and Latin tongues: being the version set forth A.D. 1611 compared with the most ancient authorities and revised A.D. 1894. |location=Oxford |publisher=University Press|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Michel |first1=Charles |last2=Peeters |first2=Paul |orig-year=1911 |edition=2nd |year=1924 |title=Évangiles Apocryphes |location=Paris |publisher=A. Picard |language=fr|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=James |first=Montague Rhodes |orig-year=1924 |edition=2nd |year=1953 |title=The Apocryphal New Testament |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=González-Blanco |editor-first=Edmundo |year=1934 |title=Los Evangelio Apócrifos |volume=3 vols. |location=Madrid |publisher=Bergua |language=es|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Bonaccorsi |editor-first=Giuseppe |title=Vangeli apocrifi |location=Florence |publisher=Libreria Editrice Fiorentina |year=1948 |language=it|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor=Aurelio de Santos Otero |year=1956 |title=Los Evangelios Apócrifos: Colección de textos griegos y latinos, versión crítica, estudios introductorios y comentarios |location=Madrid |publisher=Biblioteca de Autores Christianos |language=es|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Kekeliże |editor-first=Korneli |year=1959 |title=Kartuli versiebi aṗoḳripebis mocikulta šesaxeb |trans-title=Georgian Versions of the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles |location=Tbilisi |publisher=Sakartvelos SSR mecnierebata akademiis gamomcemloba|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Moraldi |editor-first=Luigi |translator-last=Moraldi |translator-first=Luigi |orig-year=1971 |edition=2nd |year=1994 |title=Apocrifi del Nuovo Testamento |location=Turin |publisher=Unione tipografico-editrice torinese |language=it|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=James M. |year=1977 |title=The Nag Hammadi Library in English |location=San Francisco |publisher=Harper & Row|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Erbetta |editor-first=Mario |translator-last=Erbetta |translator-first=Mario |title=Gli Apocrifi del Nuovo Testamento |volume=3 vols. |location=Turin |publisher=Marietti |year=1966–1981 |language=it|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Aurelio de Santos Otero |title=Die handschriftliche Überlieferung der altslavischen Apokryphen |volume=2 vols. |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter |year=1978–1981 |language=de|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Herbert |first1=Máire |last2=McNamara |first2=Martin |title=Irish Biblical Apocrypha: Selected Texts in Translation |location=Edinburgh |publisher=T. & T. Clark |year=1989|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Elliott |first=J. K. |year=1993 |title=Apocryphal New Testament|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Bovon |editor-first1=François |editor-last2=Geoltrain |editor-first2=Pierre |editor-last3=Kaestli |editor-first3=Jean-Daniel |year=1997–2005 |title=Écrits apocryphes chrétiens |location=Paris |publisher=Gallimard |language=fr|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ehrman |first1=Bart D. |last2=Pleše |first2=Zlatko |year=2011 |title=The Apocryphal Gospels: Texts and Translations |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199732104 |url-access=registration |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973210-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Markschies |editor-first1=Christoph |editor-first2=Jens |editor-last2=Schröter |title=Antike christliche Apokryphen in deutscher Übersetzung |location=Tübingen, Germany |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |year=2012 |language=de|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Burke |editor-first1=Tony |editor-last2=Landau |editor-first2=Brent |year=2016 |title=New Testament apocrypha: More noncanonical scriptures |volume=1 |location=Grand Rapids. MI |publisher=Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-7289-0|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Burke |editor-first1=Tony |year=2020 |title=New Testament apocrypha: More noncanonical scriptures |volume=2 |location=Grand Rapids. MI |publisher=Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-7290-6|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Burke |editor-first1=Tony |year=2023 |title=New Testament apocrypha: More noncanonical scriptures |volume=3 |location=Grand Rapids. MI |publisher=Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-7793-2|ref=none}}
== See also ==
* [[Apostolic Fathers]]
* [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]]
* [[Biblical apocrypha]]
* [[Biblical canon]]
* [[Books of the Bible]]
* [[List of early Christian writers]]
* [[History of Christianity]]
* [[Historicity of Jesus]]
* [[List of Gospels]]
* [[Nag Hammadi library]]
* The [[Q document]], a hypothetical document underlying much of the text of the canonical gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]
* [[Textual criticism]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
== Sources ==
* {{Cite journal|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=A Fragment of the Acta Pilati in Christian Palestinian Aramaic|journal=The Journal of Theological Studies|year=1971|volume=22|number=1|pages=157–159|doi=10.1093/jts/XXII.I.157 |jstor=23962351 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23962351}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=A Syriac Version of the Letters of Lentulus and Pilate|journal=Orientalia Christiana Periodica|year=1969|volume=35|pages=45–62|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNZmOVXAN00C}}
* {{cite book |last = Cameron |first = Ron |author-link = Ron Cameron (biblical scholar) |title = The Other Gospels: Non-Canonical Gospel Texts |year = 1982 |publisher = Westminster/John Knox |isbn = 978-0-664-24428-6 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oVJsLiQitO4C&q=Cameron+The+Gospel+of+the+Hebrews }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Ehrman |first1 = Bart D. |last2 = Pleše |first2 = Zlatko |author-link = Bart Ehrman |title = The Apocryphal Gospels: Texts and Translations |chapter = The Jewish Christian Gospels |pages = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199732104/page/197 197]–216 |year = 2011 |publisher = Oxford University Press |isbn = 978-0-19-973210-4 |url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199732104 |url-access = registration |quote = 216. }}
* {{cite book |last = Elliott |first = James Keith |title = The Apocryphal New Testament |orig-year = 1993 |year = 2005 |publisher = Oxford University Press |isbn = 978-0-19-826181-0 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9vNTo0m08nkC }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Schlarb |first1 = Egbert |last2 = Lührmann |first2 = Dieter |title = Fragmente apokryph gewordener Evangelien in griechischer und lateinischer Sprache |chapter = Hebräerevangelium |year = 2000 |publisher = N.G. Elwert Verlag |isbn =  978-3-7708-1144-1 |ol = 6868179M |language = de }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Vielhauer |first1 = Philipp |last2 = Strecker |first2 = Georg |author-link1 = Philipp Vielhauer |author-link2 = :de:Georg Strecker |editor1-last = Schneemelcher |editor1-first = Wilhelm |editor2-last = Wilson |editor2-first = Robert McLachlan |editor-link1 = Wilhelm Schneemelcher |title = New Testament Apocrypha: Gospels and Related Writings Volume 1 |edition = 2 |year = 1991 |publisher = John Knox Press |isbn = 0-664-22721-X |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TDW0PeFSvGEC&q=Schneemelcher,+Wilhelm.+English+translation+%281991%29+New+Testament+Apocrypha,+Vol.+1 }} (6th German edition, translated by George Ogg)
* {{cite book |last = Yamauchi |first = Edwin M. |author-link = Edwin M. Yamauchi |editor-last = Bromiley |editor-first = Geoffrey W. |editor-link = Geoffrey W. Bromiley |title = International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A–D Volume 1 |contribution = Apocryphal Gospels |pages = 181–88 |year = 1979 |publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn = 978-0-8028-3781-3 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wo8csizDv0gC&q=Bromiley+dictionary+apocrypha+gospel+hebrews }}
==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050315094026/http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/ New Testament Apocrypha texts]
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com New Testament Apocrypha resources]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01601a.htm New Testament Apocrypha histories]
*[http://www.mountainman.com.au/essenes/Author_Gnostic_Gospels_and_Acts_Index.htm New Testament Apocrypha] - Tabulation includes Gnostic Gospels (23) and Gnostic Acts (29), linked to English translations.
* {{librivox book | title=The Apocryphal Acts of Paul, Peter, John, Andrew and Thomas | author=Bernhard PICK}}
{{Books of the Bible}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:New Testament Apocrypha}}
[[Category:New Testament apocrypha| ]]
[[fi:Apokryfiset kirjat]]