View source for Ochre

{{Short description|Earth pigment of characteristic colour}}
{{About|a colour and its pigment|other uses}}
{{Redirect|Red ocher|the indigenous people of North America|Red Ocher people}}
{{infobox color
| title=Ochre
| hex=CC7722
| source=[https://www.colorxs.com/color/hex-cc7722 colorxs.com/color]
| isccname=Deep orange
}}
[[File:Hellocker- Pigment.JPG|thumb|Ochre pigment]]
'''Ochre''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|oʊ|k|ər}} {{respell|OH|kər}}; {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ὤχρα}}'' ({{grc-transl|ὤχρα}})|}}, {{etymology||''{{wikt-lang|grc|ὠχρός}}'' ({{grc-transl|ὠχρός}})|pale}}), '''iron ochre''', or '''ocher''' in [[American English]], is a natural [[clay earth pigment]], a mixture of [[ferric oxide]] and varying amounts of clay and sand.<ref>{{cite book |title=ocher |series=[[American Heritage Dictionary]] |date=1969 }}</ref> It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colours produced by this pigment, especially a light brownish-yellow.<ref>''Shorter Oxford English Dictionary'' (2002), Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>''The Random House College Dictionary'', Revised Edition, (1980). "Any of a class of natural earths, mixtures of hydrated oxides of iron and various earthy materials, ranging in colour from pale yellow to orange and red, and used as pigments. A colour ranging from pale yellow to reddish-yellow."</ref> A variant of ochre containing a large amount of [[hematite]], or dehydrated iron oxide, has a reddish tint known as '''red ochre''' (or, in some dialects, '''ruddle''').
The word ochre also describes clays coloured with iron oxide derived during the extraction of [[tin]] and [[copper]].<ref>{{Cite Collier's|wstitle= Ochre |volume=VII |short= 1}}</ref>
==Earth pigments==
Ochre is a family of earth pigments, which includes yellow ochre, red ochre, purple ochre, sienna, and umber. The major ingredient of all the ochres is [[iron(III) oxide-hydroxide]], known as [[limonite]], which gives them a yellow colour. A range of other minerals may also be included in the mixture:<ref name="kriv">Krivovichev V. G. Mineralogical glossary. Scientific editor [[:uk:Булах Андрій Глібович|A. G. Bulakh]]. — St.Petersburg: St.Petersburg Univ. Publ. House. 2009. — 556 p. — ISBN 978-5-288-04863-0</ref>{{rp|134}}
[[File:Goldocker- Pigment.JPG|thumb|Yellow ochre (''Goldochre'') pigment]]
* '''Yellow ochre''', {{chem|FeO(OH)·''n''H|2|O}}, is a [[hydrate]]d [[iron hydroxide]] (limonite) also called '''gold ochre.'''
* '''Red ochre''', {{chem|Fe|2|O|3|·''n''H|2|O}}, takes its reddish colour from the mineral [[hematite]], which is an iron oxide, reddish brown when hydrated.<ref>CRC Handbook, any year</ref>
* '''Purple ochre''' is a rare variant identical to red ochre chemically but of a different hue caused by different light diffraction properties associated with a greater average particle size.
* '''Brown ochre, '''also FeO(OH), ([[goethite]]), is a partly hydrated iron oxide. Similarly, [[lepidocrocite]] — γ-FeO(OH),<ref name="ld">''R. A. Lidin, L. L. Andreeva, V. A. Molochko'', edited by R. A. Lidin. Constants of inorganic substances: reference book. 3-rd ed., stereotypical. — Moscow: Drofa, 2008 г. — 685 p.</ref>{{rp|236}} a secondary mineral, a product of the oxidation of iron ore minerals, found in brown iron ores
*[[Sienna]] contains both limonite and a small amount of [[manganese oxide]] (less than 5%), which makes it darker than ochre.
*[[Umber]] pigments contain a larger proportion of manganese (5-20%), which makes them a dark brown.<ref name="roelofs">{{cite book
|last=Roelofs
|first=Isabelle
|title=La couleur expliquée aux artistes
|year=2012
|publisher=Groupe Eyrolles
|isbn=978-2-212-134865}} p. 30</ref>
When natural sienna and umber pigments are heated, they are dehydrated and some of the limonite is transformed into hematite, giving them more reddish colours, called burnt sienna and burnt umber. Ochres are [[toxin|non-toxic]] and can be used to make an oil paint that dries quickly and covers surfaces thoroughly. Modern ochre pigments often are made using synthetic iron oxide. Pigments which use natural ochre pigments indicate it with the name PY-43 (Pigment yellow 43) on the label, following the [[Colour Index International]] system.
<gallery>
File:LimoniteUSGOV.jpg|Limonite, a [[mineraloid]] containing iron hydroxide, is the main ingredient of all the ochre pigments.
File:Hematite.jpg|Hematite is a more reddish variety of iron oxide, and is the main ingredient of red ochre.
File:Manganese-dioxide-sample.jpg|Pure manganese dioxide
File:Links gebrannte Siena, rechts natürliche.JPG|Burnt and raw sienna. When limonite is roasted, it turns partially to the more reddish hematite and becomes red ochre or burnt sienna.
File:Terra ombra naturale umber.jpg|Raw umber; the higher manganese oxide content makes it darker
File:Sentier des ocres 1.JPG|The clay hills of [[Roussillon, Vaucluse]], in [[Provence]] have been an important source of ochre pigment since the 18th century.
File:Drei verschiedene Ockertöne.JPG|Three shades of ochre; naturally-occurring ochre is often a mix of minerals
File:Ocker2-og.jpg|A broad range of colours can be created with naturally-occurring or human-blended mixtures of these minerals.
</gallery>
== Historical use in art and culture ==
===Prehistory===
{{See also|Blombos Cave#Ochre processing workshop}}
Over recent decades, red ochre has played a pivotal role in discussions about the cognitive and cultural evolution of early modern humans during the African Middle Stone Age. In Africa, evidence for the processing and use of red ochre pigments  has been dated by archaeologists to around 300,000 years ago, the climax of the practice coinciding broadly with the emergence of ''Homo sapiens.''<ref>Watts, I. 1999. The origin of symbolic culture. In R. Dunbar, C. Knight and C. Power (eds), ''The Evolution of Culture.'' Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 113-46.</ref><ref>Dapschauskas, R., Göden, M. B, Sommer, C. and Kandel, A. W., 2022. The Emergence of Habitual Ochre Use in Africa and its Significance for the Development of Ritual Behavior During the Middle Stone Age. Journal of World Prehistory https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-022-09170-2</ref> Evidence of ochre's use in Australia is more recent, dated to 50,000 years ago, while new research has uncovered evidence in Asia that is dated to 40,000 years ago.<ref>Lanese, Nicoletta, ''[https://www.sciencealert.com/stunning-new-example-of-anceint-stone-age-culture-unearthed-in-northern-china Traces of an Ancient Human Culture From 40,000 Years Ago Unearthedin China]'', Live Science, March 3, 2022</ref>
A re-examination of artifacts uncovered in 1908 at [[Le Moustier]] rock shelters in France has identified [[Mousterian]] stone tools that were attached to grips made of ochre and [[bitumen]]. The grips were formulated with 55% ground [[goethite]] ochre and 45% cooked liquid bitumen to create a mouldable putty that hardened into handles. Earlier excavations at Le Moustier prevent conclusive identification of the [[archaeological culture]] and age, but the European Mousterian style of these tools suggests they are associated with [[Neanderthal|Neanderthals]] during the late [[Middle Paleolithic]], between 60,000 and 35,000 years before present. It is the earliest evidence of compound adhesive use in Europe.
Pieces of ochre engraved with abstract designs have been found at the site of the [[Blombos Cave]] in South Africa, dated to around 75,000 years ago.<ref>Henshilwood, C. S., d’Errico, F., Yates, R., Jacobs, Z., Tribolo, C., Duller, G. A. T., Mercier, N., Sealy, J. C., Valladas, H., Watts, I. & Wintle, A. G. 2002. Emergence of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa. Science 295: 1278-1280.</ref> "[[Mungo Man]]" (LM3) in Australia was buried sprinkled with red ochre around 40,000 years ago.<ref name = "pmid12594511">{{cite journal|vauthors=Bowler JM, Johnston H, Olley JM, Prescott JR, Roberts RG, Shawcross W, Spooner NA |title = New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia. | journal = Nature  |volume = 421 |issue = 6925 | year = 2003 | pages = 837–40 | pmid = 12594511 | doi = 10.1038/nature01383  | bibcode = 2003Natur.421..837B |s2cid = 4365526 }}</ref>  In Wales, the [[paleolithic]] burial called the [[Red Lady of Paviland]] from its coating of red ochre has been dated to around 33,000 years before present. Paintings of animals made with red and yellow ochre pigments have been found in paleolithic sites at [[Pech Merle]] in France (ca. 25,000 years old), and the [[cave of Altamira]] in Spain ({{circa|16,500}}–15,000 BC). The cave of [[Lascaux]] has an image of a horse coloured with yellow ochre estimated to be 17,300 years old. Neolithic burials may have used red ochre pigments symbolically, either to represent a return to the earth or possibly as a form of ritual rebirth, in which the colour may symbolize blood and a hypothesized [[Great Goddess hypothesis|Great Goddess]].<ref>Giulia Battiti Sorlini, "The Megalithic Temples of Malta", Por Anthony Bonanno, ''Archaeology and fertility cult in the ancient Mediterranean: papers presented at the First International Conference on Archaeology of the Ancient Mediterranean'', University of Malta, 2–5 September 1985, p.145.</ref>
{{blockquote|The use of ochre is particularly intensive: it is not unusual to find a layer of the cave floor impregnated with a purplish red to a depth of eight inches. The size of these ochre deposits raises a problem not yet solved. The colouring is so intense that practically all the loose ground seems to consist of ochre. One can imagine that the [[Aurignacian]]s regularly painted their bodies red, dyed their animal skins, coated their weapons, and sprinkled the ground of their dwellings, and that a paste of ochre was used for decorative purposes in every phase of their domestic life. We must assume no less, if we are to account for the veritable mines of ochre on which some of them lived...|{{Citation|title=''Leroi-Gourhan, A. 1968.'' The Art of Prehistoric Man in Western Europe. ''London: Thames & Hudson, p. 40.''|title-link=André Leroi-Gourhan}}}}<!--This quotation is possibly from a French to English translation-->
The Ancient [[Picts]] were said to paint themselves "Iron Red" according to the [[Goths|Gothic]] historian [[Jordanes]]. Frequent references in Irish myth to "red men" ([[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]]: Fer Dearg) make it likely that such a practice was common to the [[Celts]] of the [[British Isles]], [[bog iron]] being particularly abundant in the [[midlands of Ireland]].
Ochre has uses other than as paint: "tribal peoples alive today . . . use either as a way to treat animal skins or else as an insect repellent, to staunch bleeding, or as protection from the sun. Ochre may have been the first medicament."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Watson, Peter|title=Ideas : a history from fire to Freud|date=2006|publisher=Phoenix|isbn=0-7538-2089-7|edition=Pbk.|location=London|pages=38|oclc=65468616|author-link=Peter Watson (intellectual historian)}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Lascaux2.jpg|Image of a horse coloured with [[yellow ochre]] (17,300 BC) from [[Lascaux]] cave, France.
File:Pech Merle main.jpg|Image of a human hand created with red ochre in [[Pech Merle]] cave, France ([[Gravettian]] era, 25,000 BC).
</gallery>
===Africa===
[[File:Namibie Himba 0717a.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Himba people|Himba]] woman covered with [[Otjize|a traditional ochre pigment]]]]
Red ochre has been used as a colouring agent in Africa for over 200,000 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mcbrearty|first1=Sally|last2=Brooks|first2=Alison S.|date=2000-11-01|title=The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=39|issue=5|pages=453–563|doi=10.1006/jhev.2000.0435|pmid=11102266|s2cid=42968840}}</ref> Women of the [[Himba people|Himba]] ethnic group in [[Namibia]] use a mix of ochre and animal fat for body decoration, to achieve a reddish skin colour. The ochre mixture is also applied to their hair after braiding.<ref>Crandall, David P. (2000). ''The Place of Stunted Ironwood Trees''. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group Inc. p. 48</ref> Men and women of the [[Maasai people]] in Kenya and Tanzania have also used ochre in the same way.
===Ancient Egypt===
[[File:Tomb of Nakht.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Ochre paintings in the Tomb of Nakht in [[Ancient Egypt]] (15th century BC).]]
In [[Ancient Egypt]], yellow was associated with gold, which was considered to be eternal and indestructible. The skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold. The Egyptians used yellow ochre extensively in tomb painting, though occasionally they used [[orpiment]], which made a brilliant colour, but was highly toxic, since it was made with [[arsenic]]. In tomb paintings, men were always shown with brown faces, women with yellow ochre or gold faces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/intro/antiquity.html |date=2008 |first1=Michael |last1=Douma |title=Pigments through the Ages - Antiquity|website=WebExhibits |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231215115510/https://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/intro/antiquity.html |archive-date= Dec 15, 2023 }}</ref>
Red ochre in Ancient Egypt was used as a rouge, or lip gloss for women.<ref>Hamilton R. (2007). ''Ancient Egypt: The Kingdom of the Pharaohs''. Parragon Inc. p. 62.</ref> Ochre-coloured lines were also discovered on the [[Unfinished obelisk]] at the northern region of the [[Aswan]] [[Stone quarries of ancient Egypt|Stone Quarry]], marking work sites. Ochre clays were also used [[Medicinal clay|medicinally]] in Ancient Egypt: such use is described in the [[Ebers Papyrus]] from Egypt, dating to about 1550 BC.
=== Ancient Phoenicia ===
Pigments, particularly red ochre, were essential to grave rituals in ancient Phoenician society. They were more than just cosmetics; they also had important symbolic and ritualistic connotations. With its vivid color that was evocative of blood and energy, red ochre represented life, death, and rebirth. It also represented the desire for resurrection and the belief in an afterlife. In order to honor the deceased and get them ready for their passage to the afterlife, these pigments, particularly red ochre, were most likely applied to their body or other grave goods as part of the burial rites. “Phoenicians' love of red is highlighted by the great number of powders of this color found in the containers. The powders were probably used to give a hue to cheeks or to lips. Besides these uses as make-up powders, we can also assume a ritual use of ointments and powders containing cinnabar or ochre, applied to the face and the forehead during preparation rituals of the bodies. The discovery of red paint traces on bones and skulls suggests that these practices were common among the Phoenicians as for other populations.”<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baraldi |first1=Cecilia |last2=Tori |first2=Maria Pamela |last3=Van Elslande |first3=Elsa |last4=Walter |first4=Phillipe |last5=Gamberini |first5=Maria Cristina |date=December 23, 2019 |title=Phoenicians Preferred Red Pigments: Chemical Compositions of Make-Up Powders Found in Archaeological Sites from Sicily |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0003702819895313 |journal= |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=295–304 |doi=10.1177/0003702819895313 |hdl=11380/1202446 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karmous |first1=Tijani |last2=Ayed |first2=Naceur |last3=Fantar |first3=Mohammed H. |last4=Wouters |first4=Jan |date=1996 |title=Analysis of Punic natural dyes: purple earth from Zembra and cosmetic make-up from Carthage (Carthago, Tunisia) |journal=Dyes in History and Archaeology |volume=14 |issue=3–8}}</ref> Greater-quality pigments and more intricate applications would typically indicate people of greater rank or particular significance within the community. Moreover, the presence and quality of pigments in a burial site may indicate the identity or social standing of the deceased. In addition to acting as offerings to the gods and protective symbols, pigments were employed to adorn grave goods including pottery, amulets, and other objects, so elevating the spiritual purity of the interment. The visual impact of red ochre could also have been intended to preserve the appearance of the body or make it presentable for mourning ceremonies, ensuring that the deceased was honored appropriately. This vivid color would enhance the overall visual and emotional impact of funerary displays. In essence, the use of red ochre and other pigments in Phoenician funerary contexts highlights their cultural and symbolic importance, reflecting deep-seated beliefs about death, the afterlife, and social hierarchy, thus providing a richer understanding of Phoenician customs and values.
===Ancient Greece and Rome===
[[File:Harfenspielerin Römisches Fresko.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Yellow ochre was often used for wall paintings in [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Roman]] [[Roman villa|villas]] and towns.]]
Ochre was the most commonly used pigment for painting walls in the [[History of the Mediterranean region|ancient Mediterranean world]]. In [[Ancient Greece]], red ochre was called μίλτος, ''míltos'' (hence [[Miltiades (name)|Miltiades]]: "red-haired" or "ruddy"). In [[ancient Athens]] when [[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|Assembly]] was called, a contingent of public slaves would sweep the open space of the [[Ancient Agora of Athens|Agora]] with ropes dipped in ''miltos'': those citizens that loitered there instead of moving to the [[Pnyx|Assembly area]] would risk having their clothes stained with the paint. This prevented them from wearing these clothes in public again, as failure to attend the Assembly incurred a fine.
In England, red ochre was also known as "raddle", "reddle", or "ruddle"<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mercer|first1=Henry C.|title=Ancient carpenters' tools illustrated and explained, together with the implements of the lumberman, joiner, and cabinet-maker in use in the eighteenth century|date=2000|publisher=Dover Publications|location=Mineola, N.Y.|isbn=978-0486320212|page=308|edition=Dover<!--|access-date=24 November 2014 REQUIRES a URL -->}}</ref> and was used to mark sheep and can also be used as a waxy waterproof coating on structures. The reddle was sold as a ready-made mixture to farmers and herders by travelling workers called reddlemen.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morris|first1=David|title=Shepherds' Huts & Living Vans|date=2013|publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited|isbn=978-1445621418|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PjiIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT42|access-date=24 November 2014}}</ref>
In [[Classical antiquity]], the finest red ochre came from a Greek colony on the [[Black Sea]] where the modern city of [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]] in [[Turkey]] is located. It was carefully regulated, expensive and marked by a special seal, and this colour was called sealed Sinope. Later the Latin and Italian name [[sinopia]] was given to wide range of dark red ochre pigments.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thompson|first=Daniel V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MU68AQAAQBAJ&q=%22Italian+name+sinopia%22|title=The Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting|date=2012-05-11|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-14203-6|pages=98|language=en}}</ref> Roman [[Roman triumph|triumphators]] painted their faces red, perhaps to imitate the red-painted flesh of statues of the Gods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://davidfrum.com/article/the-roman-triumph|title=The Roman Triumph &#124; David Frum|website=davidfrum.com}}</ref> The Romans used yellow ochre in their paintings to represent gold and skin tones, and as a background colour. It is found frequently in the murals of [[Pompeii]].
===Australia===
[[File:OchrePits.JPG|thumb|Multicoloured ochre rocks used in [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] ceremony and artwork. [[Ochre Pits]], Namatjira Drive, [[Northern Territory]]]]
Ochre pigments are plentiful across Australia, especially the [[Western Desert cultural bloc|Western Desert]], [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]] and [[Arnhem Land]] regions, and occur in many archaeological sites.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aboriginal Art Online, Traditional painting methods|url=http://www.aboriginalartonline.com/methods/methods.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422153652/http://www.aboriginalartonline.com/methods/methods.php|archive-date=22 April 2011|access-date=2012-12-27|publisher=Aboriginalartonline.com}}</ref> The practice of ochre painting has been prevalent among [[Aboriginal Australians]] for over 40,000 years. Pleistocene burials with red ochre date as early as 40,000 BP and ochre plays a role in expressing symbolic ideologies of the earliest arrivals to the continent.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hiscock|first=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJPbwmo8gGoC&q=%22Pleistocene+burials%22|title=Archaeology of Ancient Australia|date=2007-12-12|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-30440-0|pages=125|language=en|author-link=Peter Hiscock}}</ref> Ochre has been used for millennia by Aboriginal people for body decoration, [[Sunscreen|sun protection]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.centralwesterndaily.com.au/story/4845135/wiradjuri-artists-painting-depicts-journey-of-healing-at-hospital-video/ |title=Wiradjuri artist's painting depicts journey of healing at hospital |last=Rurenga |first=Declan |date=2017-08-09 |publisher=Central Western Daily |access-date=2018-05-13}}</ref> mortuary practices, cave painting, bark painting and other artwork, and the preservation of animal skins, among other uses. At [[Lake Mungo]], in Western [[New South Wales]], burial sites have been excavated and burial materials, including ochre-painted bones, have been dated to the arrival of people in Australia;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.une.edu.au/~pbrown3/LM3.html |title=Lake Mungo 3 |publisher=Personal.une.edu.au |access-date=2012-12-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126190110/http://www-personal.une.edu.au/~pbrown3/LM3.html |archive-date=2014-01-26 }}</ref> "[[Mungo Man]]" (LM3) was buried sprinkled with red ochre at least 30,000 BP, and possibly as early as 60,000 BP.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Bowler JM, Johnston H, Olley JM, Prescott JR, Roberts RG, Shawcross W, Spooner NA |title=New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia|journal=Nature|date=2003|volume=421|issue=6295|pages=837–40|doi=10.1038/nature01383|pmid=12594511|bibcode=2003Natur.421..837B|s2cid=4365526}}</ref>
Ochre was also widely used as medicine and, when ingested, some ochres have an antacid effect on the digestive system while others, which are rich in iron, can assist with lethargy and fatigue. Ochre is also often mixed with plant oils and animal fats to create other medicines.<ref name="Bangarra" /><ref name="macdonnellranges" />
This ochre was mined by Aboriginal people in pits and quarries across Australia; there are over 400 recorded sites, and many of these (including the [[Ochre Pits]] in the [[Tjoritja / West MacDonnell National Park]]) are still in use.<ref name="Bangarra">{{Cite web |title=Ochre is of the earth |url=https://bangarra-knowledgeground.com.au/productions/ochres/ochre-is-of-the-earth |access-date=2024-05-23 |website=Bangarra Knowledge Ground |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name="macdonnellranges">{{Cite web |title=Where are Orche Pits {{!}}About the Orche Pits of West MacDonnell Ranges Central Australia |url=http://www.macdonnellranges.com/ochre-pits-visitors-information-guide.htm |access-date=2024-05-23 |website=www.macdonnellranges.com}}</ref> The [[National Museum of Australia]] has a large collection of ochre samples from many sites across Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nma.gov.au/collections-search/results?search=adv&type=Ochre |title=Ochre samples, National Museum of Australia |publisher=Nma.gov.au |access-date=2012-12-27}}</ref>
There are many words for ochre in [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] throughout Australia, including:
* [[Yolŋu languages]]; which refers to white ochre as ''gapan''.
* [[Noongar language]]; which calls red and yellow ochre ''wilgee''.
* [[Wiradjuri language]]; which calls red ochre ''gubarr'' or ''gidyi.''
* [[Yawuru language]]; which refers to white/yellow ochre as ''gumbarri,'' white as ''larli'' and red ''duguldugul'' (when used in ritual).<ref name="Bangarra" />
===New Zealand===
The [[Māori people]] of New Zealand were found to be making extensive use of mineral ochre mixed with fish oil.<ref>Dieffenbach cited in Wells, B., 1878. The history of Taranaki. Edmondson and Avery, New Plymouth.</ref> Ochre was the predominant colouring agent used by Maori, and was used to paint their large ''[[waka taua]]'' (war canoe). Ochre prevented the drying out of the wood in canoes and the carvings of meeting houses; later missionaries estimated that it would last for 30 years. It was also roughly smeared over the face, especially by women, to keep off insects. Solid chunks of ochre were ground on a flat but rough surfaced rock to produce the powder.
===Indigenous North America===
In [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fisheriesheritage.ca/redOchre.asp |title=Red ochre in Newfoundland |publisher=Fisheriesheritage.ca |date=2006-09-24 |access-date=2012-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822083735/http://www.fisheriesheritage.ca/redOchre.asp |archive-date=2016-08-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> its use is most often associated with the [[Beothuk]], whose use of red ochre led them to be referred to as "Red Indians" by the first Europeans to Newfoundland.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Beothuk of Newfoundland: A Vanished People|first=Ingeborg|last=Marshall|publisher=Breakwater Books|year=1989|pages=5|isbn=9780920911181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwXuwjrkURMC&dq=The%20Beothuk%20of%20Newfoundland%3A%20A%20Vanished%20People&pg=PA5|via=[[Google Books]]|access-date=24 August 2023}}</ref> The Beothuk may have also used yellow ochre to colour their hair.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gilbert |first1=William |title=The Baccalieu Trail Archaeology Project 2008: A Preliminary Report on Excavations at Cupids and Dildo Island. |journal=Provincial Archaeology Office 2008 Archaeology Review |date=February 2009 |volume=7 |pages=58–66 |url=https://www.tcii.gov.nl.ca/pao/newsletters/pdf/Vol7-2008.pdf}}</ref> It was also used by the [[Maritime Archaic]] as evidenced by its discovery in the graves of over 100 individuals during an archaeological excavation at [[Port au Choix, Newfoundland and Labrador|Port au Choix]]. Its use was widespread at times in the [[Woodlands culture|Eastern Woodlands]] cultural area of Canada and the US; the [[Red Ocher people]] complex refers to a specific archaeological period in the Woodlands {{circa|1000}}–400 BC. California [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] such as the [[Tongva people|Tongva]] and [[Chumash people|Chumash]] were also known to use red ochre as body paint.<ref>{{cite web|author=The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18353 |title=C. Michael Hogan, ''Los Osos Back Bay'', Megalithic Portal, editor A. Burnham (2008) |publisher=Megalithic.co.uk |access-date=2012-12-27}}</ref> Researchers diving into dark submerged caves on Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula have found evidence of an ambitious mining operation starting 12,000 years ago and lasting two millennia for red ochre.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Dunham|first1=Will|date=3 July 2020|title=Prehistoric ochre mining operation found in submerged Mexican caves|newspaper=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-science-caves/prehistoric-ochre-mining-operation-found-in-submerged-mexican-caves-idUSKBN2442EM}}</ref>
=== Colonial North America ===
In [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]], red ochre was the pigment of choice for use in [[vernacular architecture|vernacular]] outbuildings and work buildings associated with the [[cod]] fishery. Deposits of ochre are found throughout Newfoundland, notably near Fortune Harbour and at Ochre Pit Cove. While earliest settlers may have used locally collected ochre, people were later able to purchase pre-ground ochre through local merchants, largely imported from [[England]].
The dry ingredient, ochre, was mixed with some type of liquid raw material to create a rough paint. The liquid material was usually [[seal hunting|seal oil]] or [[cod liver oil]] in Newfoundland and Labrador, while [[Scandinavia]]n recipes sometimes called for [[linseed oil]]. Red ochre paint was sometimes prepared months in advance and allowed to sit, and the smell of ochre paint being prepared is still remembered today.<ref name="Jarvis-2019">{{Cite journal|last1=Jarvis|first1=Dale Gilbert|last2=Barrett|first2=Terra M.|date=March 2019|title=The Historical Use of Ochre Pigments in Newfoundland and Labrador.|url=https://heritagenl.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/003-Historical-Use-of-Ochre-Pigments-in-NL.pdf|journal=Heritage NL Fieldnotes Series|publisher=Heritage Foundation of Newfoundland and Labrador|volume=3}}</ref>
Variations in local recipes, shades of ore, and type of oil used resulted in regional variations in colour. Because of this, it is difficult to pinpoint an exact shade or hue of red that would be considered the traditional "[[fishing stage]] red". In the [[Bonavista Bay]] area one man maintained that seal oil mixed with the ochre gave the sails a purer red colour, while [[cod liver oil]] would give a "foxy" colour, browner in hue.<ref name="Jarvis-2019" />
===Renaissance===
During the Renaissance, yellow and red ochre pigments were widely used in painting panels and frescoes. The colours vary greatly from region to region, depending upon whether the local clay was richer in yellowish limonite or reddish hematite. The red earth from [[Pozzuoli]] near Naples was a salmon pink, while the pigment from [[Tuscany]] contained manganese, making it a darker reddish brown called terra di siena, or [[sienna]] earth.<ref>Daniel V. Thompson, ''The Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting'', p. 99</ref>
The 15th-century painter [[Cennino Cennini]] described the uses of ochre pigments in his famous treatise on painting. {{Blockquote|This pigment is found in the earth of mountains, where particular seams like sulphur are found. And there, where these seams are, sinopia, green earth and other types of pigment are found...And the abovementioned pigments running through this landscape looked as a scar on the face of a man or of a woman looks...I went in behind with my little knife, prospecting at the scar of this pigment; and in this way, I promise you, I never sampled a more lovely and perfect ochre pigment...And know that this ochre is a common pigment, particularly when working in fresco; that with other mixtures that, as i will explain to you, it is used for flesh colours, for drapery, for coloured mountains and buildings and hair and in general for many things.<ref>Lara Broecke, ''Cennino Cennini's ''Il Libro dell'Arte'': a New English Translation and Commentary with Italian transcription'', Archetype 2015, p. 71</ref>}}
In early modern Malta, red ochre paint was commonly used on public buildings.<ref>{{cite web|title=Auberge D'Aragon|url=http://www.culturalheritage.gov.mt/filebank/inventory/01125.pdf|website=National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands|date=28 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230554/http://www.culturalheritage.gov.mt/filebank/inventory/01125.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref>
==Modern history==
The industrial process for making ochre pigment was developed by the French scientist Jean-Étienne Astier in the 1780s. He was from [[Roussillon, Vaucluse|Roussillon]] in the [[Vaucluse]] department of [[Provence]], and he was fascinated by the cliffs of red and yellow clay in the region. He invented a process to make the pigment on a large scale. First the clay was extracted from open pits or mines. The raw clay contained about 10 to 20 percent ochre. Then he washed the clay to separate the grains of sand from the particles of ochre. The remaining mixture was then decanted in large basins, to further separate the ochre from the sand. The water was then drained, and the ochre was dried, cut into bricks, crushed, sifted, and then classified by colour and quality. The best quality was reserved for artists' pigments.<ref name="roelofs" />
In [[Great Britain|Britain]], ochre was mined at [[Brixham]], [[England]]. It became an important product for the British fishing industry, where it was combined with oil and used to coat sails to protect them from seawater, giving them a reddish colour. The ochre was boiled in great caldrons, together with [[tar]], [[tallow]] and [[oak|oak bark]], the last ingredient giving the name of barking yards to the places where the hot mixture was painted on to the sails, which were then hung up to dry. In 1894, a theft case provided insights into the use of the pigment as a [[food adulterant]] in [[sausage roll]] production whereby the accused apprentice was taught to soak [[brown bread]] in red ochre, [[salt]], and [[Black pepper|pepper]] to give the appearance of [[beef sausage]] for the filling.<ref>The Times, ''Police'', 5 February 1894; pg. 14</ref>
As noted above, the industrial process for making ochre pigment was developed by the French scientist Jean-Étienne Astier in the 1780s, using the ochre mines and quarries in [[Roussillon, Vaucluse|Roussillon]], Rustrel, or Gargas in the [[Vaucluse]] department of [[Provence]], in France. Thanks to the process invented by Astier and refined by his successors, ochre pigments from Vaucluse were exported across Europe and around the world. It was not only used for artists paints and house paints; it also became an important ingredient for the early rubber industry.
Ochre from Vaucluse was an important French export until the mid-20th century, when major markets were lost due to the [[Russian Revolution]] and the [[Spanish Civil War]]. Ochre also began to face growing competition from newly synthetic pigment industry. The quarries in Roussillon, Rustrel, the Mines of Bruoux closed one by one. Today, the last quarry in activity is in Gargas (Vaucluse) and belongs to the Société des Ocres de France.
==In heraldry and vexillology ==
Ochre, both red and yellow, appear as [[tincture (heraldry)|tinctures]] in [[South African heraldry]]; the [[Coat of arms of South Africa|national coat of arms]], adopted in 2000, includes ''red ochre'', while (yellow) ochre appears in the arms of the [[University of Transkei]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/za)coa.html |title=South Africa – Coat of Arms |publisher=Crwflags.com |access-date=2009-04-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040603201208/http://uk.geocities.com/wapenskild/uni/Unitra.html |archive-date=June 3, 2004 |url=http://uk.geocities.com/wapenskild/uni/Unitra.html |title=Armoria academica - University of Transkei |author=Mike Oettle |website=geocities.com/wapenskild}}</ref>
Ochre is also used as a symbol of [[Indigenous Australians]], and appears on the [[Flag of the Northern Territory]] and on the flags of the [[Taungurung]] and [[Aṉangu]] people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-of-the-Northern-Territory|title=Flag of the Northern Territory &#124; Australian flag |website=Britannica |first1=Whitney |last1=Smith |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230709201756/https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-of-the-Northern-Territory |archive-date= Jul 9, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://taungurung.com.au/taungurung-sovereign-flag/|title=Taungurung Sovereign Flag |website=Taungurung Land & Waters Council|date=May 14, 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202150911/https://taungurung.com.au/taungurung-sovereign-flag/ |archive-date= Dec 2, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/au-anang.html|title=Anangu traditional owners (Australia)|website=Flags of the World |date=2016-02-27 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217211354/https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/au-anang.html |archive-date= Feb 17, 2023 }}</ref>
==In popular culture==
A reddleman named Diggory Venn was prominently described in [[Thomas Hardy]]'s 1878 novel entitled ''[[The Return of the Native]]''.
==See also==
* [[Banded Iron Formation]]
* [[Falu red]]
* [[Female cosmetic coalitions]]
* [[Attic ochre]]
* [[Iron ochre]]
* [[Lead ochre]]
* [[Iron(III) oxide]]
* [[List of colors]]
* [[List of inorganic pigments]]
* [[Red Lady of Paviland]]
* [[Red pigments]]
{{Clear}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* Helwig, K. Iron Oxide Pigments, in Artists’ Pigments, Berrie, B.H., Ed., National Gallery of Art Washington, 2007, pp.&nbsp;38–109.
* Isabelle Roelofs and Fabien Petillion, ''La couleur expliquée aux artistes'', Editions Eyrolles, (2012), {{ISBN|978-2-212-13486-5}}.<!-- also in a ref-->
* Philip Ball, Histoire vivante des couleurs (2001), Hazan Publishers, Paris, {{ISBN|978-2-754105-033}}.
* Fuller, Carl; "Natural Colored Iron Oxide Pigments", pp.&nbsp;281–6. In: ''Pigment Handbook'', 2nd Edition. Lewis, P. (ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1988.
* Thomas, Anne Wall. ''Colors From the Earth'', New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1980.
* Wreschner, Ernst E. (October 1980) "Red Ochre and Human Evolution: A Case for Discussion." ''Current Anthropology'' '''21''':631–644. (Comments by various authors included.)
* Daniel V. Thompson (1956), The Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting, Dover Publications, New York. {{ISBN|0-486-20327-1}}.<!-- also in a ref -->
* Lara Broecke, ''Cennino Cennini's ''Il Libro dell'Arte'': a New English Translation and Commentary with Italian Transcription'', Archetype, London, 2015, {{ISBN|978-1-909492-28-8}}.<!-- also in a ref -->
* David Bomford and Ashoka Roy (2009), A Closer Look- Colour, The National Gallery, London, {{ISBN|978-1-85709-442-8}}.
{{refend}}
* Dapschauskas, R., Göden, M. B, Sommer, C. and Kandel, A. W., 2022. The Emergence of Habitual Ochre Use in Africa and its
Significance for the Development of Ritual Behavior During the Middle Stone Age. ''Journal of World Prehistory''
[https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-022-09170-2 The Emergence of Habitual Ochre Use in Africa and its Significance for The Development of Ritual Behavior During The Middle Stone Age]
* Watts, I. 2002. Ochre in the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: Ritualised display or hide preservative? ''South African Archaeological Bulletin'' 57: 15–30.
== External links ==
{{Collier's Poster}}
{{Commons category}}
*[http://webexhibits.org/pigments/ ''Pigments through the ages'']
**[http://webexhibits.org/pigments/indiv/overview/redochre.html Red Ochre]
**[http://webexhibits.org/pigments/indiv/overview/yellowochre.html Yellow ochre]
**[http://webexhibits.org/pigments/indiv/overview/brownochre.html Brown ochre]
* [http://www.jns.fi/palvelut/asuntot/punamult/english/redtext.htm A recipe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041208110117/http://www.jns.fi/palvelut/asuntot/punamult/english/redtext.htm |date=2004-12-08 }} for red ochre paint.
* [http://www.aboriginalartonline.com/methods/methods.php Aboriginal Art Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422153652/http://www.aboriginalartonline.com/methods/methods.php |date=2011-04-22 }} Use of ochres in traditional Aboriginal art.
* [http://www.nma.gov.au/collections-search/results?search=adv&type=Ochre National Museum of Australia] Collection of ochre samples.
* [http://colourlex.com/project/yellow-ochre/ Yellow ochre], Colourlex
* [http://colourlex.com/project/red-ochre/ Red ochre], Colourlex
* [http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/watere.html Earth Pigments]
{{Shades of brown}}
{{Shades of orange}}
{{Shades of yellow}}
{{Shades of red}}
[[Category:Iron oxide pigments]]
[[Category:Shades of brown]]
[[Category:Iron ores]]