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{{short description|Flowering plant in the family Oleaceae}}
{{About|the tree and the fruit|other uses|Olive (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect-multi|3|Olive grove|Olive tree|Olive wood}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Olive
| fossil_range = Late [[Pleistocene]] to [[recent]], {{Fossil range|0.06|0}}
| image = Olivesfromjordan.jpg
| image_caption =
| genus = Olea
| species = europaea
| status = DD
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite web |last1=Magos Brehm |first1=J. |last2=Draper Munt |first2=D. |last3=Kell |first3=S.P. |date=2011 |title=''Olea europaea'' (errata version published in 2016) |work=The [[IUCN Red List]] of Threatened Species 2011 |version=e.T63005A102150835 |access-date=26 June 2021 |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/species/63005/102150835 |archive-date=30 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630124935/https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/63005/102150835 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| range_map = Olea europaea range.svg
| range_map_caption = Distribution map of ''Olea europaea'' s.l.
}}
{{Contains special characters |special=[[Linear B Syllabary|Linear B Unicode characters]] |fix= Help:Multilingual_support#Linear B |characters=Linear B}}
The '''olive''', botanical name '''''Olea europaea''''', meaning 'European olive', is a [[species]] of small [[tree]] or [[shrub]] in the family [[Oleaceae]], found traditionally in the [[Mediterranean Basin]], with wild subspecies found further afield in [[Africa]] and western [[Asia]]. When in shrub form, it is known as '''''Olea europaea'' {{'}}Montra{{'}}''', '''dwarf olive''', or '''little olive'''. The species is cultivated in all the countries of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], as well as in Australia, New Zealand, North and South America and South Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=355112 |title=Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, ''Olea europaea'' |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=December 5, 2014 |archive-date=January 20, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120064239/http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=355112 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://bonap.net/MapGallery/County/Olea%20europaea.png |publisher=[[Biota of North America Program]] |title=''Olea europaea'' (map) |access-date=December 5, 2014 |archive-date=May 9, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509101241/http://bonap.net/MapGallery/County/Olea%20europaea.png |url-status=live }}</ref> It is the [[type species]] for its genus, ''[[Olea]]''. The tree and its fruit give their name to the [[Oleaceae]] plant family, which also includes species such as [[Syringa vulgaris|lilac]], [[jasmine]], [[forsythia]], and the true [[Fraxinus|ash tree]].
The olive's fruit, also called an "olive", is of major agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the source of [[olive oil]]; it is one of the core ingredients in [[Middle Eastern cuisine|Middle Eastern]] [[Mediterranean cuisine|and Mediterranean cuisines]]. Thousands of [[cultivar]]s of the olive tree are known. Olive cultivars may be used primarily for oil, eating, or both. Olives cultivated for consumption are generally referred to as "table olives".<ref name="Fernández, A. Garrido 1997" /> About 80% of all harvested olives are turned into oil, while about 20% are used as table olives.
==Etymology==
The word ''olive'' derives from [[Latin]] ''{{lang|la|ŏlīva}}'' 'olive fruit; olive tree',<ref>{{L&S|oliva|ref}}</ref> possibly through [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] 𐌀𐌅𐌉𐌄𐌋𐌄 (''eleiva'') from the archaic [[Proto-Greek]] form *ἐλαίϝα (*''elaíwa'') ([[Classic Greek]] {{lang|grc|ἐλαία}} ''{{lang|grc-Latn|elaía}}'' 'olive fruit; olive tree'.<ref>OLD [[s.v.]] ''{{lang|la|oliva}}''</ref><ref>{{LSJ|e)lai/a|ἐλαία|ref}}</ref> The word ''oil'' originally meant 'olive oil', from ''{{lang|la|ŏlĕum}}'',<ref>{{L&S|oleum|ref}}</ref> {{lang|grc|ἔλαιον}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|élaion}}'' 'olive oil').<ref>Ernout & Meillet s.v. ''{{lang|la|oleum}}''.</ref><ref>{{LSJ|e)lai/a|ἐλαία}}, {{LSJ|e)/laio,|ἔλαιον|ref}}</ref> The word for 'oil' in multiple other languages also ultimately derives from the name of this tree and its fruit. The oldest attested forms of the Greek words are [[Mycenaean Greek|Mycenaean]] {{lang|gmy|𐀁𐀨𐀷}}, ''{{lang|gmy-Latn|e-ra-wa}}'', and {{lang|gmy|𐀁𐀨𐀺}}, ''{{lang|gmy-Latn|e-ra-wo}}'' or {{lang|gmy|𐀁𐁉𐀺}}, ''{{lang|gmy-Latn|e-rai-wo}}'', written in the [[Linear B]] syllabic script.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Linear B word e-ra-wa |url=http://www.palaeolexicon.com/default.aspx?static=12&wid=318 |access-date=2010-06-12 |archive-date=2012-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401145613/http://www.palaeolexicon.com/default.aspx?static=12&wid=318 |url-status=live }} {{cite web |title=The Linear B word e-ra-wo |url=http://www.palaeolexicon.com/ShowWord.aspx?Id=16728 |website=Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of ancient languages |access-date=2014-03-15 |archive-date=2014-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315185220/http://www.palaeolexicon.com/ShowWord.aspx?Id=16728 |url-status=live }}{{cite web|url=http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/resources/linear-b-sign-groups/e/e-ra3-wo/|title=e-ra3-wo|access-date=2014-03-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321102105/http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/resources/linear-b-sign-groups/e/e-ra3-wo/|archive-date=2016-03-21|url-status=dead}} {{cite web |last=Raymoure |first=K.A. |url=http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/resources/linear-b-sign-groups/e/e-ra-wo/ |title=e-ra-wo |website=Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B |publisher=Deaditerranean |access-date=2014-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320140244/http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/resources/linear-b-sign-groups/e/e-ra-wo/ |archive-date=2016-03-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==Description==
[[File:Olea europaea - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-229.jpg|thumb|19th-century illustration|alt=drawing of a branch, flowers, seeds and fruits of the olive tree]]
The olive tree, ''Olea europaea'', is an [[evergreen]] tree or shrub native to Mediterranean Europe, Asia, and Africa. It is short and squat and rarely exceeds {{convert|8|-|15|m|ft|abbr=on|round=5}} in height. 'Pisciottana', a unique variety comprising 40,000 trees found only in the area around [[Pisciotta]] in the [[Campania]] region of southern [[Italy]], often exceeds this, with correspondingly large trunk diameters. The silvery green [[leaf|leaves]] are oblong, measuring {{convert|4|–|10|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=2}} long and {{convert|1|–|3|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=16}} wide. The trunk is typically gnarled and twisted.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Eddo Rugini|author2=Luciana Baldoni|author3=Rosario Muleo|author4=Luca Sebastiani|title=The Olive Tree Genome|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgDGDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14+|year=2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-48887-5|page=14}}</ref>
The small, white, feathery [[flower]]s, with ten-cleft [[sepal|calyx]] and [[petal|corolla]], two [[stamen]]s, and bifid [[Gynoecium|stigma]], are borne generally on the previous year's wood, in [[raceme]]s springing from the axils of the leaves.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
The fruit is a small [[drupe]] {{convert|1|–|2.5|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=16}} long when ripe, thinner-fleshed and smaller in wild plants than in orchard cultivars. Olives are harvested in the green to purple stage.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iBsmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 |page=129 |title=Olives and Olive Oil as Functional Foods: Bioactivity, Chemistry and Processing |editor1=Apostolos Kiritsakis |editor2=Fereidoon Shahidi |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |date=2017|isbn=978-1-119-13531-9}}</ref> ''O. europaea'' contains a [[pyrena]] commonly referred to in American English as a "pit", and in British English as a "stone".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J7gfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|page=113 |title=A Complete Course in Canning and Related Processes: Volume 3 Processing Procedures for Canned Food Products |author=Susan Featherstone |publisher= [[Woodhead Publishing]] |date=2015|isbn=978-0-85709-687-6}}</ref>
[[File:Mallorca Wild Olive.jpg|thumb|Specimen of Olea europaea sylvestris as [[bonsai]]. These trees grow wild in the mountains of the Spanish island of [[Mallorca]] and are valued for their tiny leaves and rough bark. This tree won 1st prize in the broadleaf evergreen category in the 2024 edition of the Unión del Bonsái Español (UBE) exhibition in [[Aranjuez]], [[Spain]].]]
==Taxonomy==
The six natural subspecies of ''Olea europaea'' are distributed over a wide range:<ref name=j2/><ref name=j3/><ref>{{cite journal | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226023886 | title = Genetic characterisation of olive trees from Madeira Archipelago using flow cytometry and microsatellite markers | journal = [[Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution]] | year = 2008}}</ref>
*''O. e.'' subsp. ''europaea'' (Mediterranean Basin)
The subspecies ''europaea'' is divided into two [[variety (botany)|varieties]], the ''europaea'', which was formerly named ''Olea sativa'', with the [[seedling]]s called "olivasters", and ''silvestris'', which corresponds to the old wildly growing Mediterranean species ''[[Olea oleaster|O. oleaster]]'', with the seedlings called "oleasters".<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315747227 |title=Oleiculture in progress |first1=Elettra |last1=Marone |first2=Piero |last2=Fiorino |date=January 2012 |journal= [[Advances in Horticultural Science]] |volume=26 |issue=3–4 |doi=10.13128/ahs-22672}}</ref> The ''sylvestris'' is characterized by a smaller, shrubby tree that produces smaller fruits and leaves.<ref name="Barazani 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Barazani |first1=Oz |last2=Keren-Keiserman |first2=Alexandra |last3=Westberg |first3=Erik |last4=Hanin |first5=Nir |last5=Dag |first4=Arnon |last6=Ben-Ari |first6=Giora |last7=Fragman-Sapir |first7=Ori |last8=Tugendhaft |first8=Yizhar |last9=Kerem |first9=Zohar |last10=Kadereit |first10= Joachim W. |date=2016-01-13 |title=Genetic variation of naturally growing olive trees in Israel: from abandoned groves to feral and wild? |url=https://rdcu.be/dvErI |journal=BMC Plant Biol |volume=16 |issue=261 |page=261 |doi=10.1186/s12870-016-0947-5 |doi-access=free |pmid=27964727 |pmc=5154132 |access-date=2024-01-10}}</ref>
*[[Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata|''O. e.'' subsp. ''cuspidata'']] (from South Africa throughout East Africa, [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] to [[Southwest China]])
*''O. e.'' subsp. ''cerasiformis'' ([[Madeira]]); also known as ''Olea maderensis''
*''O. e.'' subsp. ''guanchica'' (Canary Islands)
*''O. e.'' subsp. ''laperrinei'' (Algeria, Sudan, Niger)
*''O. e.'' subsp. ''maroccana'' (Morocco)
The subspecies ''O. e. cerasiformis'' is [[tetraploid]], and ''O. e. maroccana'' is [[hexaploid]].<ref name=j5/> Wild-growing forms of the olive are sometimes treated as the species ''[[Olea oleaster]]'', or "oleaster." The trees referred to as "[[Canarium album|white]]" and "[[Canarium pimela|black]]" olives in Southeast Asia are not actually olives but species of ''[[Canarium]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nparks.gov.sg/gardens-parks-and-nature/heritage-trees/ht-2005-136 |title=Buah Ca-na, Chinese White Olive |website=[[Singapore National Parks Board]] |language=en |access-date=2019-02-14 |archive-date=2019-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215050351/https://www.nparks.gov.sg/gardens-parks-and-nature/heritage-trees/ht-2005-136 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
===Cultivars===
{{Main|List of olive cultivars}}
Hundreds of cultivars of the olive tree are known.<ref name="encyclopedia1996">{{citation|title=World Olive Encyclopedia|publisher=[[International Olive Council]]|year=1996|isbn=978-8401618819}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lanza, Fabrizia |title=Olive: A Global History|year=2012|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-972-9|pages=106–110}}</ref> An olive's cultivar has a significant impact on its colour, size, shape, and growth characteristics, as well as the qualities of olive oil.<ref name="encyclopedia1996"/> Olive cultivars may be used primarily for oil, eating, or both. Olives cultivated for consumption are generally referred to as "table olives".<ref name="Fernández, A. Garrido 1997">{{cite book|author1=Garrido Fernandez, A. |author2=Fernandez-Diez, M.J. |author3=Adams, M.R. |title=Table Olives: Production and Processing|year=1997|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-412-71810-6|pages=23–45}}</ref>
Since many olive cultivars are [[Self-incompatibility|self-sterile]] or nearly so, they are generally planted in pairs with a single primary cultivar and a secondary cultivar selected for its ability to fertilize the primary one. In recent times, efforts have been directed at producing hybrid cultivars with qualities useful to farmers, such as resistance to disease,<ref name=j8/> quick growth, and larger or more consistent crops.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
==History==
===Mediterranean Basin===
Fossil evidence indicates that the olive tree had its origins 20&ndash;40 million years ago in the [[Oligocene]], in what now corresponds to Italy and the eastern Mediterranean Basin.<ref name="Therios">{{cite book |title=Olive Oil. Chemistry and Technology |editor-last=Boskou |editor-first=D. |publisher=AOCS Press |date=1996 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dXqXXeHI_PcC&pg=PA1|title=Olives: Volume 18 of Crop Production Science in Horticulture (History of Olive Growing, page 1)|last=Therios|first=Ioannis Nikolaos|date=2009|publisher=CABI|isbn=978-1-84593-620-4}}</ref> Around 100,000 years ago, olives were used by humans in Africa, on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, for fuel and most probably for consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marquer |first1=L. |last2=Otto |first2=T. |last3=Arous |first3=E. Ben |last4=Stoetzel |first4=E. |last5=Campmas |first5=E. |last6=Zazzo |first6=A. |last7=Tombret |first7=O. |last8=Seim |first8=A. |last9=Kofler |first9=W. |last10=Falguères |first10=C. |last11=El Hajraoui |first11=M. Abdeljalil |date=2022-03-22 |title=The first use of olives in Africa around 100,000 years ago |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-022-01109-x |journal=Nature Plants |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=204–208 |doi=10.1038/s41477-022-01109-x |pmid=35318448 |bibcode=2022NatPl...8..204M |s2cid=247615211 |issn=2055-0278 |access-date=2022-03-30 |archive-date=2022-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331150928/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-022-01109-x |url-status=live }}</ref> Wild olive trees, or oleasters, have been collected in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] since ~19,000 BP.{{sfn|Kislev et al.|1992|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}} The [[genome]] of cultivated olives reflects their origin from oleaster populations in the Eastern Mediterranean.{{sfn|Besnard et al.|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}{{sfn|Besnard et al.|2013b|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}{{sfn|Lumaret et al.|2004|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}{{sfn|Baldoni et al.|2006|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}{{sfn|Diez et al.|2015|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=John D. |title=Plant Evolution in the Mediterranean: Insights for Conservation |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198835141 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxT0DwAAQBAJ}}</ref> The olive plant was first cultivated some 7,000 years ago in Mediterranean regions.<ref name=Therios/><ref>{{cite book |last=Di Giovacchino |first=Luciano |title=Handbook of Olive Oil: Analysis & Properties |edition=2nd |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |location=New York |year=2013 |chapter=3 |page=57 }}</ref>
For thousands of years olives were grown primarily for lamp oil, with little regard for culinary flavor.<ref name="vossen">{{cite journal |last=Vossen |first=Paul |title=Olive Oil: History, Production, and Characteristics of the World's Classic Oils |journal=HortScience |year=2007 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=1093–1100|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.42.5.1093 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Its origin can be traced to the [[Levant]] based on written tablets, olive pits, and wood fragments found in ancient tombs.<ref name="vossen"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Lanza |first=Fabrizia |title=Olive: a global history |year=2011 |publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-972-9|location=London |page=15 }}</ref> As far back as 3000 BC, olives were grown commercially in [[Crete]] and may have been the source of the wealth of the [[Minoan civilization]].<ref name="gooch">{{cite journal |last=Gooch |first=Ellen |url=http://www.epikouria.com/issue1/10+1-things-olives.php |title=10+1 Things you may not know about olive oil |journal=Epikouria Magazine |issue=Fall/Spring |year=2005 |access-date=December 5, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208032145/http://www.epikouria.com/issue1/10+1-things-olives.php |archive-date=December 8, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The ancestry of the cultivated olive is unknown. Fossil ''[[olea]]'' pollen has been found in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and other places around the Mediterranean, indicating that this genus is an original element of the Mediterranean flora. Fossilized leaves of ''olea'' were found in the [[paleosol|palaeosols]] of the volcanic Greek island of [[Santorini]] and dated to about 37,000 [[Before Present|BP]]. Imprints of larvae of olive [[whitefly]] ''[[List of whitefly species|Aleurobus olivinus]]'' were found on the leaves. The same insect is commonly found today on olive leaves, showing that the plant-animal co-evolutionary relations have not changed since that time.<ref>Friedrich W.L. (1978). [http://www.therafoundation.org/articles/environmentflorafauna/fossilplantsfromweichselianinterstadialssantorinigreeceii Fossil plants from Weichselian interstadials, Santorini (Greece) II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719060330/http://www.therafoundation.org/articles/environmentflorafauna/fossilplantsfromweichselianinterstadialssantorinigreeceii |date=2011-07-19 }}, published in the "Thera and the Aegean World II", London, pp. 109–128. Retrieved on 2011-12-07.</ref> Other leaves found on the same island are dated back to 60,000 BP, making them the oldest known olives from the Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oliveoilmuseums.gr/ecportal.asp?id=55&nt=18&lang=2|title=Mediterranean Museums of Olive|website=www.oliveoilmuseums.gr|access-date=2016-05-22|archive-date=2016-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208070740/http://www.oliveoilmuseums.gr/ecportal.asp?id=55&nt=18&lang=2|url-status=dead}}</ref>
===Outside the Mediterranean===
[[File:21-alimenti, olio,Taccuino Sanitatis, Casanatense 4182..jpg|thumb|Storing olives on [[Dere Street]]; ''[[Tacuinum Sanitatis]]'', 14th century]]
Olives are not native to the [[Americas]]. Spanish colonists brought the olive to the [[New World]], where its cultivation prospered in present-day Peru, Chile, Uruguay and Argentina. The first seedlings from Spain were planted in [[Lima]] by Antonio de Rivera in 1560. Olive tree cultivation quickly spread along the valleys of South America's dry Pacific coast where the climate was similar to the Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequencies of 1492 |author=Crosby, Alfred W. |page=73 |year=2003 |publisher=Praeger |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-0-27598-092-4}}</ref> Spanish missionaries established the tree in the 18th century in [[California]]. It was first cultivated at [[Mission San Diego de Alcalá]] in 1769 or later around 1795. Orchards were started at other missions, but in 1838, an inspection found only two olive orchards in California. Cultivation for oil gradually became a highly successful commercial venture from the 1860s onward.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Carter, Nancy Carol |url=https://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/v54-3/pdf/v54-3carter.pdf |year=2008 |title=San Diego Olives: Origins of a California Industry |journal=The Journal of San Diego History |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=138–140 |access-date=2017-05-03 |archive-date=2016-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831181343/https://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/v54-3/pdf/v54-3carter.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Pierce-1897">{{cite book | last=Pierce | first=Newton B. | author-link=Newton Barris Pierce | title=Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture 1896 | publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] ([[U.S. Government Printing Office]]) | year=1897 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=biIZAQAAIAAJ | oclc=1027034631 | chapter=Olive culture in the United States | pages=371–390}}</ref>
In Japan, the first successful planting of olive trees happened in 1908 on [[Shōdoshima|Shodo Island]], which became the cradle of olive cultivation in Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.town.shodoshima.lg.jp/en/index.html |title=Shodoshima Town |website=shodoshima.lg.jp |access-date=2012-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907230150/http://www.town.shodoshima.lg.jp/en/index.html |archive-date=2017-09-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In 2016, [[Olive production in India|olive oil production started in India]], with olive saplings planted in Rajasthan's [[Thar Desert]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/business/an-agri-marvel-takes-root-in-thar-sands/cid/1458888 | title=An agri marvel takes root in Thar sands | work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] | date=31 October 2016 | accessdate=3 March 2023 | author=Chowdhury, Jayanta Roy | archive-date=10 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410081701/https://www.telegraphindia.com/business/an-agri-marvel-takes-root-in-thar-sands/cid/1458888 | url-status=live }}</ref>
Favoured by climate warming, several small-scale olive production farms have also been established at fairly high latitudes in Europe and North America since the early 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Das nördlichste Olivenöl der Welt |trans-title=The northernmost olive oil in the world |url=https://www.obst-und-garten.de/das-noerdlichste-olivenoel-der-welt,QUlEPTY3MzQyMzYmTUlEPTEwMDAx.html |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=Obst & Garten |date=26 November 2020 |language=de |archive-date=2023-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228172422/https://www.obst-und-garten.de/Das-noerdlichste-Olivenoel-der-Welt,QUlEPTY3MzQyMzYmTUlEPTEwMDAx.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/britain-s-first-olive-grove-is-a-sign-of-our-hotter-times-6097129.html | title=Britain's first olive grove is a sign of our hotter times | work=[[The Independent]] | accessdate=3 March 2023 | author=McCarthy, Michael | archive-date=10 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410081829/https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/britain-s-first-olive-grove-is-a-sign-of-our-hotter-times-6097129.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/first-welsh-olive-grove-planted-2262852 | title=First Welsh olive grove planted on Anglesey | work=[[WalesOnline]] | date=30 April 2007 | accessdate=3 March 2023 | archive-date=6 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406122059/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/first-welsh-olive-grove-planted-2262852 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/canadian-farmer-succeeds-with-olives-and-gives-kelp-seaweed-some-of-the-credit/47124|title=Canadian Farmer Succeeds with Olives and Gives Kelp Seaweed Some of the Credit|last=Adams|first=Barbara|date=2015-03-26|work=Olive Oil Times|access-date=2023-03-05|archive-date=2017-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224054644/https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/canadian-farmer-succeeds-with-olives-and-gives-kelp-seaweed-some-of-the-credit/47124|url-status=live}}</ref>
There were an estimated 865 million olive trees in the world as of 2005, and the vast majority of these were found in Mediterranean countries, with traditionally marginal areas accounting for no more than 25% of olive-planted area and 10% of oil production.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/projects/paginas/Section-a.htm |title=Olive Growing and Nursery Production |publisher=International Olive Council |access-date=December 5, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818161143/http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/projects/paginas/Section-a.htm |archive-date=August 18, 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==Symbolic connotations==
{{See also|Peace symbols}}
===Ancient Greece===
[[File:Antimenes Painter - ABV 270 50 - Herakles and the boar - olive gathering - Berlin AS F 1855 - 03.jpg|thumb|[[Pottery of ancient Greece|Greek vase]] showing two bearded men and a youth gathering olives from a tree, by the [[Antimenes Painter]] (ca. 520–510 BC).]]
Olives are thought to have been domesticated in the third millennium BC at the latest, at which point they, along with grain and grapes, became part of [[Colin Renfrew]]'s [[Mediterranean cuisine#Triad|Mediterranean triad]] of staple crops that fueled the emergence of more complex societies.<ref>C. Renfrew, ''The Emergence of Civilisation: The Cyclades and the Aegean in The Third Millennium BC'', 1972, p.280.</ref> Olives, and especially (perfumed) olive oil, became a major export product during the Minoan and [[Mycenae]]an periods. Dutch archaeologist [[Jorrit Kelder]] proposed that the Mycenaeans sent shipments of olive oil, probably alongside live olive branches, to the court of the Egyptian pharaoh [[Akhenaten]] as a diplomatic gift.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-olive-oiled-greeces-trade-with-egypt-0p8wnmf3z5h|title=The olive oiled Greece's trade with Egypt|first=Norman Hammond, Archaeology|last=correspondent|date=28 August 2009 |via=www.thetimes.co.uk|access-date=2020-01-10|archive-date=2021-03-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308213442/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-olive-oiled-greeces-trade-with-egypt-0p8wnmf3z5h|url-status=live}}</ref> In Egypt, these imported olive branches may have acquired ritual meanings, as they are depicted as offerings on the wall of the [[Aten]] temple and were used in wreaths for the burial of [[Tutankhamun]]. It is likely that, as well as being used for culinary purposes, olive oil was also used to various other ends, including as a perfume. {{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
The [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] smeared olive oil on their bodies and hair as a matter of grooming and good health. Olive oil was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples and was the "eternal flame" of the original Olympic games. Victors in these games were crowned with its leaves. In Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', [[Odysseus]] crawls beneath two shoots of olive that grow from a single stock,<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'', book 5".</ref> and in the ''[[Iliad]]'', (XVII.53ff) there is a metaphoric description of a lone olive tree in the mountains, by a spring; the Greeks observed that the olive rarely thrives at a distance from the sea, which in Greece invariably means up mountain slopes. Greek myth attributed to the primordial [[culture-hero]] [[Aristaeus]] the understanding of olive husbandry, along with cheese-making and bee-keeping.<ref>"He learned from the [[Nymph]]ai how to curdle milk, to make bee-hives, and to cultivate olive-trees, and was the first to instruct men in these matters." ([[Diodorus Siculus]], 4.81.1).</ref> Olive was one of the woods used to fashion the most primitive Greek [[cult figure]]s, called ''[[xoanon|xoana]]'', referring to their wooden material; they were reverently preserved for centuries.<ref>Toward the end of the second century AD, the traveler [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] saw many such archaic cult figures.</ref>
It was purely a matter of local pride that the Athenians claimed that the olive grew first in Athens.<ref>"Indeed it is said that at that [ancient] time there were no olives anywhere save at Athens." ([[Herodotus]], 5.82.1).</ref> In an archaic Athenian [[Origin myth|foundation myth]], [[Athena]] won the patronage of [[Attica]] from [[Poseidon]] with the gift of the olive. According to the fourth-century BC father of botany, [[Theophrastus]], olive trees ordinarily attained an age around 200 years,<ref>Theophrastus, ''On the Causes of Plants,'' 4.13.5. noted by Isager, Signe & Skydsgaard, Jens Erik (1992). ''Ancient Greek Agriculture, An introduction''. Routledge. p. 38. {{ISBN|0415001641}}.</ref> he mentions that the very olive tree of Athena still grew on the [[Acropolis]]; it was still to be seen there in the second century AD;<ref>"...which is still shown in the [[Pandroseion]]" ([[pseudo-Apollodorus]], ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheke]]'', 3.14.1).</ref> and when [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] was shown it c. 170 AD, he reported "Legend also says that when the Persians fired Athens the olive was burnt down, but on the very day it was burnt it grew again to the height of two [[cubit]]s."<ref>Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' 1.27.1.</ref> Indeed, olive suckers sprout readily from the stump, and the great age of some existing olive trees shows that it was possible that the olive tree of the Acropolis dated to the Bronze Age. The olive was sacred to Athena and appeared on the Athenian coinage. According to another myth, [[Elaea (mythology)|Elaea]] was an accomplished athlete killed by her fellow athletes who had grown envious of her; but Athena and [[Gaia]] turned her into an olive tree as reward.<ref>{{cite book | page = 278 | title = Metamorphosis in Greek Myths | first = Paul M. C. | last = Forbes Irving | publisher = [[Clarendon Press]] | date = 1990 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=URvXAAAAMAAJ | isbn = 0-19-814730-9 | access-date = 2023-01-30 | archive-date = 2023-01-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230127114028/https://books.google.com/books?id=URvXAAAAMAAJ | url-status = live }}</ref>
Theophrastus, in ''On the Causes of Plants'', does not give as systematic and detailed an account of olive husbandry as he does of the [[Vitis vinifera|vine]], but he makes clear (in 1.16.10) that the cultivated olive must be vegetatively propagated; indeed, the pits give rise to thorny, wild-type olives, spread far and wide by birds. Theophrastus reports how the bearing olive can be grafted on the wild olive, for which the Greeks had a separate name, ''kotinos''.<ref>Isager, Signe & Skydsgaard, Jens Erik (1992). ''Ancient Greek Agriculture, An introduction''. Routledge. p. 35. {{ISBN|0415001641}}</ref> In his ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus book)|Enquiry into Plants]]'' (2.1.2–4) he states that the olive can be propagated from a piece of the trunk, the root, a twig, or a stake.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hort |first1=Sir Arthur |title=Theophrastus Enquiry into Plants |date=1916 |publisher=William Heinemann |page=107 |url=https://archive.org/stream/enquiryintoplant01theouoft#page/106/mode/2up}}</ref>
===Ancient Rome===
[[File:Roman fresco of a woman wearing a garland of olives, from Herculaneum.jpg|thumb|Woman with red hair wearing a [[garland]] of olives, from [[Herculaneum]], sometime before the city's destruction in 79 AD.]]
According to [[Pliny the Elder]] a vine, a [[Ficus|fig tree]] and an olive tree grew in the middle of the [[Roman Forum]]; the olive was planted to provide shade. (The garden was recreated in the 20th century).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/romanforum/ficus.html|title=Ficus Ruminalis|website=uchicago.edu}}</ref> The Roman poet [[Horace]] mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, [[endive]]s, and smooth [[Althaea (plant)|mallow]]s provide sustenance."<ref>"''Me pascunt olivae, me cichorea levesque malvae.''" Horace, ''Odes 1.31.15'', c. 30 BC</ref> [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo|Lord Monboddo]] comments on the olive in 1779 as one of the foods preferred by the ancients and as one of the most perfect foods.<ref>''Letter from [[Lord Monboddo]] to John Hope'', 29 April 1779; reprinted by William Knight 1900 {{ISBN|1-85506-207-0}}</ref>
[[Vitruvius]] describes of the use of charred olive wood in tying together walls and foundations in his ''[[wikiquote:Vitruvius#De architectura (The Ten Books On Architecture) (~ 15BC)|De Architectura]]'':
<blockquote>
The thickness of the wall should, in my opinion, be such that armed men meeting on top of it may pass one another without interference. In the thickness there should be set a very close succession of ties made of charred olive wood, binding the two faces of the wall together like pins, to give it lasting endurance. For that is a material which neither decay, nor the weather, nor time can harm, but even though buried in the earth or set in the water it keeps sound and useful forever. And so not only city walls but substructures in general and all walls that require a thickness like that of a city wall, will be long in falling to decay if tied in this manner.<ref>Pollio, Vitruvius (1914). [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_La4aAAAAYAAJ ''The Ten Books on Architecture'']. Harvard University Press, Book 1, Ch. V, Sec. 3, p. 22</ref>
</blockquote>
===Judaism and Israel===
{{See also|Olives and olive trees in Israel and Judaism}}
Olives were one of the main elements in [[Ancient Israelite cuisine#Olives and olive oil|ancient Israelite cuisine]]. Olive oil was used for not only food and cooking, but also lighting, sacrificial offerings, [[Topical medication|ointment]], and [[Anointment#Hebrew Bible|anointment]] for priestly or royal office.<ref name=MD23>Macdonald, Nathan (2008). ''[[What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat?]]''. William B. Eerdmans. pp. 23–24. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-6298-3}}.</ref> The olive tree is one of the first plants mentioned in the [[Hebrew Bible]], and one of the most significant. An olive branch (or leaf, depending on translation) was brought back to [[Noah]] by a dove to demonstrate that the flood was over ([[Book of Genesis]] 8:11).{{cn|date=October 2024}}
The olive is listed in [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]] 8:8 as one of the [[Seven Species|seven species]] that are noteworthy products of the [[Land of Israel]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Eat and Be Satisfied: A Social History of Jewish Food|last1=Cooper|first1=John|year=1993|publisher=Jason Aronson Inc.|location=New Jersey|isbn=978-0-87668-316-3|pages=4–9}}. See also both the Hebrew and English text in: {{Bibleverse||Deut|8:8|HE}}</ref> According to the [[Halakha]], the Jewish law mandatory for all [[Jews]], the olive is one of the seven species that require the recitation of ''me'eyn shalosh'' after they are consumed. Olive oil is also the most recommended and best possible oil for the lighting of the [[Shabbat candles]].<ref>[[Mishnah]], [[Shabbat (Talmud)|Tractate Shabbat]], Chapter 2.</ref>
Due to its importance in the Hebrew Bible, the olive has significant national meaning in modern Israeli culture. Two olive branches appear as part of Israel's emblem and the olive tree is Israel's national tree. [https://www.timesofisrael.com/olive-voted-as-national-tree-to-mark-tu-bishvat/]
===Christianity===
Apart from being mentioned in the [[Hebrew Bible]]  (the Christian [[Old Testament]]), olives play an important role in Christianity.
The [[Mount of Olives]], east of [[Jerusalem]], is mentioned several times in the [[New Testament]]. The Allegory of the Olive Tree in St Paul's [[Epistle to the Romans]] refers to the scattering and gathering of Israel. It compares the [[Israelites]] to a tame olive tree and the Gentiles to a wild olive branch. The olive tree itself, as well as olive oil and olives, play an important role in the Bible.<ref>Balfour, John Hutton (1885).  [https://archive.org/details/b28065219 "Plants of the Bible"]. T. Nelson and sons</ref>
===Islam===
The olive tree and olive oil are mentioned seven times in the [[Quran]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Virgin Olive Oil|author=Hassouna, Viktoria |page=23|year=2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VBOC_RQPUvcC&pg=PA23|publisher=Books on Demand|isbn=978-3839175057}}</ref> and the olive is praised as a precious fruit. Olive tree and olive oil health benefits have been propounded in prophetic medicine. [[Prophet Muhammad|Muhammad]] is reported to have said: "Take oil of olive and massage with it – it is a blessed tree" ([[Sunan al-Darimi]], 69:103). Olives are substitutes for dates (if not available) during [[Ramadan]] fasting, and olive tree leaves are used as [[incense]] in some [[History of the Mediterranean region|Muslim Mediterranean]] countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cyprus44.com/culture/olive-leaf-burning.asp|title=Olive Leaf Burning|website=cyprus44.com|access-date=2017-02-08|archive-date=2016-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023174235/http://www.cyprus44.com/culture/olive-leaf-burning.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Palestine ===
[[File:Olive_harvest.jpg|thumb|Israeli and Palestinian people harvesting olives in the Samarian Hills, in December 2008]]
In [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] the olive tree and plant carry the symbolic connotations of resilience, health, ancestral ties and community.<ref name="Ababneh-2023">{{Cite journal |last=Ababneh |first=Mohammad Daher |date=2023-04-08 |title=Olive Symbolism in Palestinian and Spanish Poetry: A Comparative Study |url=https://al-kindipublisher.com/index.php/ijllt/article/view/5182 |journal=International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Translation |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=55–65 |doi=10.32996/ijllt.2023.6.4.8 |issn=2617-0299|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Sarafa-2004">{{Cite journal |last=Sarafa |first=Rami |date=2004 |title=Roots of Conflict: Felling Palestine's Olive Tress |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43649049 |journal=Harvard International Review |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=13 |jstor=43649049 |issn=0739-1854}}</ref> Researchers have found that the olive tree is tied into the Palestinians' Sutra, A’wana and [[Sumud]].<ref name="Simaan-2017">{{Cite journal |last=Simaan |first=Juman |date=2017-10-02 |title=Olive growing in Palestine: A decolonial ethnographic study of collective daily-forms-of-resistance |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14427591.2017.1378119 |journal=Journal of Occupational Science |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=510–523 |doi=10.1080/14427591.2017.1378119 |s2cid=148876900 |issn=1442-7591}}</ref> The tree is a means of survival and security, represents their bond to their land, community and animals.<ref name="Ababneh-2023" /> Olive trees also serve as a symbol of their identities, which include their physical and emotional aspects and their socio-cultural values.<ref name="Ababneh-2023" /><ref name="Simaan-2017" /> Palestinian people view the olive trees as the first witnesses that Palestine is their homeland. <ref name="Ababneh-2023" />
The harvest season is referred to as "Palestine’s wedding" and is considered a national holiday when schools close for two days so that pupils and teachers can join in the harvest.<ref name="Simaan-2017" /> This holiday allows community and family members to gather and serves as a ritual that encompasses their values surrounding family, labour, community and aid for other members of the community that do not possess land.<ref name="Simaan-2017" /> This is practised through the tradition of leaving fruit on a tree during the harvest so that those who do not have land and are unable to take part in the harvest can still reap the benefits.<ref name="Simaan-2017" />
=== United States ===
The [[Great Seal of the United States]] first used in 1782 depicts an eagle clutching an olive branch in one of its talons, indicating the power of peace.<ref name="usa">{{Cite web|title=Great Seal of the United States|url=https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol-official-item/national-us/state-seal/united-states-seal|access-date=2021-02-22|website=statesymbolsusa.org|date=8 September 2014|archive-date=2021-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303190653/https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol-official-item/national-us/state-seal/united-states-seal|url-status=live}}</ref>
===United Nations===
The [[Flag of the United Nations]] adopted in 1946 is a world map with two olive branches.<ref name="un">{{Cite news|title=United Nations Emblem and Flag|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/un-emblem-and-flag|access-date=2022-05-31|newspaper=United Nations|last1=Nations|first1=United|archive-date=2022-03-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310222618/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/un-emblem-and-flag|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Oldest known trees==
{{See also|List of oldest trees}}
* An olive tree in [[Mouriscas]], [[Abrantes]], Portugal, (''Oliveira do Mouchão'') is one of the oldest known olive trees still alive to this day, with an estimated age of 3,350 years,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.icnf.pt/portal/florestas/aip/resource/docs/certificados/KNJ1-478-Declaracao.pdf |title=Declaração |access-date=2016-11-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104074841/http://www.icnf.pt/portal/florestas/aip/resource/docs/certificados/KNJ1-478-Declaracao.pdf |archive-date=2016-11-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.icnf.pt/portal/florestas/ArvoresFicha?Processo=KNJ1/478&Concelho=&Freguesia=&Distrito=|title=FLORESTAS — ICNF|language=pt|access-date=2016-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809114054/http://www2.icnf.pt/portal/florestas/ArvoresFicha?Processo=KNJ1%2F478&Concelho=&Freguesia=&Distrito=|archive-date=2018-08-09|url-status=live}}</ref> planted approximately at the beginning of the [[Atlantic Bronze Age]].
* An olive tree in the city of [[Bar, Montenegro|Bar]] in Montenegro has an estimated age of between 2,014 and 2,480 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/serbian/lat/balkan-61175303.amp |title=Crna Gora i priroda: Stara maslina u Baru - majka, hraniteljica i sveto drvo |first=Nataša |last=Anđelković |language=Serbian |work=BBC News Serbian |date=9 July 2022 |access-date=6 December 2022 |archive-date=24 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124041903/https://www.bbc.com/serbian/lat/balkan-61175303.amp |url-status=live }}</ref>
* An olive tree on the island of [[Brijuni]] in Croatia has a [[radiocarbon dating]] age of about 1,600&nbsp;years. It still gives fruit (about {{convert|30|kg|lb|abbr=on|disp=or}} per year), which is made into olive oil.<ref name="brijuni_national_park">{{cite web |url=http://www.np-brijuni.hr/en/natural_heritage/flora/ancient_olive_tree |title=Ancient Olive Tree |publisher=[[Brijuni National Park]] |access-date=27 May 2016 |archive-date=25 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160525052323/http://www.np-brijuni.hr/en/natural_heritage/flora/ancient_olive_tree |url-status=live }}</ref><!--An olive tree from town [[Kaštel Štafilić]], [[Dalmatia]] in [[Croatia]], has been calculated to be over 1,500 years old.-->
* An olive tree in west [[Athens]], named Plato's Olive Tree, is thought to be a remnant of the grove where [[Platonic Academy|Plato's Academy]] was situated, making it an estimated 2,400 years old.<ref name="costas">{{cite web|url=https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/platos-sacred-olive-tree-vanished/32262|title=Plato's Sacred Olive Tree Vanished|author=Vasilopoulos, Costas|publisher=Olive Oil Times|date=17 January 2013|access-date=14 October 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014035011/https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/olive-oil-basics/platos-sacred-olive-tree-vanished/32262|url-status=live}}</ref> The tree consisted of a cavernous trunk from which a few branches were still sprouting in 1975 when a traffic accident caused a bus to uproot it.<ref name=costas/> Following that the trunk was preserved and displayed in the nearby [[Agricultural University of Athens]]. In 2013 it was reported that the remaining part of the trunk was uprooted and stolen, allegedly to serve as firewood. {{citation needed|date=June 2023}}
* The age of an olive tree in Crete, the Finix Olive, is claimed to be more than 2,000&nbsp;years, based on archaeological evidence around the tree.<ref name=r1/>
* The [[olive tree of Vouves]] in Crete has an age estimated at between 2,000 and 4,000 years.<ref name="west">{{cite web|url=http://cretewest.com/Templates/cretelore.html|title=Crete Lore|publisher=CreteWest.com|access-date=14 October 2017|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303211556/http://cretewest.com/Templates/cretelore.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* An olive tree called Farga d'Arió in [[Ulldecona]], [[Catalonia]], Spain, has been estimated (with laser-perimetry methods) to date back to 314 AD, which would mean that it was planted when [[Constantine the Great]] was [[Roman emperor]].<ref name=ara>[http://www.ara.cat/societat/Certifiquen-olivera-dUlldecona-antiga-lEstat_0_1378062339.html ARA, June 18, 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620021900/http://www.ara.cat/societat/Certifiquen-olivera-dUlldecona-antiga-lEstat_0_1378062339.html |date=June 20, 2015 }}. ARA-diari (2015-06-18). Retrieved on 2015-06-20.</ref>
* Some Italian olive trees are believed to date back to [[Ancient Rome]] (8th century BC to 5th century AD), although identifying [[progenitor]] trees in ancient sources is difficult. There are other trees about 1,000 years old in the same garden. The 15th-century trees of Olivo della Linza, at Alliste in the [[Province of Lecce]] in [[Apulia]] on the Italian mainland, were noted by Bishop Ludovico de Pennis during his pastoral visit to the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Nardò-Gallipoli|Diocese of Nardò-Gallipoli]] in 1452.<ref>[http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/diocese/nard0.htm Diocese of Nardò–Gallipoli] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204025801/http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/diocese/nard0.htm |date=2014-02-04 }}. GCatholic.org</ref>
* The village of [[Bcheale]], Lebanon, claims to have the oldest olive trees in the world (4000 BC for the oldest), but no scientific study supports these claims. Other trees in the towns of [[Amioun]] appear to be at least 1,500 years old.<ref>{{cite web|last=Al-BAB|title=Ancient Olive Tree|url=http://albabblog.blogspot.com/2011/08/ancient-olive-trees-of-bechealeh.html|date=August 2011|access-date=2011-09-01|archive-date=2011-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829110705/http://albabblog.blogspot.com/2011/08/ancient-olive-trees-of-bechealeh.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Drinkwater|first=Carol|title=The Olive Route|year=2006|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|isbn=978-0-297-84789-2}}</ref>
* Several trees in the Garden of [[Gethsemane]] (from the Hebrew words ''gat shemanim'' or olive press) in Jerusalem are claimed to date back to the time of [[Jesus]].<ref>Lewington, A. & Parker, E. (1999). ''Ancient Trees.'', pp. 110–113, London: Collins & Brown Ltd. {{ISBN|1-85585-704-9}}</ref> A study conducted by the National Research Council of Italy in 2012 used [[carbon dating]] on older parts of the trunks of three trees from Gethsemane and came up with the dates of 1092, 1166 and 1198 AD, while DNA tests show that the trees were originally planted from the same parent plant.<ref name=HaaretzOlives>{{cite news |title=Jerusalem olive trees among oldest in world |newspaper=Haaretz |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-10-20/jerusalem-olive-trees-among-oldest-in-world/4324342 |date=October 20, 2012 |agency=Reuters |access-date=2016-01-28 |archive-date=2016-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024714/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-10-20/jerusalem-olive-trees-among-oldest-in-world/4324342 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to molecular analysis, the tested trees showed the same allelic profile at all microsatellite loci analyzed, which furthermore may indicate attempt to keep the lineage of an older species intact.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=24841957|title=Observation of eight ancient olive trees (''Olea europaea'' L.) growing in the Garden of Gethsemane|journal=Comptes Rendus Biologies|volume=337|issue=5|pages=311–317|year=2014|last1=Petruccelli|first1=R|last2=Giordano|first2=C|last3=Salvatici|first3=M. C.|last4=Capozzoli|first4=L|last5=Ciaccheri|first5=L|last6=Pazzini|first6=M|last7=Lain|first7=O|last8=Testolin|first8=R|last9=Cimato|first9=A|doi=10.1016/j.crvi.2014.03.002|url=https://comptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr/biologies/articles/10.1016/j.crvi.2014.03.002/ }}</ref> However, Bernabei writes, "All the tree trunks are hollow inside so that the central, older wood is missing... In the end, only three from a total of eight olive trees could be successfully dated. The dated ancient olive trees do not, however, allow any hypothesis to be made with regard to the age of the remaining five giant olive trees."<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2014.10.011|title=The age of the olive trees in the Garden of Gethsemane|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=53|pages=43–48|year=2015|last1=Bernabei|first1=Mauro|bibcode=2015JArSc..53...43B }}</ref> Babcox concludes, "The roots of the eight oldest trees are possibly much older. Visiting guides to the garden often state that they are two thousand years old."<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1525/dcqr.2014.3.2.111|title=Every Olive Tree in the Garden of Gethsemane|journal=Departures in Critical Qualitative Research|volume=3|issue=2|pages=111–115|year=2014|last1=Babcox|first1=Wendy|url=http://dcqr.ucpress.edu/content/3/2/111.full.pdf}}{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* The 2,000-year-old<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=2,000-year-old Trees still producing olives |url=http://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2011-08-16/news/2000-year-old-trees-still-producing-olives-297296/ |newspaper=The Malta Independent |access-date=14 May 2016 |archive-date=2022-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319202510/https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2011-08-16/news/2000-year-old-trees-still-producing-olives-297296/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Bidni]] olive trees on [[Malta]], which have been confirmed through carbon dating,<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Race to save endemic olive tree intensifies |url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20160809/local/race-to-save-endemic-olive-tree-intensifies.621461 |newspaper=The Times of Malta |access-date=10 August 2016 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327123448/https://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20160809/local/race-to-save-endemic-olive-tree-intensifies.621461 |url-status=live }}</ref> have been protected since 1933<ref>{{cite magazine |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=List of Historical Trees Having an Antiquarian Importance |url=https://www.mepa.org.mt/file.aspx?f=1430 |magazine=Government of Malta |access-date=14 May 2016 }}{{dead link|date=February 2024|bot=medic}}</ref> and are listed in [[UNESCO]]'s Database of National Cultural Heritage Laws.<ref>{{cite magazine |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=List of Historical Trees Having an Antiquarian Importance |url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/natlaws/media/pdf/malta/malta_orderantiquetrees_enorof |magazine=UNESCO |access-date=14 May 2016 }}</ref> In 2011, after recognising their historical and landscape value, and in recognition of the fact that "only 20 trees remain from 40 at the beginning of the 20th century",<ref>{{cite report |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Rural Development Programme for Malta 2007–2013 |url=https://eufunds.gov.mt/en/EU%20Funds%20Programmes/European%20Agricultural%20Fund/Documents/National%20Rural%20Development/Rural%20Development%20Programme%202007%20-%202013.pdf |publisher=Ministry for Resources and Rural Affairs |date=2009 |access-date=10 May 2016 |archive-date=26 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126195656/https://eufunds.gov.mt/en/EU%20Funds%20Programmes/European%20Agricultural%20Fund/Documents/National%20Rural%20Development/Rural%20Development%20Programme%202007%20-%202013.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Maltese authorities declared the ancient Bidni olive grove at [[Bidnija]] as a Tree Protected Area.<ref>{{cite magazine |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Trees and Woodlands Protection Regulations, 2011 |url=http://www.doi-archived.gov.mt/EN/gazetteonline/2011/05/gazts/GG%2024.5Mepa.pdf |magazine=The Government of Malta Gazette |date=2011 |access-date=10 May 2016 |archive-date=30 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530135011/http://www.doi-archived.gov.mt/EN/gazetteonline/2011/05/gazts/GG%2024.5Mepa.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160px" caption="Examples of olive trees">
File:Old olive tree in Maslina Kaštela, Croatia.jpg|<!--do not add age here without [[WP:RS]]-->[[Kaštela]], Croatia
File:Ulivone di Canneto Sabino.jpg|[[Canneto Sabino]], Italy
File:Olive tree Karystos2.jpg|[[Karystos]], [[Euboia]], Greece
File:OlivaAjv.jpg|[[Partenit]], Ukraine
</gallery>
==Uses==
The olive tree, ''Olea europaea'', has been cultivated for olive oil, fine wood, [[olive leaf]], ornamental reasons, and the olive fruit. About 80% of all harvested olives are turned into oil, while about 20% are used as table olives.<ref name="encyclopedia1996"/> The olive is one of the "trinity" or "triad" of basic ingredients in [[Mediterranean cuisine]], the other two being [[wheat]] for [[bread]], [[pasta]], and [[couscous]]; and the [[grape]] for [[wine]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Emergence of Civilization; The Cyclades and the Aegean in the Third Millennium B.C. |last=Renfrew |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Renfrew |year=1972 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn= 978-0977409464 |page=280}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Essid |first=Mohamed Yassine |title=Chapter 2. History of Mediterranean Food |work=MediTerra: The Mediterranean Diet for Sustainable Regional Development |publisher=Presses de Sciences Po |date=2012 |isbn=978-2724612486 |page=29 |url=http://www.cairn.info/mediterra-2012-english--9782724612486-page-51.htm |access-date=2016-05-22 |archive-date=2021-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511090115/https://www.cairn.info/mediterra-2012-english--9782724612486-page-51.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Olive oil ===
[[Olive oil]] is a [[Vegetable oil|liquid fat]] obtained from olives, produced by pressing whole olives and extracting the oil. It is commonly used in cooking, for frying foods or as a [[salad dressing]]. It is also used in [[cosmetics]], [[Medication|pharmaceuticals]], and [[soap]]s, and as a [[fuel]] for traditional [[oil lamp]]s, and has additional uses in some religions. Spain accounts for almost half of global olive oil production; other major producers are Portugal, Italy, Tunisia, Greece and Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IOC |url=https://www.internationaloliveoil.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/IOC-Olive-Oil-Dashboard-December-2020.html#production-2 |access-date=2023-11-02 |website=www.internationaloliveoil.org}}</ref> Per capita consumption is highest in Greece, followed by Italy and Spain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IOC |url=https://www.internationaloliveoil.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/IOC-Olive-Oil-Dashboard-December-2020.html#consumption-1 |access-date=2023-11-02 |website=www.internationaloliveoil.org}}</ref>
The composition of olive oil varies with the cultivar, elevation, time of harvest and extraction process. It consists mainly of [[oleic acid]] (up to 83%), with smaller amounts of other [[fatty acid]]s including [[linoleic acid]] (up to 21%) and [[palmitic acid]] (up to 20%). Extra virgin olive oil is required to have no more than 0.8% [[Olive oil acidity|free acidity]] and fruity flavor characteristics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jimenez-Lopez |first1=Cecilia |last2=Carpena |first2=Maria |last3=Lourenço-Lopes |first3=Catarina |last4=Gallardo-Gomez |first4=Maria |last5=Lorenzo |first5=Jose M. |last6=Barba |first6=Francisco J. |last7=Prieto |first7=Miguel A. |last8=Simal-Gandara |first8=Jesus |date=2020-07-28 |title=Bioactive Compounds and Quality of Extra Virgin Olive Oil |journal=Foods |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=1014 |doi=10.3390/foods9081014 |issn=2304-8158 |pmc=7466243 |pmid=32731481 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Table olives===
{{multiple image
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Table olives are classified by the [[International Olive Council]] (IOC) into three groups according to the degree of ripeness achieved before harvesting:<ref name="nyt">{{cite news |author1=Julia Moskin |title=Olives, Flavored by Time, Seasoned With Memories |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/17/dining/17oliv.html |access-date=28 January 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=17 October 2007 |archive-date=28 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128172728/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/17/dining/17oliv.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
# '''Green olives''' are picked when they have obtained full size, while unripe; they are usually shades of green to yellow and contain the bitter [[phytochemical]] [[oleuropein]].<ref name=nyt/>
# '''Semi-ripe or turning-colour olives''' are picked at the beginning of the ripening cycle, when the colour has begun to change from green to multicolour shades of red to brown. Only the skin is coloured, as the flesh of the fruit lacks pigmentation at this stage, unlike that of ripe olives.
# '''Black olives''' or '''ripe olives''' are picked at full maturity when fully ripe, displaying colours of purple, brown or black.<ref name=nyt/> To [[leaching (chemistry)|leach]] the oleuropein from olives, commercial producers use [[lye]], which neutralizes the bitterness of oleuropein, producing a mild flavour and soft texture characteristic of California black olives sold in cans.<ref name=nyt/> Such olives are typically preserved in [[brine]] and [[Sterilization (microbiology)#Foods|sterilized under high heat]] during the [[canning]] process.<ref name="ioc">{{cite web |title=Olives darkened by oxidation |url=https://www.internationaloliveoil.org/glossary/5875-olives-darkened-by-oxidation/ |publisher=International Olive Council |access-date=28 January 2020 |date=4 December 2019 |archive-date=28 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128172730/https://www.internationaloliveoil.org/glossary/5875-olives-darkened-by-oxidation/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
==== Fermentation and curing ====
[[File:GraberOliveHouseVatRoom.JPG|thumb|Vat room used for curing at [[Graber Olive House]]]]
Raw or fresh olives are naturally very bitter; to make them palatable, olives must be cured and [[Fermentation in food processing|fermented]], thereby removing [[oleuropein]], a bitter phenolic compound that can reach levels of 14% of dry matter in young olives.<ref name="Omar-2010">{{cite journal|pmid=21179340|pmc=3002804|year=2010|last1=Omar|first1=S.H.|title=Oleuropein in olive and its pharmacological effects|journal=Scientia Pharmaceutica|volume=78|issue=2|pages=133–154|doi=10.3797/scipharm.0912-18}}
</ref> In addition to oleuropein, other phenolic compounds render freshly picked olives unpalatable and must also be removed or lowered in quantity through curing and fermentation. Generally speaking, phenolics reach their peak in young fruit and are converted as the fruit matures.<ref name="epikouria2006"/> Once ripening occurs, the levels of phenolics sharply decline through their conversion to other organic products, which render some cultivars edible immediately.<ref name="Omar-2010"/> One example of an edible olive native to the island of [[Thasos]] is the ''throubes'' black olive, which becomes edible when allowed to ripen in the sun, shrivel, and fall from the tree.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olivessa.co.za/throubes/|title=Throubes|publisher=Olives South Africa|access-date=2017-03-22|archive-date=2013-11-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127094519/http://www.olivessa.co.za/throubes/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=Eat Like a Man |url=http://www.esquire.com/blogs/food-for-men/martini-olive-alternative-090810 |magazine=Esquire|access-date=22 September 2011|date=2010-09-08 }}</ref>
The curing process may take from a few days with lye, to a few months with brine or salt packing.<ref name="yada">{{cite web |first1=Sylvia |last1=Yada |first2=Linda |last2=Harris |url=https://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/pdf/8267.pdf |title=Olives: Safe Methods for Home Pickling |publisher=University of California, Division of Agricultural and Natural Resources |access-date=December 6, 2014 |archive-date=October 9, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009235904/https://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/pdf/8267.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> With the exception of California style and salt-cured olives, all methods of curing involve a major fermentation involving bacteria and yeast that is of equal importance to the final table olive product.<ref name="Kailis, Stanley G. 2007">Kailis, Stanley G. & Harris, David John  (2007). ''Producing table olives''. Landlinks Press.</ref> Traditional cures, using the natural microflora on the fruit to induce fermentation, lead to two important outcomes: the leaching out and breakdown of oleuropein and other unpalatable phenolic compounds, and the generation of favourable metabolites from bacteria and yeast, such as organic acids, probiotics, glycerol, and esters, which affect the sensory properties of the final table olives.<ref name="Omar-2010"/> Mixed bacterial/yeast olive fermentations may have probiotic qualities.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2012.10.004|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233986307|title=Screening of lactic acid bacteria isolated from fermented table olives with probiotic potential|journal=Food Research International|volume=50|pages=135–142|year=2013|last1=Bautista-Gallego|first1=J.|last2=Arroyo-López|first2=F.N.|last3=Rantsiou|first3=K.|last4=Jiménez-Díaz|first4=R.|last5=Garrido-Fernández|first5=A.|last6=Cocolin|first6=L.|hdl=2318/121637|s2cid=59404600 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.lwt.2011.01.029|title=Characterization of yeasts from Portuguese brined olives, with a focus on their potentially probiotic behavior|journal=LWT – Food Science and Technology|volume=44|issue=6|pages=1349|year=2011|last1=Silva|first1=T.|last2=Reto|first2=M.|last3=Sol|first3=M.|last4=Peito|first4=A.|last5=Peres|first5=C.M.|last6=Peres|first6=C.|last7=Malcata|first7=F. Xavier}}</ref> [[Lactic acid]] is the most important metabolite, as it lowers the pH, acting as a natural preservative against the growth of unwanted pathogenic species. The result is table olives which can be stored without refrigeration. Fermentations dominated by lactic acid bacteria are, therefore, the most suitable method of curing olives. Yeast-dominated fermentations produce a different suite of metabolites which provide poorer preservation, so they are corrected with an acid such as citric acid in the final processing stage to provide microbial stability.<ref name="Fernández, A. Garrido 1997"/>
The many types of preparations for table olives depend on local tastes and traditions. The most important commercial examples are listed below.
;Lebanese or Phoenician fermentation
Applied to green, semiripe, or ripe olives. Olives are soaked in salt water for 24–48 hours. Then they are slightly crushed with a rock to hasten the fermentation process. The olives are stored for a period of up to a year in a container with salt water, lemon juice, lemon peels, laurel and olive leaves, and rosemary. Some recipes may contain white vinegar or olive oil.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}
;Spanish or Sevillian fermentation
Most commonly applied to green olive preparation, around 60% of all the world's table olives are produced with this method.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=22783248|pmc=3390769|year=2012|last1=Botta|first1=C|title=Microbial dynamics and biodiversity in table olive fermentation: Culture-dependent and -independent approaches|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|volume=3|pages=245|last2=Cocolin|first2=L|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2012.00245|doi-access=free}}</ref> Olives are soaked in lye (dilute NaOH, 2–4%) for 8–10 hours to hydrolyse the oleuropein. They are usually considered "treated" when the lye has penetrated two-thirds of the way into the fruit. They are then washed once or several times in water to remove the caustic solution and transferred to fermenting vessels full of brine at typical concentrations of 8–12% NaCl.<ref>University of Catania PhD in Food Science and Technology, Food Microbiology: "Isolation and characterization of yeasts isolated from naturally fermented olives with brine bioprotective function"  Laboratory of Food Microbiology, DISPA, Agrarian Faculty.</ref> The brine is changed on a regular basis to help remove the phenolic compounds. {{citation needed|date=June 2023}}
Fermentation is carried out by the natural microbiota present on the olives that survive the lye treatment process. Many organisms are involved, usually reflecting the local conditions or ''terroir'' of the olives. During a typical fermentation [[Gram-negative bacteria|gram-negative]] [[Enterobacterales|enterobacteria]] flourish in small numbers at first but are rapidly outgrown by lactic acid bacteria species such as ''Leuconostoc mesenteroides'', ''Lactobacillus plantarum'', ''Lactobacillus brevis'' and ''Pediococcus damnosus''. These bacteria produce lactic acid to help lower the pH of the brine and therefore stabilize the product against unwanted pathogenic species. A diversity of yeasts then accumulate in sufficient numbers to help complete the fermentation alongside the lactic acid bacteria. Yeasts commonly mentioned include the teleomorphs ''[[Pichia anomala]]'', ''[[Pichia membranifaciens]]'', ''[[Debaryomyces hansenii]]'' and ''[[Kluyveromyces marxianus]]''.<ref name="Fernández, A. Garrido 1997" />
Once fermented, the olives are placed in fresh brine and acid corrected, to be ready for market.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}
;Sicilian or Greek fermentation
Applied to green, semiripe and ripe olives, they are almost identical to the Spanish type fermentation process, but the lye treatment process is skipped and the olives are placed directly in fermentation vessels full of brine (8–12% NaCl). The brine is changed on a regular basis to help remove the phenolic compounds. As the caustic treatment is avoided, lactic acid bacteria are only present in similar numbers to yeast and appear to be outdone by the abundant yeasts found on untreated olives. As very little acid is produced by the yeast fermentation, lactic, acetic, or citric acid is often added to the fermentation stage to stabilize the process.<ref name="Kailis, Stanley G. 2007" />
;Picholine or directly brined fermentation
Applied to green, semi-ripe, or ripe olives, they are soaked in lye typically for longer periods than Spanish style (e.g. 10–72 hours) until the solution has penetrated three-quarters of the way into the fruit. They are then washed and immediately brined and acid corrected with citric acid to achieve microbial stability. Fermentation still occurs carried out by acidogenic yeast and bacteria but is more subdued than other methods. The brine is changed on a regular basis to help remove the phenolic compounds, and a series of progressively stronger concentrations of salt are added until the product is fully stabilized and ready to be eaten.<ref name="Fernández, A. Garrido 1997" />
;Water-cured fermentation
Applied to green, semi-ripe, or ripe olives, these are soaked in water or weak brine and this solution is changed on a daily basis for 10–14 days. The oleuropein is naturally dissolved and leached into the water and removed during a continual soak-wash cycle. Fermentation takes place during the water treatment stage and involves a mixed yeast/bacteria ecosystem. Sometimes, the olives are lightly cracked with a blunt instrument to trigger fermentation and speed up the fermentation process. Once debittered, the olives are brined to concentrations of 8–12% NaCl and acid corrected and are then ready to eat.<ref name="Kailis, Stanley G. 2007" />
;Salt-cured fermentation
Applied only to ripe olives, since it is only a light fermentation. They are usually produced in Morocco, Turkey, and other eastern Mediterranean countries. Once picked, the olives are vigorously washed and packed in alternating layers with salt. The high concentration of salt draws the moisture out of olives, dehydrating and shriveling them until they look somewhat analogous to a raisin. Once packed in salt, fermentation is minimal and only initiated by the most halophilic yeast species such as ''Debaryomyces hansenii''. Once cured, they are sold in their natural state without any additives.<ref name="Fernández, A. Garrido 1997" /> So-called '''oil-cured olives''' are cured in salt, and then soaked in oil.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oil-Cured Olives: A Kalamata Substitute?|url=https://www.cooksillustrated.com/how_tos/9998-oil-cured-olives-a-kalamata-substitute|publisher=Cooks Illustrated|date=May 2016|access-date=27 November 2016|archive-date=7 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407015508/https://www.cooksillustrated.com/how_tos/9998-oil-cured-olives-a-kalamata-substitute|url-status=live}}</ref>
;California or artificial ripening
Applied to green and semi-ripe olives, they are placed in lye and soaked. Upon their removal, they are washed in water injected with compressed air, without fermentation. This process is repeated several times until both oxygen and lye have soaked through to the pit. The repeated, saturated exposure to air oxidises the skin and flesh of the fruit, turning it black in an artificial process that mimics natural ripening. Once fully oxidised or "blackened", they are brined and acid corrected and are then ready for eating.<ref name="nyt" /><ref name="ioc" />
===Olive wood===
[[File:Olive cookware in Montenegro.jpg|thumb|Olivewood cookware]]
Olive wood is very hard and tough and is prized for its durability, colour, high combustion temperature, and interesting grain patterns. Because of the commercial importance of the fruit, slow growth, and relatively small size of the tree, olive wood and its products are relatively expensive. Common uses of olive wood include: kitchen utensils, carved wooden bowls, cutting boards, fine furniture, and decorative items. The yellow or light greenish-brown wood is often finely veined with a darker tint; being very hard and close-grained, it is valued by woodworkers.<ref>{{cite book|title=Edible Trees|date=1969|publisher=AnVi OpenSource Knowledge Trust|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bgUqDAAAQBAJ}}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
===Ornamental uses===
In modern landscape design olive trees are frequently used as ornamental features for their distinctively gnarled trunks and evergreen silvery-gray foliage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gardenista.com/posts/simple-landscaping-ideas-10-genius-gardens-with-an-olive-tree/|title=Genius Garden Ideas: 10 Landscapes with Olive Trees|website=www.gardenista.com|access-date=29 July 2018|date=2018-07-29|archive-date=2015-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815004954/https://www.gardenista.com/posts/simple-landscaping-ideas-10-genius-gardens-with-an-olive-tree/|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Cultivation==
[[File:Olive niche.jpg|thumb|Areas of cultivation in green<ref name="Oteros (2014)">Oteros, Jose (2014). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261005349_Modelizacin_del_ciclo_fenolgico_reproductor_del_olivo_%28Olea_europaea_L.%29?ev=prf_pub Modelización del ciclo fenológico reproductor del olivo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827013607/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261005349_Modelizacin_del_ciclo_fenolgico_reproductor_del_olivo_%28Olea_europaea_L.%29?ev=prf_pub |date=2016-08-27 }}. PhD Thesis. [[University of Córdoba (Spain)]]</ref>|alt=Map of the distribution of cultivation in the Mediterranean Basin]]
The earliest evidence for the domestication of olives comes from the [[Chalcolithic]] period archaeological site of [[Teleilat el Ghassul]] in modern Jordan. Farmers in ancient times believed that olive trees would not grow well if planted more than a certain distance from the sea; [[Theophrastus]] gives 300 [[Stadion (unit)|stadia]] ({{convert|55.6|km|mi|disp=or|abbr=on}}) as the limit. Modern experience does not always confirm this, and, though showing a preference for the coast, they have long been grown further inland in some areas with suitable climates, particularly in the southwestern Mediterranean ([[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] and northwest Africa) where winters are mild. An article on olive tree cultivation in Spain is brought down in [[Ibn al-'Awwam]]'s 12th-century agricultural work, ''Book on Agriculture''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ibn al-'Awwam|first=Yaḥyá|author-link=Ibn al-'Awwam|title=Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah) |year=1864|location=Paris|publisher=A. Franck|translator=J.-J. Clement-Mullet |pages=207–225 (ch. 7 - Article 1)|url=https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n14/mode/2up |language=fr|oclc=780050566}} (pp. [https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n316/mode/2up 207]–225 (Article I)</ref>
[[File:Olive trees A-3176 1.jpg|thumb|[[Andalucía]], Spain|alt=Plantation in [[Andalucía]], Spain]]
Olives are cultivated in many regions of the world with [[Mediterranean climate]]s, such as South Africa, Chile, Peru, Pakistan, Australia, Oregon, and California, and in areas with [[temperate climate]]s such as New Zealand.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Torres |first1=Mariela |last2=Pierantozzi |first2=Pierluigi |last3=Searles |first3=Peter |last4=Rousseaux |first4=M. Cecilia |last5=García-Inza |first5=Georgina |last6=Miserere |first6=Andrea |last7=Bodoira |first7=Romina |last8=Contreras |first8=Cibeles |last9=Maestri |first9=Damián |date=2017-10-27 |title=Olive Cultivation in the Southern Hemisphere: Flowering, Water Requirements and Oil Quality Responses to New Crop Environments |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=8 |pages=1830 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2017.01830 |issn=1664-462X |pmc=5663689 |pmid=29163569|doi-access=free }}</ref> They are also grown in the [[Córdoba Province, Argentina]], which has a temperate climate with rainy summers and dry winters.<ref>''Enciclopedia Universal Europeo Americana''. Volume 15. Madrid (1981). Espasa-Calpe S.A. {{ISBN|84-239-4500-6}} (Complete Encyclopedia) and {{ISBN|84-239-4515-4}}</ref>
[[File:Olives au marche de Toulon p1040238.jpg|thumb|right|Market in [[Toulon]], France|alt=Olives at a market in [[Toulon]], France]]
===Growth and propagation===
[[File:Olive Grove prunings in neat rows. Ostuni, Puglia.jpg|thumb|right|Pruned trees in [[Ostuni]], Apulia, Italy|alt=Pruned trees in neat rows at [[Ostuni]], Apulia, Italy]]
Olive trees show a marked preference for [[Lime (material)|calcareous]] [[soil]]s, flourishing best on [[limestone]] slopes and crags, and coastal climate conditions. They grow in any light soil, even on clay if well drained, but in rich soils, they are predisposed to disease and produce poor quality oil. (This was noted by Pliny the Elder.) Olives like hot weather and sunny positions without any shade, while temperatures below {{convert|-10|C|F}} may injure even a mature tree. They tolerate [[drought]] well because of their sturdy and extensive [[root]] systems. Olive trees can remain productive for centuries as long as they are pruned correctly and regularly.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
Only a handful of olive varieties can be used to cross-pollinate. 'Pendolino' olive trees are partially self-fertile, but pollenizers are needed for a large fruit crop. Other compatible olive tree pollinators include 'Leccino' and 'Maurino'. 'Pendolino' olive trees are used extensively as pollinizers in large olive tree groves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marcia |title=Pendolino Olive Trees for Sale |url=https://olivesunlimited.com/portfolio-item/pendolino-olive-tree/ |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=Olives Unlimited |language=en-US}}</ref>
Olives are propagated by various methods. The preferred ways are cuttings and layers; the tree roots easily in favourable soil and throws up [[Basal shoot|sucker]]s from the stump when cut down. However, yields from trees grown from suckers or seeds are poor; they must be [[budding|budded]] or [[grafting|grafted]] onto other specimens to do well.<ref>Lewington and Parker, 114.</ref> Branches of various thickness cut into lengths around {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on|frac=2}} planted deeply in [[manure]]d ground soon vegetate. Shorter pieces are sometimes laid horizontally in shallow trenches and, when covered with a few centimetres of soil, rapidly throw up sucker-like shoots. In Greece, grafting the cultivated tree on the wild tree is a common practice. In Italy, embryonic buds, which form small swellings on the stems, are carefully excised and planted under the soil surface, where they soon form a vigorous shoot.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
The olive is also sometimes grown from seed. To facilitate [[germination]], the oily pericarp is first softened by slight rotting, or soaked in hot water or in an alkaline solution.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
In situations where extreme cold has damaged or killed the olive tree, the rootstock can survive and produce new shoots which in turn become new trees. In this way, olive trees can regenerate themselves. In Tuscany in 1985, a very severe frost destroyed many productive and aged olive trees and ruined many farmers' livelihoods.<ref name="Lydecker 1985 d662">{{cite news | last=Lydecker | first=Toni | title=The Italian Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Disaster | newspaper=Washington Post | date=August 18, 1985 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/food/1985/08/18/the-italian-extra-virgin-olive-oil-disaster/2a00c9bc-ce00-4c99-8714-a2a7691a09d1/ | access-date=January 14, 2024}}</ref> However, new shoots appeared in the spring and, once the dead wood was removed, became the basis for new fruit-producing trees.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
Olives grow very slowly, and over many years, the trunk can attain a considerable diameter. [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle|A. P. de Candolle]] recorded one exceeding {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} in girth. The trees rarely exceed {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on|round=5}} in height and are generally confined to much more limited dimensions by frequent pruning. Olives are very hardy and are resistant to disease and fire. Its root system is robust and capable of regenerating the tree even if the above-ground structure is destroyed. {{citation needed|date=June 2023}}
The crop from old trees is sometimes enormous, but they seldom bear well two years in succession, and in many cases, a large harvest occurs every sixth or seventh season. Where the olive is carefully cultivated, as in [[Liguria]], [[Languedoc]], and [[Provence]], the trees are regularly pruned. The pruning preserves the flower-bearing shoots of the preceding year, while keeping the tree low enough to allow the easy gathering of the fruit. The spaces between the trees are regularly fertilized.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}
{{anchor|Pests|Diseases}}
===Pests, diseases, and weather===
Various [[plant pathology|pathologies]] can affect olives. The most serious pest is the [[olive fruit fly]] (''Dacus oleae'' or ''Bactrocera oleae'') which lays its eggs in the olive most commonly just before it becomes ripe in the autumn. The region surrounding the puncture rots, becomes brown, and takes a bitter taste, making the olive unfit for eating or for oil. For controlling the pest, the practice has been to spray with insecticides ([[organophosphate]]s, e.g. [[dimethoate]]). Classic organic methods have been applied such as trapping, applying the bacterium ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'', and spraying with [[Kaolinite|kaolin]]. Such methods are obligatory for organic olives.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}
A [[fungus]], ''Cycloconium oleaginum'', can infect the trees for several successive seasons, causing great damage to plantations. A species of bacterium, ''[[Pseudomonas savastanoi]]'' pv. ''oleae'',<ref name=j1/> induces tumour growth in the shoots. Certain [[Lepidoptera|lepidopterous]] [[caterpillar]]s feed on the leaves and flowers. ''[[Xylella fastidiosa]]'' bacteria, which can also infect citrus fruit and vines, has attacked olive trees in [[Apulia]], southern Italy, causing [[olive quick decline syndrome]] (OQDS).<ref name="ESPM Dept">{{cite web|url=http://ourenvironment.berkeley.edu/2015/02/minimizing-the-spread-of-disease-in-italys-famous-olive-trees/|title=Minimizing the Spread of Disease in Italy's Famous Olive Trees|date=9 February 2015|website=Our Environment at Berkeley|publisher=[[University of California, Berkeley]]|access-date=5 May 2015|archive-date=25 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325133837/http://ourenvironment.berkeley.edu/2015/02/minimizing-the-spread-of-disease-in-italys-famous-olive-trees/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-32031233 | title=Olive tree disease spreads in Italy| work=BBC News| date=2015-03-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Petroni |first1=Agostino |title=The Farmer Trying to Save Italy's Ancient Olive Trees |journal=Atlas Obscura |date=29 April 2021 |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/olive-oil-disease-italy |access-date=12 May 2021}}</ref> The main vector is ''[[Philaenus spumarius]]'' (meadow spittlebug).<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1007/s10658-015-0784-7|title = The olive quick decline syndrome in south-east Italy: A threatening phytosanitary emergency|journal = European Journal of Plant Pathology|volume = 144|issue = 2|pages = 235–243|year = 2015|last1 = Martelli|first1 = G. P|last2 = Boscia|first2 = D|last3 = Porcelli|first3 = F|last4 = Saponari|first4 = M|s2cid = 16126474}}</ref>
A pest that spreads through olive trees is the black scale bug, a small black [[scale insect]] that resembles a small black spot. They attach themselves firmly to olive trees and reduce the quality of the fruit; their main predators are wasps. The [[Plum curculio|curculio beetle]] eats the edges of leaves, leaving sawtooth damage.<ref name="burr">Burr, M. (1999). ''Australian Olives. A guide for growers and producers of virgin oils'', 4th edition. {{ISBN|0-9577583-0-8}}.</ref>
[[Rabbit]]s eat the bark of olive trees and can do considerable damage, especially to young trees. If the bark is removed around the entire circumference of a tree, it is likely to die. Voles and mice also do damage by eating the roots of olives. At the northern edge of their cultivation zone, for instance in northern Italy, southern France and [[Olive production in Switzerland|Switzerland]], olive trees suffer occasionally from frost.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.patrimoineculinaire.ch/Prodotti#471 | title=Olio d'oliva ticinese | publisher=[[Culinary Heritage of Switzerland]] | accessdate=9 March 2022 | quote=Nel 1494, 1600 e 1709, gli oliveti vennero quasi completamente distrutti dal gelo. Anni dopo, furono accantonati in favore dei gelsi, così da promuovere l’allevamento dei bachi da seta. Verso la fine degli anni ’80 del secolo scorso, la coltivazione dell’olivo è stata ripresa | trans-quote=In 1494, 1600 and 1709, frost destroyed almost all the olive trees. Later, they were replaced by mulberry trees to promote the breeding of silkworms. Olive cultivation in Ticino was revived at the end of the 1980s | archive-date=26 June 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626130640/https://www.patrimoineculinaire.ch/Prodotti#471 | url-status=live }}</ref> Gales and long-continued rains during the gathering season also cause damage. In the colder Mediterranean hinterland, olive cultivation is replaced by other fruits, typically the [[chestnut]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Stefano Mazzoleni |title=Recent Dynamics of the Mediterranean Vegetation and Landscape |page=145 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |date=2004 |isbn=9780470093702 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s88vzd9PwkkC |quote=In the coastal areas, the olive groves are tightly interwoven with low maquis, garrigue and steppe, which have been widely grazed and, consequently, burned. On the other hand, low mountains and inland hills have chestnut and mixed deciduous coppiced woods. The actual boundaries between these two different vegetation landscapes can be found at different altitudes according to local climatic conditions; higher (about 1000m asl) in the eastern and southern areas, and lower and close to the sea in the central and northern basin. |access-date=2023-01-30 |archive-date=2023-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122131645/https://books.google.com/books?id=s88vzd9PwkkC |url-status=live }}</ref>
===As an invasive species===
[[File:Invasive weeds in the adelaide hills.jpg|right|thumb|As an invasive weed, [[Adelaide Hills]], South Australia|alt=Olives as invasive weeds, [[Adelaide Hills]], South Australia]]
Since its first domestication, ''O. europaea'' has been spreading back to the wild from planted groves. Its original wild populations in southern Europe have been largely swamped by [[feral]] plants.<ref name=j6/>
In some other parts of the world where it has been introduced, most notably [[South Australia]], the olive has become a major [[weed]] that displaces native vegetation. In South Australia, its seeds are spread by the introduced [[red fox]] and by many bird species, including the [[Common starling|European starling]] and the native [[emu]], into woodlands, where they germinate and eventually form a dense canopy that prevents regeneration of native trees.<ref name=j7/> As the climate of South Australia is very dry and bushfire prone, the oil-rich feral olive tree substantially increases the fire hazard of native [[sclerophyll]] woodlands.<ref>[http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/37900/Olives_weed.pdf Olives as Weeds] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205144030/http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/37900/Olives_weed.pdf |date=February 5, 2013 }} Animal and Plant Control Commission of South Australia</ref>
===Harvesting===
Olives are harvested in the autumn and winter. More specifically in the Northern Hemisphere, green olives are picked from the end of September to about the middle of November. In the Southern Hemisphere, green olives are picked from the middle of October to the end of November, and black olives are collected worldwide from the middle of November to the end of January or early February. In southern Europe, harvesting is done for several weeks in winter, but the time varies in each country, and with the season and the cultivar.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}
[[File:Olive harvest in Baruffi.png|thumb|Olive harvest in Baruffi (Impruneta, Tuscany, Italy) min 2016]]
Most olives today are harvested by shaking the boughs or the whole tree. Using olives found lying on the ground can result in poor quality oil, due to damage. Another method involves standing on a ladder and "milking" the olives into a sack tied around the harvester's waist. This method produces high quality oil.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olivemuseum.com/harvest-olives.html|title=Methods for harvesting olive fruit|publisher=olivemuseum.com|access-date=2 April 2014|archive-date=28 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228120928/http://olivemuseum.com/harvest-olives.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>  A third method uses a device called an oli-net that wraps around the tree trunk and opens to form an umbrella-like catcher from which workers collect the fruit. Another method uses an electric tool, the beater (''abbacchiatore'' in Italian), that has large tongs that spin around quickly, removing fruit from the tree.
Table olive varieties are more difficult to harvest, as workers must take care not to damage the fruit; baskets that hang around the worker's neck are used. In some places in Italy, Croatia, and Greece, olives are harvested by hand because the terrain is too mountainous for machines. As a result, the fruit is not bruised, which leads to a superior finished product. The method also involves sawing off branches, which is healthy for future production.<ref name="epikouria2006">"Unusual Olives", ''Epikouria Magazine'', Spring/Summer 2006</ref>
The amount of oil contained in the fruit differs greatly by cultivar; the [[Fruit anatomy|pericarp]] is usually 60–70% oil. Typical yields are {{convert|1.5|–|2.2|kg|lboz|abbr=on}} of oil per tree per year.<ref name=r1/>
==Global production==
Olives are one of the most extensively cultivated fruit crops in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/olive/intro.jsp |title=FAO, 2004 |publisher=Apps3.fao.org |access-date=2009-05-18 |archive-date=2007-03-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313202743/http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/olive/intro.jsp |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2011, about {{convert|9.6|e6ha|e6acre|abbr=off}} were planted with olive trees, which is more than twice the amount of land devoted to [[apple]]s, [[banana]]s, or [[mango]]es. Only [[coconut tree]]s and [[oil palm]]s command more space.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor| title = Faostat.fao.org (2012-02-23). Retrieved on 2012-07-08| access-date = 2010-08-11| archive-date = 2012-06-19| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120619130038/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor| url-status = live}}</ref> Cultivation area tripled from {{convert|2.6|to|7.95|e6ha|e6acre|abbr=off}} between 1960 and 1998 and reached a peak of {{convert|10|e6ha|e6acre|abbr=off}} in 2008. Olive production in the Mediterranean region has declined since 2019 due to climate, economic and political factors. The 10 most-producing countries, according to the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]], are all located in the Mediterranean region and produce 95% of the world's olives.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize |access-date=2024-06-02 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref> In Italy, cultivation of olive trees is widespread in the south, counting for three quarters of its production. Due to the climate, it is less abundant in the north of Italy, although growth has increased, particularly in the more temperate [[microclimate]]s of [[Liguria]] and the hills around [[Lake Garda]]. Approximately 170 million plants distributed over 1 million farms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.madeinsouthitalytoday.com/made-in-italy-olive-oil.php|title=Italy olive oil production|website=www.madeinsouthitalytoday.com}}</ref>
[[File:Porducción de olivas.PNG|upright=1.8|thumb|'''o''' = {{convert|100,000|MT}} produced/year|alt=Map of production in the Mediterranean basin. '''o''' = {{convert|100,000|MT}}/year.]]
{{stack begin | float=left}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Main countries of production (Year 2016 per FAOSTAT)<ref>{{cite web| url = http://faostat.fao.org/| title = FAOSTAT| access-date = 2010-08-11| archive-date = 2013-01-18| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130118190636/http://faostat.fao.org/| url-status = live}}</ref>
|-
! Country/Region
! Production <br /> ([[tonne]]s)
! Cultivated area <br /> ([[hectare]]s)
! Yield <br /> (tonnes/ha)
|-
|World
| style="text-align:right;"| 19,267,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 10,650,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 1.8091
|-
|{{Flag|European Union}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 11,686,528
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,028,637
| style="text-align:right;"| 2.3240
|-
| {{Flag|Spain}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 6,560,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,573,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 2.5490
|-
| {{Flag|Greece}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,343,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 887,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 2.6414
|-
| {{Flag|Italy}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,092,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,165,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 1.7950
|-
| {{Flag|Turkey}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,730,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 846,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 2.0460
|-
| {{Flag|Morocco}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,416,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,008,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 1.4044
|-
| {{Flag|Syria}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 899,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 765,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 1.1748
|-
| {{Flag|Tunisia}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 700,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,646,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 0.4253
|-
| {{Flag|Algeria}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 697,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 424,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 1.6437
|-
| {{Flag|Egypt}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 694,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 67,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.7293
|-
| {{Flag|Portugal}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 617,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 355,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 1.7394
|}
{{stack end}}
{{stack begin}}
{{stack end}}
{{clear}}
==Nutrition==
{{Infobox nutritional value
| name=Olives, green
| image=Olives vertes.JPG
| caption = Marinated green olives
| kJ=609
| protein=1.03 g
| fat=15.32 g
| satfat=2.029 g
| monofat=11.314 g
| polyfat=1.307 g
| carbs=3.84 g
| fiber=3.3 g
| sugars=0.54 g
| calcium_mg=52
| iron_mg=0.49
| magnesium_mg=11
| phosphorus_mg=4
| potassium_mg=42
| sodium_mg=1556
| thiamin_mg=0.021
| riboflavin_mg=0.007
| niacin_mg=0.237
| vitB6_mg=0.031
| folate_ug=3
| choline_mg=14.2
| vitA_ug=20
| betacarotene_ug=231
| lutein_ug=510
| vitE_mg=3.81
| vitK_ug=1.4
| opt1n=Water
| opt1v=75.3 g
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://web.archive.org/web/20161021095406/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2283?fgcd=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&sort=&qlookup=olive&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby= Full Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
One hundred grams of cured green olives provide 146 [[calorie]]s, are a rich source of [[vitamin E]] (25% of the [[Daily Value]], DV), and contain a large amount of [[sodium]] (104% DV); other nutrients are insignificant. Green olives are 75% [[water]], 15% [[fat]], 4% [[carbohydrate]]s and 1% [[protein]] (table).
==Phytochemicals==
The [[polyphenol]] composition of olive fruits varies during fruit ripening and during processing by fermentation when olives are immersed whole in brine or crushed to produce oil.<ref name=phenolexplorer45/> In raw fruit, total polyphenol contents, as measured by the [[Folin–Ciocalteu reagent|Folin method]], are 117&nbsp;mg/100 g in black olives and 161&nbsp;mg/100 g in green olives, compared to 55 and 21&nbsp;mg/100 g for extra virgin and virgin olive oil, respectively.<ref name="phenolexplorer45">{{cite web|publisher=Phenol-Explorer|title=Olives and olive oil|url=http://phenol-explorer.eu/reports/45#olive|access-date=December 5, 2014|archive-date=September 25, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925235832/http://phenol-explorer.eu/reports/45#olive|url-status=live}}</ref> Olive fruit contains several types of polyphenols, mainly [[tyrosol]]s, [[phenolic acid]]s, [[flavonol]]s and [[flavones]], and for black olives, [[anthocyanin]]s. The main bitter flavor of olives before curing results from [[oleuropein]] and [[oleuropein aglycone|its aglycone]] which total in content, respectively, 72 and 82&nbsp;mg/100 g in black olives, and 56 and 59&nbsp;mg/100 g in green olives.<ref name=phenolexplorer45/>
During the crushing, kneading and extraction of olive fruit to obtain olive oil, oleuropein, [[demethyloleuropein]] and [[ligstroside]] are [[hydrolysis|hydrolyzed]] by endogenous [[beta-glucosidase]]s<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Romero-Segura |first1=C. |last2=García-Rodríguez |first2=R. |last3=Sanz |first3=C. |last4=Pérez |first4=A. G. |title=Virgin Olive Phenolic Profile as a Result of the Anabolic and Catabolic Enzymes Status in the Olive Fruit |url=https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/53947/4/VOO.pdf |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=DIGITAL.CSIC |archive-date=2023-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518154438/https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/53947/4/VOO.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> to form [[aldehyde]]s, [[dialdehyde]]s, and aldehydic [[aglycone]]s.<ref name="Cicerale-et-al-2008">{{cite journal |last1=Cicerale |first1=Sara |last2=Conlan |first2=Xavier A. |last3=Sinclair |first3=Andrew J. |last4=Keast |first4=Russell S. J. |title=Chemistry and Health of Olive Oil Phenolics |journal=[[Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=49 |issue=3 |date=2008-12-17 |issn=1040-8398 |doi=10.1080/10408390701856223 |pages=218–236 |pmid=19093267 |s2cid=38244644}}</ref> Polyphenol content also varies with olive cultivar and the manner of presentation, with plain olives having higher contents than those that are pitted or stuffed.<ref name="Cicerale-et-al-2008" /><ref name="Romero-et-al-2004">{{cite journal |journal=J Agric Food Chem |year=2004 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=479–484 |title=Effect of cultivar and processing method on the contents of polyphenols in table olives |vauthors=Romero C, Brenes M, Yousfi K, García P, García A, Garrido A |pmid=14759136 |doi=10.1021/jf030525l |s2cid=36821085}}</ref>
==Allergenic potential==
Olive tree pollen is extremely allergenic, with an [[OPALS (Ogren Plant Allergy Scale)|OPALS]] allergy scale rating of 10 out of 10.<ref name=Ogren>{{cite book |last1=Ogren |first1=Thomas |title=The Allergy-Fighting Garden |date=2015 |publisher=Ten Speed Press |location=Berkeley, CA |isbn=978-1-60774-491-7 |page=159}}</ref> ''Olea europaea'' is primarily wind-pollinated<ref>{{cite web |last1=Polito |first1=V. |title=Pollination and Fruit Set |url=http://ceglenn.ucdavis.edu/files/90444.pdf |access-date=12 May 2015 |archive-date=4 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204120225/http://ceglenn.ucdavis.edu/files/90444.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and its light, buoyant pollen is a strong trigger for asthma.<ref name = "Ogren" /> One popular variety, "Swan Hill", is widely sold as an "allergy-free" olive tree; however, this variety does bloom and produce allergenic pollen.<ref name="Ogren" />
==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Olive-tree-trunk-0.jpg|alt=Olive tree trunk
File:Olive blossoms.jpg|alt=Flowers
File:Alliste. Olivo della Linza.jpg|Olivo della Linza, 15th century
File:Olea europaea young plant01.jpg|A seed-grown sprout|alt=A sprout, germinated from a seed
File:Filet Olive de Nice.jpg|''[[Cailletier]]'' cultivar, with a harvest net on the ground, [[Contes, Alpes-Maritimes|Contes]], France
File:Shodoshima Olive Park Shodo Island Japan23bs34.jpg|alt=Trees on Shōdo Island, Japan|[[Shōdo Island]], Japan
File:Olivenhain Alexandroupolis.jpg|alt=Grove near Alexandroupolis, Greece|Near [[Alexandroupoli]]s, Greece
File:Mediterranean Olives.jpg|alt=Trees near houses
</gallery>
==See also==
* [[List of olive cultivars]]
* [[Moria (tree)]]
* [[Olive skin]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name=r1>{{cite book|author1=Oliver Rackham|author2=Jennifer Alice Moody|title=The making of the Cretan landscape|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k4dHmA9jq4wC|year=1996|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-3647-7}} cited in {{cite journal|author=F.R. Riley |year=2002|title=Olive Oil Production on Bronze Age Crete: Nutritional properties, Processing methods, and Storage life of Minoan olive oil|doi=10.1111/1468-0092.00149|journal=Oxford Journal of Archaeology|volume=21|page=63}}</ref>
<ref name=j1>{{cite journal|author=Janse, J.D. |year=1982|title=''Pseudomonas syringae'' subsp. ''savastanoi'' (ex Smith) subsp. nov., nom. rev., the bacterium causing excrescences on ''Oleaceae'' and ''Nerium oleander'' L |journal=Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. |volume=32|pages=166–169|doi=10.1099/00207713-32-2-166|issue=2 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=j2>{{cite journal|author=Green PS |year=2002|title=A revision of Olea L. (Oleaceae) |journal=Kew Bulletin |volume=57|pages=91–140|jstor=4110824|doi=10.2307/4110824|issue=1|bibcode=2002KewBu..57...91G }}</ref>
<ref name=j3>{{cite journal|vauthors=Besnard G, Rubio de Casas R, Christin PA, Vargas P |title=Phylogenetics of Olea (Oleaceae) based on plastid and nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences: Tertiary climatic shifts and lineage differentiation times|doi=10.1093/aob/mcp105|year=2009|journal=Annals of Botany|volume=104|pages=143–160|pmid=19465750|issue=1|pmc=2706730}}</ref>
<ref name=j5>{{cite journal|vauthors=Besnard G, Garcia-Verdugo C, Rubio de Casas R, Treier UA, Galland N, Vargas P |title=Polyploidy in the Olive Complex (''Olea europaea''): Evidence from Flow Cytometry and Nuclear Microsatellite Analyses|doi=10.1093/aob/mcm275|year=2008|journal=Annals of Botany|volume=101|pages=25–30|pmid=18024415|issue=1|pmc=2701839}}</ref>
<ref name=j6>{{cite journal|title=Ancient wild olives in Mediterranean forests|doi=10.1038/35099680|year=2001|last1=Lumaret|first1=Roselyne|last2=Ouazzani|first2=Noureddine|journal=Nature|volume=413|issue=6857|page=700|pmid=11607022|bibcode=2001Natur.413..700L|s2cid=4387691|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name=j7>{{cite journal|title=Feral olives (''Olea europaea'') as future woody weeds in Australia: a review|journal=Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture|volume=40|pages= 889–901|doi=10.1071/EA98141|year=2000|last1=Spennemann|first1=D.H.R.|last2=Allen|first2=L.R.|issue=6 }}</ref>
<ref name=j8>{{cite journal |vauthors=Valverde P, Barranco D, López-Escudero FJ, Díez CM, Trapero C |title=Efficiency of breeding olives for resistance to Verticillium wilt |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=22 February 2023 |volume=14 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2023.1149570 |pmid=36909426 |doi-access=free |pmc=9994353 }}</ref>
}}
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons category multi|Olea europaea|Olives}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?25555 Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture; Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN): ''Olea europaea'']
* [https://www.ginartoleas.com/productos/oleas-olivos/ Most Common Spanish Olea Trees, Ginart Oleas]
{{Olives}}
{{Mediterranean cuisine}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q37083}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Olives| ]]
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