View source for Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1586–1589)

{{short description|2nd military encounter between Portuguese and Ottoman Empire}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts
| image             = Braun Mombasa HAAB.jpg
| image_size        = 300px
| caption           = 16th century depiction of Mombasa.
| partof            = the [[Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations]]
| date              = 1586–1589 ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|year1=1586|year2=1589}})
| place             = [[East Africa]]n coast
| result            = Portuguese victory<ref>Soucek, 2008, p.50.</ref><ref>Monteiro, 1993, p. 239.</ref>
| combatant1        = [[Portuguese Empire]] <br>''supported by''<br> [[Malindi]] <br> Zimbas
| combatant2        = [[Ottoman Empire]]<br> [[Ajuran Sultanate]]<br>''supported by''<br>[[Mogadishu]]<br>[[Barawa]]<br>[[Lamu]]<br>[[Pate Island|Pate]]<br>[[Faza]]<br>[[Mombasa]]<br>[[Pemba Island|Pemba]]
| commander1        = Dom Duarte de Meneses<br>
*Martim Afonso de Melo
Manuel de Sousa Coutinho<br>
*Tomé de Sousa Coutinho
*Mateus de Vasconcelos
| commander2        = [[Mir Ali Beg]]{{POW}}
| strength1         =
| strength2         =
| casualties1       = Few
| casualties2       = 70 dead<ref name="Denvers, 1894, p.83">Denvers, 1894, p.83.</ref><br>230 {{POW}}<ref>Monteiro, 1993, 239.</ref>
}}
{{Campaignbox Portuguese-Turkish War}}
{{Portuguese colonial campaigns}}
The '''Ottoman–Portuguese Conflicts''' (1586–1589) were armed military engagements which took place between the [[Portuguese Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]]  along the coast of eastern Africa.
==Expedition of Mir Ali Beg to East Africa, 1586==
In January 1586, a Turkish privateer named [[Mir Ali Beg]] sailed from [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] in [[Yemen]] to the [[Horn of Africa]], intending to disrupt Portuguese shipping in the region. He began informing the Sultan that the naval forces of the Ottoman Empire in the Indian Ocean were unable to protect against Portuguese expansion. Consequently, Sultan [[Murad III]] sent Mir Ali down with two other ships that were tasked with defending the [[Swahili coast]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Casale|first=Giancarlo|date=September 2007|title=Global Politics in the 1580s: One Canal, Twenty Thousand Cannibals, and an Ottoman Plot to Rule the World|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20079433|journal=Journal of World History|volume=18|issue=3 |pages=269–272|doi=10.1353/jwh.2007.0020 |jstor=20079433 |s2cid=144507249 }}</ref>  Additionally, Mir Ali Beg convinced the inhabitants of [[Mogadishu]] to join the fight against the Portuguese, and thus was joined by a few local vessels in support of his endeavors. The people of [[Barawa]] and [[Faza]] also declared their allegiance to the Ottoman Empire and, in the end, Mir Ali Beg had about 15 vessels.<ref name="Saturnino Monteiro 2011 P.140">Saturnino Monteiro (2011): Portuguese Sea Battles - Volume IV - 1580-1603. p.&nbsp;140</ref>  At [[Pate Island|Pate]], Mir Ali Beg captured a Portuguese merchant [[carrack]]. At [[Lamu]], Mir Ali Beg captured a small galley belonging to Roque de Brito Falcão, while the king of Lamu delivered his city's Portuguese refugees to the Turks. Mir Ali Beg also established a fort at [[Mombasa]].<ref name="Saturnino Monteiro 2011 P.140"/>
Setting sail back to Mocha, Mir Ali Beg captured another Portuguese carrack in Pate that had just arrived from [[Chaul]], promising their passengers their freedom in exchange for their cargo—a promise which Mir Ali Beg did not keep, resulting in the passengers' enslavement.<ref name="Saturnino Monteiro 2011 P.141">Saturnino Monteiro (2011): Portuguese Sea Battles - Volume IV - 1580-1603. p.&nbsp;141</ref> Mir Ali Beg returned to Mocha with about 20 vessels and 100 Portuguese refugees, who were later ransomed.<ref name="Saturnino Monteiro 2011 P.141"/>
==Expedition of Ruy Gonçalves da Câmara to the Red Sea, 1586==
In the fall of 1585 the Portuguese dispatched a fleet to south Arabia with instructions to attack Muslim shipping.<ref name=Casale>Casale, Giancarlo. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xf3h3Z1YQtIC&pg=PA167 The Ottoman Age of Exploration.] United States: Oxford University Press, USA, 2010.</ref> This was led by Ruy Gonçalves da Câmara and was the first serious attempt by the Portuguese to restrict access to the [[Red Sea]] in more than a decade.<ref name=Casale /> Furthermore, the fleet, numbering 26 vessels was one of the largest naval force sent to the region by the Portuguese.<ref name=Casale />
While anchored at a bay 30 miles south of Mocha Rui Gonçalves landed a scouting party of 70 men to fetch water for the fleet, but it was attacked by a force of 2000 Turkish horsemen from Mocha and forced to reembark the following day, having suffered five or six dead,<ref>Saturnino Monteiro: ''Batalhas e Combates da Marinha Portuguesa'' Volume IV 1580-1603, Livraria Sá da Costa Editora, 1993, p.146</ref> The Portuguese lost one of their own Vessels in the coastal ambush.<ref name=Casale /> This was later reported by Ottoman authorities as a major victory.
Despite the numerical strength of the Portuguese fleet, Ruy Gonçalves da Câmara failed to catch any ship in four months and withdrew to Muscat afflicted by thirst in 1586,<ref name=Casale /> The failed attack on the red sea discouraged the Portuguese from launching more expeditions as demonstrated in [[Philip II of Spain|Philip's]] letter to the Viceroy of Goa:<ref name=Casale />
{{Blockquote|text=Since in these parts [i.e. Europe] there are many affairs deserving of attention, it will
from now on be necessary for you to preserve the gains that have already been made rather than seek out new ventures. Keep in mind that offensive wars have many disadvantages, as has been demonstrated by the armada which you sent under Ruy Gonsalves da Camara to the Red Sea which, far from resulting in any of the successes that had been hoped for, served only to provoke the Turks at great and unprofitable expense and with much discredit to the state..}}
==East African campaign, 1587==
When news reached [[Goa]] that a Turkish fleet was in East Africa inciting cities to rebel and raid Portuguese ships with Ottoman support, the Portuguese reacted swiftly. In January 1587, the Portuguese viceroy, Dom [[Duarte de Meneses]], dispatched a fleet of 2 [[galleon]]s, 3 galleys, 13 light-galleys, and 650 soldiers under the command of [[Martim Afonso de Melo]] to expel the Turks and reestablish Portuguese authority along the coast.<ref name="books.google.com">Svat Soucek (2008): ''The Portuguese and Turks in the Persian Gulf'' in [https://books.google.com/books?id=7f_IalOpyyQC&pg=PA47 Revisiting Hormuz: Portuguese Interactions in the Persian Gulf Region in the Early Modern Period]. Calouste Gulbunkian Foundation, p. 47</ref>
The King of [[Faza]] mobilized 4000 warriors but he was killed in action and the city sacked.<ref>Denvers, 1894, p.69.</ref><ref name="books.google.com"/> Pate resubmitted.<ref>Frederick Charles Danvers: ''The Portuguese in India, Being a History of the Rise and Decline of their Eastern Empire'', volume II, W.H. Allen & Company, limited, 1894, p.69.</ref> An indemnity of 4,000 ''cruzados'' was extracted from Mombasa in exchange for not destroying the city. At the same time, de Melo arrived at [[Malindi]], whose king had remained loyal to the Portuguese, and reinforced their diplomatic ties.<ref name="books.google.com"/>
Ultimately finding no sign of Mir Ali Beg, the Portuguese fleet returned to Goa via [[Socotra]] and [[Ormus]].
==Expedition of Mir Ali Beg to East Africa, 1588==
[[File:Sloane 3584 f.78v Turkish galleys in battle, c.1636.PNG|thumb|right|Turkish galleys, 17th century]]
In the summer of 1588, Mir Ali Beg set sail from Mocha with a fleet of 5 oarships.<ref>Danvers, 1894, p.82.</ref> Calling first at Mogadishu, Mir Ali Beg now extracted a heavy tribute from the cities along the coast in exchange for protection, in the name of the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Soucek, 2008, p.48.</ref> From there he proceeded to Malindi, a loyal vassal of the Portuguese, hoping to sack it.
However, the Portuguese captain of the east-African coast [[Mateus Mendes de Vasconcelos]], was at Malindi with a small force, and was already well aware of the approach of Mir Ali Beg: a network of spies and informants within the Red Sea itself kept the Portuguese up to date on Turkish movements.<ref name="Soucek 2008. P.48">Soucek 2008. P.48</ref> Approaching Malindi by night, the flotilla of Mir Ali Beg was bombarded by a Portuguese artillery battery, and so it sailed away to Mombasa.<ref name="Soucek 2008. P.48"/>
The Ottomans would attempt to conquer [[Pate Island|Pate]] and [[Mombasa]] from the Portuguese in this year, but were defeated four times.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Levtzion |first1=Nehemia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC&dq=The+east+coast+seems+not+to+have+been+directly+involved+in+this+fighting;+however,+the+threat&pg=PA259 |title=The History of Islam in Africa |last2=Pouwels |first2=Randall L. |date=2000-03-31 |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-8214-4461-0 |language=en}}</ref>
==Portuguese campaign to East-Africa 1589==
{{main|Battle of Mombasa (1589)}}
Before Mir Ali Beg had even set sail, already Vasconcelos had dispatched a vessel to Goa informing the viceroy that the Turks were about to leave the [[Red Sea]].<ref>Monteiro, 1993, p.235.</ref>
From India, governor [[Manuel de Sousa Coutinho]] dispatched an armada of 2 galleons, 5 galleys, 6 half-galleys, and 6 light-galleys with 900 Portuguese soldiers, commanded by his brother [[Tomé de Sousa Coutinho]].<ref name="Denvers, 1894, p.83">Denvers, 1894, p.83.</ref><ref name="Saturnino Monteiro 2011 P.237">Saturnino Monteiro (2011): Portuguese Sea Battles - Volume IV - 1580-1603 p.&nbsp;237</ref> In late February 1589 the fleet reached the east-African coast, and calling at Lamu, they learnt from an envoy of de Vasconcelos that Mir Ali Beg had established a stronghold at Mombasa. At Malindi, they were joined by de Vasconcelos with another half-galley and two light-galleys from Malindi.<ref name="Saturnino Monteiro 2011 P.237"/>
===Battle of Mombasa===
On March 5, the Portuguese fleet reached the island of [[Mombasa]]. Mir Ali Beg had erected a small fort by the shoreline, close to the city, and armed it with artillery pieces to close off the entrance to the harbor. Nonetheless, the Portuguese pushed through under fire. Three Turkish galleys in the harbor were captured, the fort was bombarded from the sea by the galleys, and in face of superior firepower, the Turks abandoned the fort.<ref name=Monteiro-238>Monteiro (2011) p.&nbsp;238</ref> The Portuguese captured 30 guns in this action, while 70 Turks perished.<ref name="Denvers, 1894, p.83">Denvers, 1894, p.83.</ref> On March 7, the Portuguese landed 500 troops, only to learn that Mombasa had been evacuated, and its inhabitants had taken shelter in a nearby wood, along with the Turks.<ref name=Monteiro-239>Monteiro (2011) p.&nbsp;239</ref>
At that time, by pure chance, a marauding cannibalistic tribe called the Zimbas was migrating north and had set up a camp just across the channel.  The last two of Mir Ali Beg's galleys prevented them from crossing onto the island.<ref>Monteiro (2011) p.&nbsp;235</ref> They were attacked and captured by the Portuguese.<ref name=Monteiro-238/> Wishing to capture Mir Ali Beg and the rest of the Turks, de Sousa Coutinho gave permission to the Zimbas to cross over - once the people of Mombasa realized the Zimbas had invaded the island, they promptly rushed to the beaches in desperation to be taken aboard the ships. Many drowned, but among the people the Portuguese captured was Mir Ali Beg.<ref name=Monteiro-239/>
==Aftermath==
[[File:Galleon, Carracks, Galley and Galeota- Routemap of the Red Sea-1540 by D. João de Castro.jpg|thumb|Portuguese galleons, carracks, and oarships depicted by Dom João de Castro in 1540.]]
On March 24, the Portuguese fleet reached Malindi, where they were triumphantly met with celebrations and long festivities.<ref name="Svat Soucek 2008 p. 50">Svat Soucek (2008): ''The Portuguese and Turks in the Persian Gulf'' in [https://books.google.com/books?id=7f_IalOpyyQC&pg=PA50 Revisiting Hormuz: Portuguese Interactions in the Persian Gulf Region in the Early Modern Period]. Calouste Gulbunkian Foundation, p. 50</ref>
With Mir Ali Beg captured, all that remained was to reestablish Portuguese suzerainty over the entire coast, through diplomacy or force of arms. The King of Malindi was amply rewarded for his valiant loyalty to the Portuguese Crown. The Portuguese captain of the East African coast, Mateus Mendes de Vasconcelos, was detached with a squadron to remain at Malindi and defend it from the marauding Zimbas.<ref name="Svat Soucek 2008 p. 50"/> The King of Pemba, who was loyal to the Portuguese but was ousted by Ottoman-backed rebels, was reestablished on his throne. The King of Lamu, on the other hand, was captured and publicly beheaded.<ref name="Svat Soucek 2008 p. 50"/> Pate was sacked.<ref>Monteiro (2011) p.&nbsp;240</ref>
Mir Ali Beg was taken prisoner, but treated with honor and sent to meet Dom de Sousa Coutinho, the Portuguese viceroy of India. Later he was sent to Portugal where he converted to Christianity.<ref name="Svat Soucek 2008 p. 51">Svat Soucek (2008): ''The Portuguese and Turks in the Persian Gulf'' in [https://books.google.com/books?id=7f_IalOpyyQC&pg=PA51 Revisiting Hormuz: Portuguese Interactions in the Persian Gulf Region in the Early Modern Period]. Calouste Gulbunkian Foundation, p.&nbsp;51</ref>
Analyzing the conflict in detail, Czech historian Svat Soucek argued against the exaggeration of the capacity of the Ottoman Empire to expand their influence in the Indian Ocean by certain authors: Mir Ali Beg only managed to pass undetected by the Portuguese intelligence network due to the insignificance of his initial single galley; once he was detected, a Portuguese war fleet was swiftly dispatched to neutralize the threat.<ref>"Svat Soucek 2008 p. 51"</ref>
The Swahili coast remained well within the Portuguese sphere of influence until the late 17th century.
Without Portuguese intervention in these skirmishes along the Horn of Africa, the Ottoman Empire's hold on the region might have tightened dramatically.<ref name=":0" />
==See also==
*[[Abyssinian-Adal War]]
*[[Swahili Coast]]
*[[History of Portugal]]
*[[History of the Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Military history of Portugal]]
*[[Military of the Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1538–1560)]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
== References ==
*Attila and Balázs Weiszhár: ''Lexicon of War'' (Háborúk lexikona), Athenaum publisher, [[Budapest]] 2004.
*Britannica Hungarica, Hungarian encyclopedia, ''Hungarian World'' publisher, [[Budapest]] 1994.
*Dejanirah Couto, Rui Loureiro, ''Revisiting Hormuz: Portuguese Interactions in the Persian Gulf Region in the Early Modern Period'' (2008) {{ISBN|9783447057318}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ottoman-Portuguese conflicts (1580-89)}}
[[Category:1580s conflicts]]
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[[Category:Wars involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Military history of Africa]]
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[[Category:Ajuran Sultanate]]
[[Category:1580s in Portugal]]
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