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{{Short description|Athletic training disciplines}}
{{Redirect|Parcours|the term used in cycle racing|Glossary of cycling#P}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox Martial art
| image           = Julien Do parkour in park.jpg
| imagecaption    = An athlete performing parkour
| imagesize       = 200px
| name            = Parkour
| aka             = PK<ref name ="Nacho">{{cite web|url=http://davidbelle.com/biography-eng/ |title=Actor David Belle Biography |publisher=David Belle |access-date=22 May 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141020053729/http://davidbelle.com/biography-eng/ |archive-date=20 October 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.3run.co.uk/story |title=3RUN Story |publisher=3run.co.uk |date=6 December 2012 |access-date=22 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306102205/http://www.3run.co.uk/story |archive-date=6 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://learnmoreparkour.com/about-the-tapps.htm |title=About the Tapp Brothers |publisher=LearnMoreParkour.com |access-date=22 May 2014 |archive-date=31 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331203116/http://www.learnmoreparkour.com/about-the-tapps.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| focus           = Obstacle passing
| difficulty      = Non-competitive
| country         = France
| creator         = {{ubl|[[David Belle]]}}
| formation       = 1980s in the [[Normandy]] region of France<ref name="BritishBroadcasting" /><ref name="Gerlung" />
| olympic         = Not currently; [[IOC]] discussions underway<ref>{{cite web|title=Parkour – A Young Sport with Olympic Ambitions|url=http://www.eurolympic.org/en/news/2757-parkour-a-young-sport-with-olympic-ambitions.html |publisher=European Olympic Committees|date=24 August 2016 |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=26 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026074859/http://www.eurolympic.org/en/news/2757-parkour-a-young-sport-with-olympic-ambitions.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
| martialart      =
}}
'''Parkour''' ({{IPA|fr|paʁkuʁ|lang}}) is an athletic [[Training#Physical training|training]] discipline or sport in which practitioners (called ''traceurs'') attempt to get from one point to another in the fastest and most efficient way possible, without assisting equipment and often while performing feats of [[acrobatics]].<ref>{{Dictionary.com|parkour}}</ref> With roots in military [[obstacle course]] training and [[martial arts]], parkour includes [[Flip (acrobatic)|flipping]], [[running]], [[climbing]], [[:wikt:swing|swinging]], [[vault (urban movement)|vaulting]], [[jumping]], [[plyometrics]], [[roll (gymnastics)|rolling]], and [[crawling (human)|quadrupedal movement]]—whatever is suitable for a given situation.<ref name="Ferrari">{{cite web|last=Ferrari|first=Matthew|date=7 May 2010|title=From 'Play to Display': Parkour as Media-Mimetics or Nature Reclamation?|url=https://www.flowjournal.org/2010/05/from-%E2%80%9Cplay-to-display%E2%80%9D-parkour-as-media-mimetics-or-nature-reclamation-matthew-ferrari-university-of-massachusetts-amherst/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105003535/http://www.flowjournal.org/2010/05/from-%e2%80%9cplay-to-display%e2%80%9d-parkour-as-media-mimetics-or-nature-reclamation-matthew-ferrari-university-of-massachusetts-amherst/|archive-date=5 November 2019|access-date=16 January 2020|work=FlowTV, vol 11, lokaliseret den 01-04-2011 på}}</ref><ref name="Freitas">{{cite journal|last=De Feitas|first=Elizabeth|year=2011|title=Parkour and the Built Environment: Spatial Practices and the Plasticity of School Buildings|url=http://journal.jctonline.org/index.php/jct/article/view/126|url-status=live|journal=Journal of Curriculum Theorizing|volume=27|issue=3|page=209|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402211858/http://journal.jctonline.org/index.php/jct/article/view/126|archive-date=2 April 2015|access-date=1 March 2015}}</ref> Parkour is an activity that can be practiced alone or with others, and is usually carried out in [[Urban area|urban]] spaces, though it can be done anywhere.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rawlinson|first1=Christopher|url=http://eprints.qut.edu.au/51313/|title=In Out of Control: 8th International Conference on Design and Emotion|last2=Guaralda|first2=Mirko|date=11 September 2012|isbn=9780957071926|location=Central Saint Martins College of Arts and Design, London|contribution=Chaos and creativity of play: designing emotional engagement in public spaces|access-date=16 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514003601/http://eprints.qut.edu.au/51313/|archive-date=14 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brunner|first1=C.|year=2010|title=Nice-looking obstacles: Parkour as urban practice of deterritorialization|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/312807/files/146_2010_Article_294.pdf|url-status=live|journal=AI & Society|volume=26|issue=2|pages=143–152|doi=10.1007/s00146-010-0294-2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200827020835/http://doc.rero.ch/record/312807/files/146_2010_Article_294.pdf|archive-date=27 August 2020|access-date=11 June 2019|s2cid=11017425|issn = 0951-5666 }}</ref> It involves seeing one's environment in a new way, and envisioning the potential for navigating it by movement around, across, through, over and under its features.<ref>{{citation|last1=Rawlinson|first1=Christopher|title=The First International Postgraduate Conference on Engineering, Designing and Developing the Built Environment for Sustainable Wellbeing|date=27 April 2011|url=http://eprints.qut.edu.au/42506/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514022209/http://eprints.qut.edu.au/42506/|contribution=Play in the city: Parkour and architecture|location=Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia|isbn=9780980582741|access-date=16 March 2013|archive-date=14 May 2013|last2=Guaralda|first2=Mirko|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ameel|first1=L.|last2=Tani|first2=S.|year=2012|title=Everyday aesthetics in action: Parkour Eyes and the beauty of concrete walls|journal=Emotion, Space and Society|volume=5|issue=3|pages=164–173|doi=10.1016/j.emospa.2011.09.003}}</ref>
Although a traceur may perform a [[Flip (acrobatic)|flip]] as well as other aesthetic [[acrobatic]] movements, these are not essential to the discipline.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kidder |first1=Jeffrey |title=Parkour and the City |date=2017 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Jersey |isbn=978-0813571980 |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BZNrDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA146}} "flips: ... "However they are usually designated as a part of freerunning, not of Parkour."</ref> Rather, they are central to [[freerunning]], a discipline derived from parkour but emphasising artistry rather than efficiency.
Parkour was established by [[David Belle]] in the 1980s, and it was initially called '''{{lang|fr|l'art du déplacement}}''';<ref name="CineP20" /><ref name="pkgen-history">{{cite web |url=http://parkourgenerations.com/parkour-history/ |title=Parkour History |date=22 August 2014 |publisher=Parkour Generations |access-date=2 December 2015 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208123338/http://parkourgenerations.com/parkour-history/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYwQLvIkQ88 |title=Interview with David Belle |website=[[YouTube]] |date=20 January 2009 |access-date=2 December 2015 |archive-date=14 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214225257/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYwQLvIkQ88 |url-status=live }}</ref> however the name "'''le parcours'''" had already been given to the activity by 1989.<ref name="Gerlung" /> The discipline was popularised in the 1990s and 2000s through films, documentaries, video games, and advertisements.<ref name="CineP20" /><ref>{{cite interview|last=Belle|first=David|title=Entrevista com David Belle (OSRAM 2006)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYwQLvIkQ88|access-date=10 February 2013|year=2006|trans-title=Interview with David Belle (OSRAM 2006)|archive-date=8 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708190204/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYwQLvIkQ88|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Atkinson|first1=M.|year=2009|title=Parkour, Anarcho-Environmentalism, and Poiesis|journal=Journal of Sport & Social Issues|volume=33|issue=2|pages=169–194|doi=10.1177/0193723509332582|s2cid=146783270}}</ref> Similar techniques were known from French military obstacle courses,<ref name="CineP20">[[#Angel|Angel]], pp. 17–20</ref> and some authors see influence from [[Hong Kong cinema]] and Asian martial arts in Parkour.<ref name="Stratford"/><ref name="Angel"/>
== Etymology ==
The word ''parkour'' derives from {{lang|fr|parcours du combattant}} ([[Obstacle course]]), the classic obstacle course method of military training proposed by [[Georges Hébert]].<ref name="PAWA-Welcome">{{cite web |last=Russell |first=Matthew |url=http://www.pawa.fr/Welcome/welcome.html |title=English welcome&nbsp;– Parkour Worldwide Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050508021450/http://www.pawa.fr/Welcome/welcome.html |archive-date=8 May 2005 |access-date=12 May 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=23 February 2006 |url=http://parkour.net/forum/index.php?showtopic=3937 |title=PAWA statement on Freerunning |access-date=12 May 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927193626/http://parkour.net/forum/index.php?showtopic=3937 |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927193447/http://parkour.net/forum/index.php?showtopic=5481 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |url-status=dead |url=http://parkour.net/forum/index.php?showtopic=5481 |title=The name Parkour, simple question |access-date=12 April 2007}}</ref> Raymond Belle used the term "{{lang|fr|les parcours}}" to encompass all of his training including climbing, jumping, running, balancing, and the other methods he undertook in his personal athletic advancement.<ref name="Parkour-DB2">[[#Belle2|Belle]], pp.&nbsp;31–70</ref> His son, David, further developed his father's methods and achieved success as a stuntman, and one day on a film set showed his 'Speed Air Man' video to [[Hubert Koundé]]. Koundé suggested he change the "c" of "{{lang|fr|parcours}}" to a "k" because it was stronger and more dynamic, and to remove the silent "s" for the same reason, forming "''parkour''".<ref name="CineP37">[[#Angel|Angel]], p. 37.</ref>
According to Sebastien Foucan, the activity had already been given the name "le parcours" by the year [[1989]].<ref name="Gerlung">{{cite book |last1=Gerling |first1=Ilona E. |last2=Pach |first2=Alexander |last3=Witfeld |first3=Jan |title=The Ultimate Parkour & Freerunning Book: Discover your possibilities |date=15 November 2013 |publisher=Meyer & Meyer Verlag |isbn=978-1-78255-020-4 |page=23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_WWNAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |language=en}}</ref>
A practitioner of parkour is called a ''traceur'', with the feminine form being ''traceuse'' or simply a "Parkourist".<ref name="Ferrari" /> They are [[noun substantive|nouns]] derived from the French verb ''[[:wikt:tracer#French|tracer]]'', which normally means "to trace", as in "tracing a path", in reference to drawing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/tracer? |title=Portail lexical&nbsp;– Définition de tracer |language=fr |access-date=28 August 2007 |archive-date=18 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110818085920/http://www.cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/tracer |url-status=live }}</ref> The verb {{lang|fr|tracer}} used familiarly means: "to hurry up".<ref>[[wikt:fr:tracer#populaire|(Populaire) Filer, se dépêcher.]] or to run (go) fast (to leave in a hurry) → [[wikt:filer#Verb|(intransitive, informal) to leave, to get going]], [[wikt:dépêcher#Verb|(reflexive) to haste, to hurry up]] → [[wikt:buck up#Interjection|(idiomatic, dated) Hurry up; make haste.]]</ref> The term ''traceur'' was originally the name of a parkour group headed by David Belle which included [[Sébastien Foucan]] and Stéphane Vigroux.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_d1AxUPPcF8 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/_d1AxUPPcF8| archive-date=2021-10-30|title=An Interview With Stephane Vigroux |via=YouTube |date=27 January 2009 |access-date=22 May 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
A ''jam'' refers to a meeting of traceurs, involving training lasting anywhere from hours to several days, often with people from different cities. The first parkour jam was organised in July 2002 by Romain Drouet, with a dozen people including [[Sébastien Foucan]] and Stéphane Vigroux.
== History ==
===Origins===
The practice of similar techniques existed in French military obstacle courses and [[Hong Kong cinema]].<ref name="CineP20"/><ref name="Stratford"/><ref name="Angel"/>  A similar discipline in [[Chinese culture]] is ''[[qinggong]]'', a [[Chinese martial arts]] training technique, most famously practiced by [[Jackie Chan]].<ref name="Stratford"/><ref name="Angel"/>
===Georges Hébert===
[[File:Lieutenant Hébert.jpg|thumb|[[Georges Hébert]] (1875–1957)]]
In Western Europe, a forerunner of parkour was developed by French naval officer [[Georges Hébert]], who before [[World War I]] promoted athletic skill based on the models of indigenous tribes he had met in Africa.<ref name=HerbertUFF>{{cite web |url=http://www.urbanfreeflow.com/articles/methode_naturelle.htm |title=Georges Hebert and the Natural Method of Physical Culture |access-date=2 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050323090031/http://www.urbanfreeflow.com/articles/methode_naturelle.htm |archive-date=23 March 2005 |author=Artful Dodger }}</ref> He noted, "their bodies were splendid, flexible, nimble, skillful, enduring, and resistant but yet they had no other tutor in gymnastics but their lives in nature."<ref name=HerbertUFF/> His rescue efforts during the [[1902 eruption of Mount Pelée|1902 eruption]] of [[Mount Pelée]] on [[Saint-Pierre, Martinique]] reinforced his belief that athletic skill must be combined with courage and altruism.<ref name=HerbertUFF/> Hébert became a physical education tutor at the college of [[Reims]] in France. Hébert set up a "méthode naturelle" (''natural method'') session consisting of ten fundamental groups: walking, running, jumping, quadrupedal movement, climbing, balancing, throwing, lifting, self-defence, and swimming. These were intended to develop "the three main forces": energetic (willpower, courage, coolness, and firmness), moral (benevolence, assistance, honour, and honesty), and physical (muscles and breath).<ref name=HebertINSEP>{{cite web |title=Georges Hébert&nbsp;– la methode naturalle |url=http://perso.orange.fr/le.parkour/france/medias/page3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060718150740/http://perso.orange.fr/le.parkour/france/medias/page3.html |archive-date=18 July 2006 |format=JPG |publisher=INSEP&nbsp;– Musée de la Marine |language=fr |access-date=22 September 2007}}</ref> During World War I and World War II, teaching continued to expand, becoming the standard system of French military education and training. Inspired by Hébert, a Swiss architect developed a "''parcours du combattant''"<ref name="No Obstacles">{{cite magazine |title=No Obstacles |url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/16/070416fa_fact_wilkinson?currentPage=all |date=16 April 2007 |first=Alec |last=Wilkinson |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |access-date=14 October 2007 |archive-date=11 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011200547/http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/16/070416fa_fact_wilkinson?currentPage=all |url-status=live }}</ref>—military obstacle course—the first of the courses that are now standard in military training and which led to the development of civilian [[fitness trail]]s and confidence courses.<ref name=HerbertUFF/>
===John Ciampa===
Born in 1922, [[John Ciampa]] was acrobatic stuntman and entertainer known by the stage names of the Human Fly, the Flying Phantom and the Brooklyn Tarzan whose acrobatic buildering and freestyle tree climbing bear striking resemblance to late 20th Century parkour.  Those feats were featured in two 1942 Paramount Pictures newsreels<ref name=JC1>{{cite web |title=1942 Paramount Pictures Newsreel 1&nbsp;– 1942 Paramount Pictures Newsreel 1 |date=21 July 2014 |url=http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/video/john-ciampa-at-the-dinner-table-while-his-mother-begs-him-news-footage/502797969 |access-date=11 October 2023}}</ref><ref name=JC2>{{cite web |title=1942 Paramount Pictures Newsreel 2&nbsp;– 1942 Paramount Pictures Newsreel 2 |date=21 July 2014 |url=https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/video/year-old-climber-john-ciampa-climbs-up-a-building-while-a-news-footage/502797971 |access-date=11 October 2023}}</ref> coincident with the release of the feature film Tarzan's New York Adventure.
===Raymond and David Belle===
Born in 1939 in [[Vietnam]], Raymond Belle was the son of a French physician and Vietnamese mother. During the [[First Indochina War]], his father died and he was separated from his mother, after which he was sent to a military orphanage in [[Da Lat]] at the age of seven.  He took it upon himself to train harder and longer than everyone else in order never to be a victim. At night, when everyone else was asleep, he would be outside running or climbing trees. He would use the military [[obstacle course]]s in secret, and also created courses of his own that tested his endurance, strength, and flexibility. Doing this enabled him not only to survive the hardships he experienced during his childhood, but also eventually to thrive. After the [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu]] in 1954, he returned to France and remained in military education until the age of 19, when he joined the [[Paris Fire Brigade]], a French Army unit.<ref name="CineP20"/><ref name="Parkour-DB1">[[#Belle2|Belle]], pp. 23–30</ref><ref name="Raymond Belle Bio">{{cite web |url=http://parkour.net/modules/articles/item.php?itemid=3 |title=Raymond Belle's biography |date=17 February 2006 |work=Original French biography sourced from 'Allo Dix-Huit', the magazine of the Parisian pompiers. |publisher=Parkour.NET |access-date=29 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060217200929/http://parkour.net/modules/articles/item.php?itemid=3 |archive-date=17 February 2006}}</ref>
[[File:David Belle NewYorker.jpg|thumb|[[David Belle]] is considered the founder of parkour.]]
Raymond's son, [[David Belle]], was born in 1973. He experimented with [[gymnastics]] and [[Athletics (sport)|athletics]] but became increasingly disaffected with both school and the [[sports club]]s. As he got older, he learned of his father's exploits and was increasingly curious about what had enabled his father to accomplish these feats. Through conversations with his father, he realised that what he really wanted was a means to develop skills that would be useful to him in life, rather than just training to kick a ball or perform moves in a padded, indoor environment.<ref name="CineP20"/><ref name="Parkour-DB2"/>
Through conversations with his father, David learned about this way of training that his father called "''parcours''". He heard his father talk of the many repetitions he had done in order to find the best way of doing things. He learned  that for his father, training was not a game but something vital which enabled him to survive and to protect the people he cared about. David realised that this was what he had been searching for, and so he began training in the same way. After a time, he found it far more important to him than schooling and he gave up his other commitments to focus all his time on his training.<ref name="Parkour-DB2"/>
===Yamakasi===
{{Main|Yamakasi}}
David initially trained on his own, and after moving to [[Lisses]], found other young men (including his cousins) who had similar desires, and they began to train together.<ref name="Nacho" /> The group eventually included David Belle, [[Sébastien Foucan]], Châu Belle Dinh, Williams Belle, Yann Hnautra, Laurent Piemontesi, Guylain N'Guba Boyeke, Malik Diouf, and Charles Perrière. The group began calling themselves the ''Yamakasi'', from the [[Lingala language|Lingala]] ''ya makási'', meaning strong in one's person, or "strong man, strong spirit"<ref name="CineP35"/> (see [[#Name and split|§ Name and split]] below).
Some members of the group drew inspiration from [[Asian martial arts]], notably the acrobatics of [[Jackie Chan]] such as ''[[qinggong]]'' displays in his [[Hong Kong action films]],<ref name="Stratford">{{cite book |last1=Stratford |first1=Elaine |title=Geographies, Mobilities, and Rhythms over the Life-Course: Adventures in the Interval |date=2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1135117429 |page=79 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d4yLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 |access-date=14 March 2019 |archive-date=3 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603192747/https://books.google.com/books?id=d4yLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hunt |first1=Leon |last2=Wing-Fai |first2=Leung |title=East Asian Cinemas: Exploring Transnational Connections on Film |date=2010 |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |isbn=978-0857712271 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229 |access-date=14 March 2019 |archive-date=3 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603192749/https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Angel">{{cite book |last1=Angel |first1=Julie |title=Breaking the Jump: The Secret Story of Parkour's High Flying Rebellion |date=16 June 2016 |publisher=[[Aurum Press]] |isbn=978-1-78131-554-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAxjDAAAQBAJ |access-date=27 March 2021 |archive-date=2 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702231518/https://books.google.com/books?id=iAxjDAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the training philosophy of [[Bruce Lee]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Parkour History |url=https://parkourgenerations.com/parkour-history/ |access-date=13 March 2019 |work=Parkour Generations |archive-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531105308/https://parkourgenerations.com/parkour-history/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The group also was influenced by the [[martial arts films]] of Belgian actor [[Jean-Claude Van Damme]].<ref name="Angel"/>
====Discipline====
The group put themselves through challenges that forced them to find the physical and mental strength to succeed. Examples included training without food or water, or sleeping on the floor without a blanket to learn to endure the cold.<ref>[[#Angel|Angel]], p. 23</ref> For example, no one in the group was permitted to be late for training, as it would hold back the whole group. If any member completed a challenge, everyone else had to do the same thing.<ref name="David Belle p.43">[[#Belle|Belle and Perriére]], p. 43</ref> During their training, no one was allowed to complain or be negative. Few excuses were allowed. For instance, if someone claimed that his shoes were too worn out in to make a jump, he had to do it anyway, even if it meant doing the jump barefoot.<ref name="David Belle p.42"/> At the same time, everyone was required to have knowledge of their own limits.<ref name="David Belle p.46">[[#Belle|Belle and Perriére]], p. 46</ref>
Respecting one's health and physical well-being was one of the foundations of the group. If any member hurt himself during or after the execution of a movement, the movement was deemed a failure. A movement executed only once was not considered an achievement; only with repetition was the challenge complete. Every movement had to be repeated at least ten times in a row without the traceur having to push his limits or sustaining any injury. If any mistake was made by any traceur in the group everyone had to start all over again.<ref name="David Belle p.43"/>
Humility was an important principle.<ref name="David Belle p.46"/> No traceur was allowed to feel superior to someone else, for example, by executing a movement only to show off in front of someone who could not perform the movement. If any traceur in the group claimed that he had completed a difficult and dangerous challenge that should not be attempted unaided, he had to prove his claims by doing the challenge again. Anyone who lied violated the principle of humility.<ref name="David Belle p.43"/>
To join the group, new members had to be recommended by an existing member and then pass tests to evaluate their motivation for joining.<ref name="David Belle p.42">[[#Belle|Belle and Perriére]], p. 42</ref> Despite the huge emphasis on the collective, each traceur had to progress and develop independently—"to create the means to be yourself"<ref>[[#Belle|Belle and Perriére]], p. 53</ref>—and there was a complete trust within the group.<ref name="David Belle p.46"/> Every traceur was to encourage the others and show confidence through their behaviour.<ref name="David Belle p.47">[[#Belle|Belle and Perriére]], p. 47</ref> If a member violated the principles, the group could meet without the offending person to discuss various punishments. Anyone deemed unsuitable could be temporarily or even permanently banned from the group in order to uphold its disciplines and values.<ref>[[#Belle|Belle and Perriére]], p. 44</ref>
====Name and split====
In 1997, David Belle's brother Jean-François invited the group to perform for the public in a firefighter show in Paris.<ref name="CineP35">[[#Angel|Angel]], p. 35.</ref> For the performance, the group named themselves ''[[Yamakasi]]'', from the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] [[Lingala language|Lingala]] ''ya makási'', meaning strong in one's person, or "strong man, strong spirit". Sébastien Foucan also invented a name for what they were doing: "''l'art du déplacement''{{-"}} (French for "the art of movement").<ref name="CineP35"/> The firefighter performance caused both positive and negative attention. Some members of the group were concerned how the public would view their discipline since the performance did not demonstrate all aspects of it, such as their hard training and their values and ethics. Jean-François also sent pictures and video of the group to a French TV programme, and the popularity of parkour began to increase. A series of television programmes in various countries subsequently featured video footage of the group, and they began to get more requests for performances. During this time, conflicting interests arose within the group. Sébastien Foucan wanted to teach more rather than to train more, and David Belle had the ambition to become an actor. David and Sébastien chose to leave the group, and used the name "parkour" to describe their activity (see [[#Etymology|§ Etymology]] above). The seven remaining Yamakasi members continued to use the term ''l'art du déplacement''<ref name="CineP20"/><ref name="Parkour-DB3">[[#Belle2|Belle]], pp. 71–79</ref> (see [[#Derivative terminologies and disciplines|§ Derivative terminologies and disciplines]] below).
==Organizations==
International parkour organizations include the [[World Freerunning and Parkour Federation]], established in 2007, who have worked with [[MTV]] to produce parkour-related shows.<ref>[https://wfpf.com/history-wfpf/ History of WFPF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714081050/https://wfpf.com/history-wfpf/ |date=14 July 2018 }} wfpf.com</ref>
== Philosophy ==
[[File:Parkour 02-2 (lightened, cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|A beginner takes a leap in Seattle's Freeway Park under the guidance of experienced practitioners (2012).]]
According to Williams Belle, the philosophies and theories behind parkour are an integral aspect of the art, one that many non-practitioners have never been exposed to. Belle says he trains people because he wants it "to be alive" and "for people to use it".<ref name=GYamakasi>{{cite video |people=Belle, Châu; Belle, Williams; Hnautra, Yann and Daniels, Mark (director) |title=Generation Yamakasi
|medium=TV-Documentary |language=fr |publisher=[[France 2]] |location=France |url=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3773384792923323349 |access-date=25 August 2007}}</ref> Châu Belle explains it is a "type of freedom" or "kind of expression"; that parkour is "only a state of mind" rather than a set of actions, and that it is about overcoming and adapting to mental and emotional obstacles as well as physical barriers.<ref name=GYamakasi/> Traceur Dylan Baker says, "Parkour also influences one's thought processes by enhancing self-confidence and critical thinking skills that allow one to overcome everyday physical and mental obstacles".<ref name=GYamakasi/><ref name=TheLantern>{{cite web |url=http://www.thelantern.com/2.1347/students-on-campus-are-mastering-parkour-an-art-of-self-awareness-and-body-control-1.74990 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925061659/http://www.thelantern.com/2.1347/students-on-campus-are-mastering-parkour-an-art-of-self-awareness-and-body-control-1.74990 |archive-date=25 September 2010 |first=Jeffy |last=Mai |date=14 April 2008 |title=Students on campus are mastering parkour, an art of self-awareness and body control |access-date=19 April 2008}}</ref><ref name="parkour-journeys">{{cite video |first=Andreas |last=Kalteis |title=Parkour Journeys&nbsp;– Training with Andi |medium=DVD |publisher=Catsnake Studios |location=London|year=2006}}</ref> A study by ''Neuropsychiatrie de l'Enfance et de l'Adolescence'' (Neuropsychiatry of Childhood and Adolescence) in France found traceurs seek more excitement and leadership situations than gymnasts do.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.neurenf.2007.02.001| title = La pratique du parkour chez les adolescents des banlieues: Entre recherche de sensation et renforcement narcissique| journal = Neuropsychiatrie de l'Enfance et de l'Adolescence| volume = 55| issue = 3| pages = 154–159| year = 2007| last1 = Cazenave | first1 = N.}}</ref>
Academic research on parkour has tended to describe how parkour provides a novel way of interacting with the urban environment that challenges the use and meaning of urban space, metropolitan life, and embodiment.<ref name="new-media-technologies">{{cite conference |title=New Media Technologies in Lifestyle Sport |author1=Gilchrist, Paul |author2=Wheaton, Belinda |conference=Digital Media Sport: Technology and Power in the Network Society |editor=Hutchins/Rowe |date=30 July 2012 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1821623 |access-date=8 September 2013 |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110132005/https://www.academia.edu/1821623 |url-status=live }}</ref>
A newer convention of parkour philosophy has been the idea of "human reclamation".<ref name="two-theories">{{cite web |title=Two Theories on Parkour Philosophy |publisher=Parkour North America |url=http://parkournorthamerica.com/plugins/content/content.php?content.17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712091605/http://parkournorthamerica.com/plugins/content/content.php?content.17 |archive-date=12 July 2012 |date=7 September 2007 |access-date=16 April 2008}}</ref> Andy Tran of Urban Evolution clarifies it as "a means of reclaiming what it means to be a human being. It teaches us to move using the natural methods that we should have learned from infancy. It teaches us to touch the world and interact with it, instead of being sheltered by it."<ref name="two-theories"/> Another traceur{{who|date=January 2016}} writes, "It is as much as a part of truly learning the physical art as well as being able to master the movements; it gives you the ability to overcome your fears and pains and reapply this to life, as you must be able to control your mind in order to master the art of parkour."<ref>{{cite web |title=Parkour History |work=Urban discipline |url=http://www.urban-discipline.com/parkourhistory.htm |access-date=5 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717173130/http://www.urban-discipline.com/parkourhistory.htm |archive-date=17 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
===Competition===
A campaign was started on 1 May 2007 by the Parkour.NET portal to preserve parkour's philosophy against sports competition and rivalry.<ref name="rivalry-free">{{cite web |title=Keeping parkour rivalry-free : JOIN IN ! |publisher=Parkour.NET |url=http://parkour.net/forum/index.php?showtopic=9539 |date=1 May 2007 |access-date=11 May 2007 |archive-date=13 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713221039/http://parkour.net/forum/index.php?showtopic=9539 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title='Jumped-up' plan to stage world competition sees free runners falling out |first1=Paul |last1=Bignell |first2=Rob |last2=Sharp |work=The Independent |url=http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article2472154.ece |date=22 April 2007 |location=London |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101230324/http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article2472154.ece |archive-date=1 January 2008 }}</ref> In the words of [[Erwan Le Corre]], "Competition pushes people to fight against others for the satisfaction of a crowd and/or the benefits of a few business people by changing its mindset. Parkour is unique and cannot be a competitive sport unless it ignores its altruistic core of self-development. If parkour becomes a sport, it will be hard to seriously teach and spread parkour as a non-competitive activity. And a new sport will be spread that may be called parkour, but that won't hold its philosophical essence anymore."<ref name="rivalry-free"/> Red Bull's sponsored athlete for parkour, Ryan Doyle, has said, "Sometimes people ask, 'Who is the best at parkour?' and it is because they don't understand what Parkour is; 'Who is the best?' is what you would say about a sport, and parkour is not a sport—it is an art, it's a discipline. That's like saying, 'What's the best song in the world?{{'"}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z1NzOqfW7z4 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/z1NzOqfW7z4| archive-date=2021-10-30|title=Ryan Doyle – Parkour Training Jam | date=28 October 2010|via=YouTube |access-date=22 May 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> This seems to be the consensus among many professional traceurs who view parkour as a  lifestyle more than as a set of tricks, as has been popularised by YouTube and most media exposure.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}
There are competitions that use parkour as the main influence for formatting and judging criteria. Sport Parkour League's "North America Parkour Championships" hosts a series of local and regional qualifier events which culminate in a final event in Vancouver, B.C.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sportparkourleague.com/ |title=Sport Parkour &#124; Parkour Competitions &#124; NAPC |access-date=24 June 2020 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807174609/https://www.sportparkourleague.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Red Bull's Art of Motion event<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.redbull.com/us-en/event-series/red-bull-art-of-motion |title=Series Stops |access-date=2020-06-24 |website=www.redbull.com |archive-date=26 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626130807/https://www.redbull.com/us-en/event-series/red-bull-art-of-motion |url-status=live }}</ref> is the longest running and highest profile professional freerunning competition.
===David Belle===
In his 2009 book ''Parkour'', David Belle stressed that the most important aspect of parkour is not the physical movements, but rather the practitioner's mentality and understanding of its principles. "When young trainees come to see me and give me videos telling me to check out what they are doing, I just take the tape and throw it away. What I'm interested in is what the guy's got in his head, if he has self-confidence, if he masters the technique, if he has understood the principles of parkour. I just can't deal with guys who do Parkour because they saw videos on the Internet and thought it was kinda cool and want to do even better."<ref>[[#Belle2|Belle]], p. 58</ref> Further, he states the importance of traceurs being aware of their abilities and limitations, and developing in their own way. "When a young person asks me, 'Can you show me how to do this?' I simply answer, ‘No, I am going to show you how ''I'' do it. Then, you'll have to learn with your own technique, your own way of moving, your style, your abilities and your limitations. You are going to learn to be yourself, not someone else along the way.’"<ref name="David Belle, Parkour, p.59"/>
The philosophy of parkour has been compared to that of martial arts.<ref name="Bruce Lee and the Philosophy of parkour">{{cite web |title=Bruce Lee and the Philosophy of Parkour |first=Rob |last=Green |publisher=WorldWideJam.tv |url=http://www.worldwidejam.tv/db.bl.jam.parkour.html |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-date=23 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723011057/http://www.worldwidejam.tv/db.bl.jam.parkour.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In an interview with ''The New Yorker'', David Belle acknowledges the influence, "There's a quote by [[Bruce Lee]] that's my motto: 'There are no limits. There are plateaus, but you must not stay there, you must go beyond them. A man must constantly exceed his level.' If you're not better than you were the day before, then what are you doing—what's the point?"<ref name="No Obstacles" /> In an interview with the press, Belle explained that parkour is a training method for warriors. "So many people try to train easy—'Come do parkour! It's really cool!' But if tomorrow I made you do real training, you would end up crying. That's what you need to know: you are going to cry, you are going to bleed and you are going to sweat like never before."<ref>Cine parkour, p. 22</ref> In his book, Belle also quotes his father Raymond, "If two roads open up before you, always take the most difficult one. Because you know you can travel the easy one."<ref>[[#Belle2|Belle]], p. 27</ref>
Belle is an influential proponent of discipline and control in parkour, saying, "Precision is all about being measured," and going on to describe parkour as an art that requires huge amounts of repetition and practice to master.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JUeHrPazTtY | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/JUeHrPazTtY| archive-date=2021-10-30|title=David Belle – Parkour |via=YouTube |date=16 July 2011 |access-date=22 May 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> "With parkour, I often say, 'Once is never'. In other words, someone can manage a jump one time but it does not mean anything. It can be luck or chance. When you make a jump, you have to do it at least three times to be sure you can actually do it. It's an unavoidable rule. Do it the hard way and stop lying to yourself. When you come for training, you have to train. Even if it means doing the same jump fifty or a hundred times."<ref name="David Belle, Parkour, p.59">[[#Belle2|Belle]], p. 59</ref> To its founder, parkour is a method of self-refinement, used for learning to control and focus oneself.
== Practice ==
=== Movement ===
[[File:Parkour - climb stairs.ogv|thumb|A practitioner performing a wall run]]
{{Main | Vault (urban movement)}}
While there is no official list of "moves" in parkour, the style in which practitioners move often sets them apart from others,<ref name="Freitas" /> and there are a number of named movements that are characteristic,<ref name="pkgen-history" /> for example:<ref>{{citation |last=Murray |first=Joseph B |year=2010 |title=Knowing Obstacles: Urban Dialogues in Parkour Practice |type=Doctoral dissertation |location=Central European University |url=http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2010/murray_joseph.pdf |access-date=16 March 2013 |archive-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213085312/http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2010/murray_joseph.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="mclean">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.injury.2006.04.119| pmid = 16806217| title = Paediatric fractures sustained in Parkour (free running)| journal = Injury| volume = 37| issue = 8| pages = 795–797| year = 2006| last1 = McLean | first1 = C. R. | last2 = Houshian | first2 = S.| last3 = Pike | first3 = J.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1386/jdsp.2.2.143_1| title = Parkour and the critique of ideology: Turn-vaulting the fortresses of the city| journal = Journal of Dance and Somatic Practices| volume = 2| issue = 2| pages = 143–154| year = 2010| last1 = Chow | first1 = B. D. V. }}</ref>
* "Parkour roll": Rolling to absorb impacts from larger drops, moving diagonally over a shoulder to convert momentum from vertical to horizontal.
* "Precision jump": Jumping and landing accurately with the feet on small or narrow obstacles.
* "Arm jump": Jumping and landing feet-first on a vertical surface, catching the horizontal top with the hands.
* "Wall run": Running toward a high wall and then jumping and pushing off the wall with a foot to reach the top of the wall.
* "Climb up": Moving from a position hanging from a wall-top or ledge, to standing on the top or vaulting over to the other side.
=== Equipment ===
[[File:Parkour - Poliana.jpg|thumb|A ''traceuse'' vaults a railing.]]
Parkour is practiced without traditional equipment, though items such as bars, walls, and boxes found in the environment in which the parkour is being practiced in, are utilised to better navigate the area. Practitioners normally train wearing light, non-restrictive casual clothing.<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203212658/http://www.americanparkour.com/content/view/50/237/
|url=http://www.americanparkour.com/content/view/50/237/ |title=What Should I Wear for parkour? |date=6 November 2005 |archive-date=3 February 2009 |publisher=americanparkour.com
|access-date=21 April 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://parkourvisions.org/resources/parents-faq.pdf |title=Is there any equipment cost, membership fee, or exclusive conditions required for my child to do Parkour? |year=2008 |publisher=washingtonparkour.com |access-date=4 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308035442/http://www.parkourvisions.org/resources/parents-faq.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Traceurs who wear gloves are rare—bare hands are considered better for grip and tactile feedback.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.herald-mail.com/2009-09-28/news/25176213_1_parkour-cross-country-jfk-50-mile |title=Parkour: All in a day's training |last=Arnold |first=Tiffany |date=28 September 2009 |work=[[Herald Mail]] |access-date=25 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203143705/http://articles.herald-mail.com/2009-09-28/news/25176213_1_parkour-cross-country-jfk-50-mile |archive-date=3 February 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thenational.ae/article/20090223/LIFE/125121212/-1/SPORT |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226064531/http://www.thenational.ae/article/20090223/LIFE/125121212/1196/TRAVEL |archive-date=26 February 2009 |title=You might as well jump |last=Money-Coutts |first=Sophia |date=23 February 2009 |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]]|publisher=Abu Dhabi Media Company |access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref> Light running shoes with good grip and flexibility are encouraged because they allow for more natural and fluid movements. Practitioners often use [[minimalist shoes]], sometimes as a progression to bare feet, for better sensitivity and balance, while others prefer more cushioning for better absorption of impacts from large jumps.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://parkourshoesguide.com/|title=10 Best Parkour Shoes (2020) – Freerunning Shoes Reviewed|date=2017-06-11|work=ParkourShoesGuide|access-date=2017-06-19|language=en-US|archive-date=22 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022195429/https://parkourshoesguide.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> Barefoot training is done by some for movement competency without gear—David Belle noted that "bare feet are the best shoes."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QMw3q3NjqRk | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/QMw3q3NjqRk| archive-date=2021-10-30|title=David Belle&nbsp;– Parkour simples |date= 16 March 2007 |publisher=YouTube |access-date=7 July 2007 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> Various [[sneakers|sneaker]] manufacturers have developed shoes specifically for parkour and [[freerunning]]. Many other companies around the world have started offering clothing targeted at parkour.<ref>{{cite web|title=Know Obstacles|url=http://www.knowobstacles.com|access-date=12 May 2014|archive-date=13 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513010859/http://www.knowobstacles.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Risks ===
==== Trespassing ====
[[File:Wiki parkour leavenotrace.jpeg|thumb|Traceurs in [[Lisses]] re-painting a wall and repairing shoe scuff marks from parkour]]
[[File:Wiki parkour ban.jpg|thumb|A notice on a wall of the [[Strasbourg Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art]] in 2012 prohibiting parkour (removed in 2018)]]
Parkour is not widely practiced in dedicated public facilities. Although efforts are being made to create places for it, many traceurs do not like the idea, as it is contradictory to parkour's values of adaptation, creativity, and freedom.<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414060418/http://www.miramar.usmc.mil/newspage175.htm|title=American Parkour HotSpots Contest |date=21 May 2008 |access-date=13 June 2008|archive-date=14 April 2009|url=http://www.miramar.usmc.mil/newspage175.htm}}</ref> Traceurs practice parkour in both rural and urban areas such as gyms, parks, playgrounds, offices, and abandoned structures. Concerns have been raised regarding trespassing, damage of property,<ref name="BBCArr">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/gloucestershire/7220380.stm Gloucestershire&nbsp;– Rooftop-jumping youths arrested] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213143249/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/gloucestershire/7220380.stm |date=13 February 2008 }}. [[BBC]]. 31 January 2008. Retrieved 15 March 2008.</ref> and use of inappropriate places such as cemeteries.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2079539/Gravestone-vaulting-teenagers-condemned-over-YouTube-stunt.html |title=Gravestone vaulting teenagers condemned over YouTube stunt |date=6 May 2008 |last=Gammell |first=Caroline |access-date=13 June 2008 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |archive-date=8 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608053121/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2079539/Gravestone-vaulting-teenagers-condemned-over-YouTube-stunt.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Many parkour organizations around the globe support the ''Leave No Trace'' initiative, an urban version of the [[Leave No Trace|outdoor conservation ethic]] created by the Seattle [[Nonprofit organization|nonprofit]] ''Parkour Visions'' in 2008, promoting safety, respect for the spaces used and their other users, and sometimes includes picking up rubbish to leave areas in better condition than they were found.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://parkourvisions.org/projects/leave-no-trace/ |title=Leave No Trace Campaign (practice policy) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929092640/http://parkourvisions.org/projects/leave-no-trace/ |archive-date=29 September 2012 |access-date=18 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Without a Trace |work=Vertical Floor Magazine |last=Bafford |first=Tenedra |date=June 2013 |url=http://verticalfloormag.com/?p=72 |access-date=18 April 2016 |archive-date=27 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427011013/http://verticalfloormag.com/?p=72 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand Parkour Vision and Values |last=Puddle |first=Damien |date=23 July 2014 |url=http://nzparkour.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/NZ-Parkour-Vision-and-Values.pdf |access-date=18 April 2016 |archive-date=21 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121103351/http://nzparkour.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/NZ-Parkour-Vision-and-Values.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://parkour.uga.edu/ |title=Parkour at UGA |first=Jimmy |last=Hansen |date=1 March 2011 |access-date=6 June 2011 |archive-date=14 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214080134/http://parkour.uga.edu/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=American Parkour leaves Meridian Park when asked during national jam |url=http://americanparkour.com/component/content/6562?task=view |website=American Parkour |access-date=7 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927125033/http://americanparkour.com/component/content/6562?task=view |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref>
==== Injuries and deaths ====
Concerns have been raised by law enforcement and fire and rescue teams about the risks inherent in jumping off high buildings.<ref>{{cite news|last=Rawe|first=Julie|date=5 April 2008|title=Student Stuntmen|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1607235,00.html|url-status=dead|access-date=13 June 2008|archive-date=12 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612105739/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1607235,00.html}}</ref> They argue that practitioners are needlessly risking damage to both themselves and rooftops by practicing at height, with police forces calling for practitioners to stay off the rooftops.<ref name="BBCArr"/><ref name=ULGuardian>{{cite web |url=http://www.yourlocalguardian.co.uk/news/suttonnews/display.var.2166130.0.youths_on_roofs.php |title=Youths on Roofs |work=Your Local Guardian |date=2 April 2008 |access-date=9 August 2009 |archive-date=12 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612133746/http://www.yourlocalguardian.co.uk/news/suttonnews/display.var.2166130.0.youths_on_roofs.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.schriever.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123100262 |title=Parkour growing by leaps and bounds |first=Don |last=Branum |date=2 June 2008 |access-date=27 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705203715/http://www.schriever.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123100262 |archive-date=5 July 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some practitioners of parkour agree that such behaviour should be discouraged.<ref name=ULGuardian/><ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612003334/http://www.americanparkour.com/content/view/2364/1/|archive-date=12 June 2008|title=Terrible Representation of Parkour and Freerunning |date=13 June 2008 |access-date=13 June 2008|url=http://www.americanparkour.com/content/view/2364/1/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Jacob |last=Comenetz |url=http://www.dw.com/en/running-through-life-the-parkour-way/a-1701098 |title=Running Through Life the Parkour Way |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=9 June 2005 |access-date=9 August 2009 |archive-date=5 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705001742/http://www.dw.com/en/running-through-life-the-parkour-way/a-1701098 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://datingthin.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/parents-faq.pdf Parkour FAQ for Parents] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227183637/http://datingthin.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/parents-faq.pdf |date=27 February 2017 }}  Pacific Northwest Parkour Association. 20 September 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2016.</ref>
Because parkour philosophy is about learning to control oneself in interaction with the environment, many parkour experts consider serious injury evidence of the traceur's failure to follow the precepts of the discipline, specifically, knowing one's limitations. Daniel Ilabaca, co-founder of the World Parkour and Freerunning Federation, said, "Thinking you're going to fail at something gives you a higher risk of doing just that. Committing to something you're thinking or knowing you will land gives you a higher chance of landing or completing the task."<ref name=beachcombermb>{{cite web |url=http://www.beachcombermb.com/opinions/2012/01/27/parkour-legends-daniel-ilabaca-tim-shieff-and-oleg-vorslov/ |title=The Beachcomber : Parkour Legends: Daniel Ilabaca, Tim Shieff, and Oleg Vorslov |publisher=Beachcombermb.com |date=17 March 2013 |access-date=22 May 2014|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130807001610/http://www.beachcombermb.com/opinions/2012/01/27/parkour-legends-daniel-ilabaca-tim-shieff-and-oleg-vorslov/ |archive-date=7 August 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> On [[Sports biomechanics|biomechanical]] grounds, studies found parkour landing techniques result in lower landing forces in comparison with traditional sport techniques.<ref name="Puddle">{{Cite journal |pmid=24149735 |pmc=3761764 |title=Ground Reaction Forces and Loading Rates Associated with Parkour and Traditional Drop Landing Techniques |first1=Damien L. |last1=Puddle |first2=Peter S. |last2=Maulder |journal=Journal of Sports Science and Medicine |volume=12 |pages=122–129 |date=1 March 2013 |issue=1 |url=https://www.jssm.org/jssm-12-122.xml%3EFulltext |access-date=13 Dec 2020 |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110132010/https://www.jssm.org/jssm-12-122.xml%3EFulltext |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=A Comparison of the Habitual Landing Strategies from Differing Drop Heights of Parkour Practitioners (Traceurs) and Recreationally Trained Individuals |first1=Regan J. |last1=Standing |first2=Peter S. |last2=Maulder |journal=Journal of Sports Science and Medicine |volume=14 |pages=723–731 |date=24 Nov 2015 |issue=4 |pmid=26664268 |pmc=4657414 |url=https://www.jssm.org/jssm-14-723.xml%3EFulltext |access-date=13 Dec 2020 |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110132012/https://www.jssm.org/jssm-14-723.xml%3EFulltext |url-status=live }}</ref> In a [[Survey methodology|survey]] of parkour-related emergency department visits in the United States between 2009 and 2015, most injuries were reportedly caused by landing or from striking objects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rossheim |first1=ME |last2=Stephenson |first2=CJ |title=Parkour injuries presenting to United States emergency departments, 2009–2015. |journal=The American Journal of Emergency Medicine |date=October 2017 |volume=35 |issue=10 |pages=1503–1505 |doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2017.04.040 |pmid=28455090|s2cid=39559873 }}</ref>
American traceur Mark Toorock said injuries are rare "because participants rely not on what they can't control—wheels or the icy surfaces of snowboarding and skiing—but their own hands and feet." Lanier Johnson, executive director of the [[American Sports Medicine Institute]], said that many of the injuries are not reported.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jump First, Ask Questions Later |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/08/AR2008010803471_4.html |date=8 January 2008 |first=Colin |last=Bane |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=19 April 2008 |archive-date=7 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107213914/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/08/AR2008010803471_4.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Impact ==
Initially featured in films of French director/producer [[Luc Besson]], parkour was first introduced to the British public by the [[BBC One]] TV channel trailer ''Rush Hour'' in April 2002. It featured David Belle leaping across London's rooftops from his office to home, in an attempt to catch his favourite BBC programme,<ref>{{cite web |title=Unmissable new campaign for BBC ONE |work=BBC Press Office |date=11 April 2002 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2002/04_april/11/rush_hour.shtml |access-date=2 December 2015 |archive-date=5 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105061950/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2002/04_april/11/rush_hour.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> and captured the imagination of many viewers, especially when they learned no special effects or wires were used.<ref name="BritishBroadcasting">{{cite web |title=BBC film's rooftop stunts 'real' |work=BBC News |date=19 April 2002 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1939106.stm |access-date=2 December 2015 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208195814/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1939106.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> This advertisement, along with others for [[Coca-Cola]], [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]], and [[Toyota]], had a large-scale impact on public awareness of parkour.<ref name="pkgen-history" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Urban Free Flow: A Poetics of Parkour |last=Geyh |first=Paula |journal=M/C Journal |volume=9 |issue=3 |date=July 2006 |doi=10.5204/mcj.2635 |url=http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0607/06-geyh.php |access-date=2 December 2015 |doi-access=free |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208075039/http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0607/06-geyh.php |url-status=live }}</ref>
The creation of parkour show-reels and documentaries has been crucial to the spread of parkour, and is common in the parkour community.<ref name="CineP20"/><ref name="Parkour-DB3"/> ''[[Jump London]]'' is a 2003 documentary explaining some of the background of parkour, culminating with [[Sébastien Foucan]], Johann Vigroux, and [[Jérôme Ben Aoues]] demonstrating their parkour skills. ''Jump London'' changed the presence of parkour in the UK almost overnight and is widely credited for inspiring a new generation of traceurs.<ref name="new-media-technologies" /> It was followed by ''[[Jump Britain]]'' in 2005. Both Jump films were shown in more than 80 countries, thereby introducing the discipline and its philosophy to an unprecedented global audience. Both films have been cited by numerous practitioners as their motivation for taking up the discipline.
The Australian version of ''[[60 Minutes (Australian TV program)|60 Minutes]]'' broadcast a segment about parkour on 16 September 2007, featuring Foucan and Stephane Vigroux.<ref>{{cite web|title=Go Jump|url=http://sixtyminutes.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id=295676|author-link=Liz Hayes|first=Liz|last=Hayes|work=[[60 Minutes (Australian TV program)|60 Minutes]]|date=16 September 2007|access-date=3 January 2008|archive-date=26 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226012606/http://sixtyminutes.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id=295676|url-status=live}}</ref>
Parkour is not defined by a set of rules or guidelines, a feature which has proven particularly attractive to young people, allowing them to explore and engage in the activity on their own terms. It can be easily accepted by all cultures as a means of personal expression and recreation.<ref name=Thorpe1>{{cite book|title=International Review for the Sociology of Sport |last=Thorpe |first=Holly |year=2013 |publisher=Sage Publications Inc |page=5}}</ref> For example, in 2010 ''[[The New York Times]]'' published a short video featuring three young men from the Gaza Strip who were active members of the parkour community.<ref>{{cite web |title=Palestinian Parkour |last=Sorcher |first=Sara |work=The New York Times |date=13 October 2010 |type=video |url=https://www.nytimes.com/video/world/middleeast/1248069141234/palestinian-parkour.html |access-date=10 May 2017 |archive-date=14 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314164323/https://www.nytimes.com/video/world/middleeast/1248069141234/palestinian-parkour.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2014, the [[BBC]] covered youth parkour participation in [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. Zahid Shah founded the Kashmir Freerunning and Parkour Federation, finding hope in the non-violent discipline of parkour.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kashmir freerunning: Finding freedom in the art of parkour |work=BBC News |date=7 December 2014 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30347099/ |access-date=1 December 2015 |archive-date=18 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118120805/http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30347099 |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Entertainment ===
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Parkour has become a popular element in action sequences, with film directors hiring parkour practitioners as [[stunt performer]]s. The first director to do so was [[Luc Besson]], for the film ''[[Taxi 2]]'' in 1998, followed by ''[[Yamakasi (film)|Yamakasi]]'' in 2001 featuring members of the original [[Yamakasi]] group, and its sequel ''[[Les fils du vent]]'' in 2004. Also in 2004, Besson wrote ''[[District 13]]'', another feature film involving advanced parkour chase sequences, starring [[David Belle]] and [[Cyril Raffaelli]],<ref name=LADailyNews/><ref name=TimesOnline/> followed by the sequel ''[[District 13: Ultimatum]]'' in 2009 and remade in English as ''[[Brick Mansions]]'' in 2014.
In 2006 the [[James Bond]] film ''[[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]]'' featured Sébastien Foucan in a chase taking place early in the movie, sparking renewed media interest in parkour.<ref name="No Obstacles"/> Along with ''[[The Bourne Ultimatum (film)|The Bourne Ultimatum]]'' (2007), ''Casino Royale'' is credited with starting a new wave of Parkour-inspired stunts in [[Western world|Western]] film and television.<ref name="Hollywood Reporter">{{cite news|title=Fremantle Pacts to Bring Parkour to TV Screens|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/televisionNews/idUSTRE57R0OZ20090828|date=28 August 2009|first=Georg|last=Szalai|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=23 September 2009|archive-date=1 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901143431/http://www.reuters.com/article/televisionNews/idUSTRE57R0OZ20090828|url-status=live}}</ref> Parkour was prominent in ''[[Live Free or Die Hard]]'' (2007),<ref>{{cite news |title='Look, Ma, no hands' – or feet |url=https://www.usatoday.com/life/lifestyle/2007-12-03-parkour_N.htm |last=Kornblum |first=Janet |date=3 December 2007 |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |access-date=7 December 2007 |archive-date=20 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120172132/http://www.usatoday.com/life/lifestyle/2007-12-03-parkour_N.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> again with stuntman/actor Cyril Raffaelli, and ''[[Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (film)|Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time]]'' (2010), choreographed by David Belle.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emanuellevy.com/comment/prince-of-persia-tackling-stunts-and-parkour-1/ |first=Emanuel |last=Levy |title=Prince of Persia: Tackling Stunts and Parkour |year=2010 |access-date=10 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507015847/http://www.emanuellevy.com/comment/prince-of-persia-tackling-stunts-and-parkour-1/ |archive-date=7 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Several films besides ''Yamakasi'' are about thieves who use parkour, such as ''[[Breaking and Entering (film)|Breaking and Entering]]'' (2006),<ref name=LADailyNews>{{cite news|title=Parkour: Leaps of faith|url=http://www.dailynews.com/entertainment/ci_4937806| first=Sandra|last=Barrera|date=2 January 2007|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Daily News]]|access-date=11 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224231820/http://www.dailynews.com/entertainment/ci_4937806|archive-date=24 February 2007}}</ref><ref name=TimesOnline>{{cite news|title=Focus: Look Mum, watch this!|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2087-2262412,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829131418/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2087-2262412,00.html|archive-date=29 August 2008|first1=Yuba|last1=Bessaoud|first2=Alex|last2=Delmar-Morgan|date=9 July 2006|work=[[The Times]]|access-date=3 January 2008|location=London}}</ref> ''Run'' (2013),<ref>{{cite web |title=Run (2013) |work=IMDb |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2215457/ |access-date=13 January 2016 |archive-date=17 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117124724/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2215457/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and ''[[Tracers (film)|Tracers]]'' (2015). The 2011 film ''[[Freerunner (film)|Freerunner]]'' is about eight [[freerunning|freerunners]] racing through a city for survival. The 2019 [[Netflix]] film ''[[6 Underground (film)|6 Underground]]'' featured several parkour scenes choreographed and performed by team [[Storror]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.looper.com/179374/the-truth-about-those-parkour-scenes-in-6-underground/|title=The truth about those parkour scenes in 6 Underground|last=Gates|first=Christopher|website=Looper.com|date=13 December 2019|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-22|archive-date=14 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214130728/https://www.looper.com/179374/the-truth-about-those-parkour-scenes-in-6-underground/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metro.us/entertainment/movies/Ben-Hardy-talks-6-underground-and-Michael-Bay|website=www.metro.us|access-date=2020-01-22|title=Ben Hardy talks defying gravity in Michael Bay's latest action-packed thriller, '6 Underground' - Metro US|date=13 December 2019|archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110132028/https://www.metro.us/ben-hardy-talks-defying-gravity-in-michael-bays-latest-action-packed-thriller-6-underground/|url-status=live}}</ref> Parkour also featured in ''[[Dhoom 3]]'' (2013),<ref>{{cite news|last=Lalwani|first=Vickey|title=Aamir Khan learns French technique of Parkour|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/Aamir-Khan-learns-French-technique-of-Parkour/articleshow/10778399.cms|access-date=24 November 2011|newspaper=[[Mumbai Mirror]]; [[The Times of India]]|date=18 November 2011|archive-date=18 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118200436/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/Aamir-Khan-learns-French-technique-of-Parkour/articleshow/10778399.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bang Bang!]] (2014) and ''[[Aadhi]]'' (2018).<ref>{{cite news|last=George|first=Vijay|title='Aadhi' packs a punch with parkour|url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/jeethu-joseph-on-his-film-aadhi-which-introduces-pranav-mohanlal/article22503604.ece|access-date=30 January 2018|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=25 January 2018|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109041215/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/jeethu-joseph-on-his-film-aadhi-which-introduces-pranav-mohanlal/article22503604.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>
Parkour is also featured on TV. [[MTV]]'s show ''Ultimate Parkour Challenge'' premiered as a one-hour special in October 2009 starring the athletes of the [[World Freerunning & Parkour Federation]]. This was followed in May 2010 with a six-episode series of the same name. The athletes were [[Daniel Ilabaca]], [[Tim Shieff]], [[Ryan Doyle]], Michael Turner, Oleg Vorslav, Ben Jenkin, Daniel Arroyo, Pip Andersen and King David. The programme format was a two-part weekly competition in different Southern California locations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ultimate Parkour Challenge |publisher=[[MTV]] |url=http://www.mtv.com/shows/parkour/series.jhtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207235230/http://www.mtv.com/shows/parkour/series.jhtml |archive-date=7 December 2013}}</ref>
[[Professional wrestler]] [[John Morrison (wrestler)|John Hennigan]] is a long-time practitioner of parkour and often incorporates it into his wrestling style, with the [[WWE]] giving him the nickname "The Prince of Parkour".<ref name="WWE">{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/superstars/johnmorrison/|title=John Morrison|access-date=December 1, 2011|publisher=[[WWE]]|archive-date=13 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713122823/http://www.wwe.com/superstars/johnmorrison|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/archive/01312011/|title=It's good to be "King"|date=January 31, 2011|last=Adkins|first=Greg|access-date=January 31, 2011|publisher=[[WWE]]|archive-date=5 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105132822/http://www.wwe.com/shows/raw/archive/01312011/|url-status=live}}</ref> Actor [[Stephen Amell]] learned parkour at Tempest Academy in preparation for his role as Oliver Queen in the television series ''[[Arrow (TV series)|Arrow]]'',<ref>Wickline, Dan (18 June 2014). [http://www.bleedingcool.com/2014/06/18/stephen-amell-back-in-training-for-arrow-season-3/ "Stephen Amell Back In Training For Arrow Season 3"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209102601/http://www.bleedingcool.com/2014/06/18/stephen-amell-back-in-training-for-arrow-season-3/ |date=9 February 2015 }}. ''Bleeding Cool Comic Book, Movie, TV News''.</ref> and co-star [[Caity Lotz]] is also a practitioner.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.daemonstv.com/2011/07/21/caity-lotz-interview/|title=Kick Ass Caity Lotz From MTV's Death Valley Talks About Zombies, Parcour and Twilight's Jackson Rathbone|access-date=27 May 2016|publisher=Daemon's TV|archive-date=18 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918074954/http://www.daemonstv.com/2011/07/21/caity-lotz-interview/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Modern video games frequently include aspects of parkour as major game-play elements. Since the series' inception, [[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider|''Tomb Raider'' series]] has included increasingly numerous parkour elements.<ref>{{cite web | title=5 Best Parkour Games of All Time| url=https://www.gaming.net/5-best-parkour-games-of-all-time | date= 26 October 2021 | access-date= 9 May 2021| quote='The series itself practically revolves around parkour when it’s not trying to shove myths and grave robbing down your throat.'}}</ref> The [[Assassin's Creed|''Assassin's Creed'' series]] also makes heavy use of parkour movement (called freerunning in the game).<ref>{{cite web |title=Assassin's Creed (Xbox 360) |url=http://www.gamesxtreme.net/x360/game/assassins-creed/review.shtml |date=28 November 2007 |access-date=11 December 2007 |quote=It's a good start, an excellent free-roaming adventure with some of the best use of parkour yet. |archive-date=1 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201005603/http://www.gamesxtreme.net/x360/game/assassins-creed/review.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Review: 'Assassin's Creed' Not Quite Perfect |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,311973,00.html |first=Ryan |last=Pearson |publisher=[[Fox News Channel]] |quote=Leave it to the French to bring us the first parkour video game |date=16 November 2007 |access-date=23 September 2009 |archive-date=4 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304163406/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,311973,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |first=Andrew |last=P. |title=Review of ''Assassin's Creed'' |magazine=Electronic Gaming Monthly |issue=224 |date=January 2008 |page=89 |quote=...&nbsp;the game features 'a challenging parkour path of escape&nbsp;...'}}</ref> The ''[[Mirror's Edge]]'' games are heavily inspired by parkour, consisting entirely of efficiently moving around buildings, rooftops, and other obstacles.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.timesunion.com/local/article/Mysterious-gift-puts-to-rest-1903-deaths-of-three-608191.php | magazine=Wired | first=Chris | last=Baker | title=Review: Mirror's Edge, the First-Person Parkour Game You Must Play | date=11 November 2008 | access-date=16 June 2017 | archive-date=24 December 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224213617/http://www.timesunion.com/local/article/Mysterious-gift-puts-to-rest-1903-deaths-of-three-608191.php | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mirror's Edge puts grace of parkour at fingertips |url=http://www.timesunion.com/AspStories/story.asp?storyID=744129&category=ARTS |first=Doug |last=Elfman |date=28 November 2008 |access-date=23 September 2009 }}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> ''[[Brink (video game)|Brink]]'' introduced a parkour mechanic into a realistic [[first-person shooter]].<ref>{{cite web |title=GDC Europe: Perfecting The SMART Parkour Traversal System In ''Brink'' |date=15 August 2011 |last=Nutt |first=Christian |work=Gamasura |url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/126533/GDC_Europe_Perfecting_The_SMART_Parkour_Traversal_System_In_Brink.php |access-date=29 November 2015 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208125916/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/126533/GDC_Europe_Perfecting_The_SMART_Parkour_Traversal_System_In_Brink.php |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Prince of Persia]]'' and ''[[Dying Light]]'' include a central parkour mechanic,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.twinfinite.net/2014/06/13/e3-dying-light-hands-preview/|title=E3 – Dying Light Hands-On Preview|first=Alissa|last=Mcaloon|work=twinfinite.com|date=13 June 2014|access-date=13 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820155452/http://www.twinfinite.net/2014/06/13/e3-dying-light-hands-preview/|archive-date=20 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2867562/dying-light-preview-zombies-are-even-more-stomach-churning-in-virtual-reality.html|title=Dying Light preview: Zombies are even more stomach-churning in virtual reality|first=Hayden|last=Dingman|work=PCWorld|date=1 March 2015|access-date=1 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402170349/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2867562/dying-light-preview-zombies-are-even-more-stomach-churning-in-virtual-reality.html|url-status=live}}</ref> while ''[[Crackdown (video game)|Crackdown]]'' and ''[[Crackdown 2]]'' include an emphasis on gripping and vaulting from ledges and protruding objects.<ref>{{cite web |title=10 Reasons to Play Crackdown |url=http://xbox360.ign.com/articles/754/754563p1.html |first=Cam |last=Shea |date=10 January 2007 |access-date=3 January 2008 |quote=It's part super hero (think Hulk or Neo), part Jumping Flash and part parkour. |archive-date=4 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080104201324/http://xbox360.ign.com/articles/754/754563p1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Tony Hawk's American Wasteland]]'' allows the character to use several freerunning techniques while not on the skateboard.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tony Hawk's American Wasteland&nbsp;– Xbox 360 |url=http://hexus.net/gaming/reviews/xbox-360/4583-tony-hawks-american-wasteland-xbox-360/ |first=Steven |last=Williamson |date=8 February 2006 |access-date=10 February 2013 |quote=Later on in story mode, you'll even get the chance to learn some parkour skills! |archive-date=29 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829191759/http://hexus.net/gaming/reviews/xbox-360/4583-tony-hawks-american-wasteland-xbox-360/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Tron Evolution]]''{{'}}s basic movements and combat were based on parkour and [[capoeira]].<ref>{{cite interview|title=Tron Evolution Pre-E3 Hands-On Interview: Alex Peters |first=Darren |last=Hedges |url=http://www.gamespot.com/tron-evolution/videos/tron-evolution-pre-e3-hands-on-interview-alex-peters-6263033/ |date=18 May 2010 |publisher=GameSpot |interviewer=Ricardo Torres |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518191251/http://www.gamespot.com/tron-evolution/videos/tron-evolution-pre-e3-hands-on-interview-alex-peters-6263033/ |archive-date=18 May 2013 }}</ref>
=== Military training ===
Although parkour itself grew out of military obstacle-course training,<ref name="CineP20"/><ref name="Parkour-DB1"/> it has become a separate discipline. After the attention that parkour received following the 2006 film ''[[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]]'', military forces around the world began looking for ways to incorporate elements from parkour into military training. A physical trainer with the Royal Marines trained with parkour practitioners with hopes of introducing some of their techniques to his own students.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2008/jan/12/military.uknews4 |title=Freerunning goes to war as marines take tips from EZ, Livewire and Sticky |work=The Guardian |date=12 January 2008 |access-date=9 August 2009 |location=London |first=Robert |last=Booth |archive-date=17 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217120741/http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2008/jan/12/military.uknews4 |url-status=live }}</ref> Colorado Parkour began a project to introduce elements from parkour into the U.S. military<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coloradoparkour.com/projects.html |title=Projects |publisher=Colorado Parkour |access-date=9 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828033445/http://www.coloradoparkour.com/projects.html |archive-date=28 August 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and one [[Miramar, San Diego|San Diego]] staff sergeant trained [[United States Marine Corps|US Marines]] in parkour.<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414060418/http://www.miramar.usmc.mil/newspage175.htm |title=Parkour: Getting over the wall |publisher=US Marine Corps |date=23 January 2009 |access-date=9 August 2009 |archive-date=14 April 2009|url=http://www.miramar.usmc.mil/newspage175.htm}}</ref>
=== Scientific research and applications ===
Studies have found that in exercises such as the standing long jump, depth jump, and vertical jump, parkour athletes outperform physical educators,{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} gymnasts, and power athletes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grosprêtre |first1=Sidney |last2=Lepers |first2=Romuold |title=Performance characteristics of Parkour practitioners: Who are the traceurs? |journal=European Journal of Sport Science |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=526–535 |date=12 August 2015 |doi=10.1080/17461391.2015.1060263 |pmid=26267256 |s2cid=37269563 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17461391.2015.1060263?scroll=top&needAccess=true |access-date=13 Dec 2020 |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110132035/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17461391.2015.1060263?scroll=top&needAccess=true& |url-status=live }}</ref> Parkour training is especially linked with the development of eccentric load resistance and jumping ability.
A study into the mechanics of the standing long jump showed that experienced traceurs use a lower take off angle than beginners (~25.6° vs ~34°).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grosprêtre |first1=Sidney |last2=Ufland |first2=Pierre |last3=Jecker |first3=Daniel |date=2018 |title=The adaptation to standing long jump distance in parkour is performed by the modulation of specific variables prior and during take-off |url=https://www.mov-sport-sciences.org/articles/sm/abs/2018/02/sm170008/sm170008.html |journal=Movement & Sport Sciences - Science & Motricité |language=en |issue=100 |pages=27–37 |doi=10.1051/sm/2017022 |issn=2118-5735|doi-access=free }}</ref> Wakai and Linthorne had previously estimated the optimal angle to be close to 22.6°.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wakai |first1=Masaki |last2=Linthorne |first2=Nicholas P. |date=February 2005 |title=Optimum take-off angle in the standing long jump |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167945704001186 |journal=Human Movement Science |language=en |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=81–96 |doi=10.1016/j.humov.2004.12.001|pmid=15949583 }}</ref>
Studies and experiments have integrated parkour kinaesthetics into robotics.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Swing leg retraction using virtual apex method for the ParkourBot climbing robot |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8206173 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/IROS.2017.8206173 |s2cid=12291745 |title=2017 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) |year=2017 |last1=Nir |first1=Omer |last2=Gaathon |first2=Adar |last3=Degani |first3=Amir |pages=3352–3358 |isbn=978-1-5386-2682-5 |access-date=24 December 2020 |archive-date=12 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212202223/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8206173/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Yanran |first1=Ding |last2=Chuanzheng |first2=Li |last3=Park |first3=Hae-Won |title=2020 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) |chapter=Kinodynamic Motion Planning for Multi-Legged Robot Jumping via Mixed-Integer Convex Program |year=2020 |pages=3998–4005 |doi=10.1109/IROS45743.2020.9341572 |arxiv=2011.01809 |isbn=978-1-7281-6212-6 |s2cid=226237107 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url     = https://www.wired.com/story/watch-boston-dynamics-humanoid-robot-do-parkour/
| title     = Watch Boston Dynamics' Humanoid Robot Do Parkour
| last     = Simon
| first     = Matt
| date     = 11 October 2018
| publisher     = [[Wired magazine]]
| access-date     = 9 November 2018
| archive-date     = 12 October 2018
| archive-url     = https://web.archive.org/web/20181012231706/https://www.wired.com/story/watch-boston-dynamics-humanoid-robot-do-parkour/
| url-status     = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url     = https://www.wired.com/story/how-boston-dynamics-robot-videos-became-internet-gold/
| title     = How Boston Dynamics' Robot Videos Became Internet Gold
| last     = Simon
| first     = Matt
| date     = 30 October 2018
| publisher     = [[Wired magazine]]
| access-date     = 9 November 2018
| archive-date     = 9 November 2018
| archive-url     = https://web.archive.org/web/20181109112125/https://www.wired.com/story/how-boston-dynamics-robot-videos-became-internet-gold/
| url-status     = live
}}</ref>
== Derivative terminologies and disciplines ==
In September 2003, Mike Christie's documentary ''[[Jump London]]'', starring [[Sébastien Foucan]], was released. In the documentary, the term "[[freerunning]]" was used as an attempt to translate "parkour", in order to make it more appealing to the English-speaking audience.<ref>Edwardes, Dan (2009) ''The Parkour & Freerunning Handbook''. It Books. {{ISBN|0-06-178367-6}}. p. 11</ref> Foucan decided to keep using the term "freerunning" to describe his discipline, to distinguish it from David Belle's methods.<ref name="FreerunningSF">{{cite book |title=Free Running |last=Foucan |first=Sébastien |author-link=Sébastien Foucan |year=2008  |isbn=978-1-56975-652-2 |pages=8–9|publisher=Ulysses Press }}</ref><ref name="CineP39">[[#Angel|Angel]], p. 39.</ref>
The remaining seven ''Yamakasi'' members continued to use the term "''l'art du déplacement''{{-"}}, also not wanting to associate it too closely with parkour. Similar to Sébastien's freerunning, ''l'art du déplacement'' is less about the hard discipline of the original ''Yamakasi'' group; rather, it takes a participatory approach focused on making the teaching more accessible. David Belle kept the term "parkour", saying the group contributed to the development of it, but that his father was the source of his motivation and had verbally communicated this method only to him.<ref name="CineP39"/>
Both parkour and freerunning encompass the ideas of overcoming obstacles and self-expression; in freerunning, the greater emphasis is on self-expression.<ref name="FreerunningSF"/> Although the differences between the disciplines are often hard to discern, practitioners tend to aspire to parkour and describe themselves as traceurs rather than as freerunners.<ref name="Kidder1">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1540-6040.2012.01406.x| title = Parkour, the Affective Appropriation of Urban Space, and the Real/Virtual Dialectic| journal = City & Community| volume = 11| issue = 3| pages = 229–253| year = 2012| last1 = Kidder | first1 = J. L. | citeseerx = 10.1.1.645.395| s2cid = 16058286}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Acrobatics]]
* [[Buildering]]
* [[Calisthenics]]
* [[Dérive]] – a philosophy and technique of rapid, serendipitous movement through mostly urban environments
* [[Freerunning]]
* [[List of sports]]
* [[Obstacle racing]]
* [[Platform game]]
* [[Qinggong]] – Chinese martial arts techniques
* [[Rooftopping]]
* [[Street workout]]
* [[Tricking (martial arts)]]
* [[Urban exploration]]
* [[Woggle hopping]]
* [[World Chase Tag]]
== Citations  ==
{{Reflist}}
== General and cited sources ==
* {{Cite book |ref=Angel|title=Ciné Parkour |last=Angel |first=Julie |year=2011 |publisher=Julie Angel |isbn=978-0-9569717-1-5}}
* {{Cite book |ref=Belle |author1=Belle, David |author2=Perriére, Charles  |name-list-style=amp |title=Parkour: From the Origins to the Practise}}
* {{Cite book |ref=Belle2 |title=Parkour |last=Belle |first=David |author-link=David Belle |year=2009 |publisher=Intervista |isbn=978-2-35756-025-3}}
== External links ==
{{Sister project links |wikt=parkour |commons=Parkour |n=no |q=Parkour |s=no |b=Parkour |voy=no |v=Parkour and Freerunning |d=no}}
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